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Rethinking Leadership in the Public Sector
Don Dunoon
Ateneo School of Government
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RETHINKING LEADERSHIP
FOR THE PUBLIC SECTOR
Don Dunoon
Director
New Futures Pty Ltd
Australian Journal of Public Administration 61(3): 3-18,
September 2002
(Reproduced with the kind permission of the National Council of the Institute of Public Administration, Australia)
Leadership and management are best thought of as a matter of competencies. Or are
they? The paper challenges the current orthodoxy in Australia on this question, and
suggests that leadership and management need to be regarded as reflecting
opposing values. The paper also distinguishes between charismatic and collective
forms of leadership, and proposes the latter as likely to be of greater value in a public
sector context. A challenge for public sector organisations is how to strike and
maintain a suitable balance between management for ongoing operations and
leadership for deep-reaching change. Strategies for developing collective leadership
capability are suggested.
Leadership is a topic attracting mixed reactions in the Australian context, and in the public sector in
particular. At one level, there is recognition of the need for leadership if public sector organisations
are to be better able to respond to the changing expectations of political and community
stakeholders (Mellors 1996; Barrett 1997). Yet one also senses an ambivalence surrounding
leadership, sometimes expressed through questions such as: Is it leadership that we need or better
management? Doesn't a focus on leadership imply an uncritical acceptance of corporate models?
Isn't there a danger of maverick leaders hijacking or distorting government agendas? Staff might ask,
won't an emphasis on leadership reinforce the power of existing elites?
This paper contends that, to deal effectively with the more difficult and contentious issues they face,
public sector organisations do require leadership, but of a type somewhat different from
conventional models. Referred to here as learning-centred leadership, the approach involves
fostering the conditions under which people, working together, are better able to create new
visions, productively deal with underlying issues, generate fresh insights and change work place
cultures. Learning is seen not as an end in itself but in terms of building the capability of
organisations, groups and individuals for effective action.
The development of such capability requires a reassessment of the meaning of leadership. This has
two aspects. First, there is a need to examine the relationship between leadership and
management. Contrary to the conventional wisdom in Australia, this paper takes the view that
leadership and management are different and this is a difference of consequence. It is suggested
that in this country there has been a tendency to view leadership through a management lens, with
public sector organisations tending to over emphasise management at the expense of leadership.
One impact is a disproportionate focus on operational aspects and crisis management as distinct
from building capability to be effective tomorrow (AbeII 1999).
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The second aspect of reappraising leadership is to consider the values and assumptions underlying
leadership practices and development programs (Heifetz 1994). Leadership can mean many
different things, and unless underlying meanings are made transparent there is a potential that
leadership development efforts may be only partially effective or even counter productive.
The paper reviews established concepts of transformational leadership and distinguishes learning-
centred leadership from charismatic approaches to transformation. Learning-centred leadership is
proposed as a frame through which leadership can be viewed, rather than as a specific program or
methodology. The approach, in a public sector context, is concerned with increasing the capacity of
organisations to implement the priorities of government effectively, achieve cultural change and
deal productively with difficult and emerging issues.
Implications for leadership practice and development are discussed, with a focus as much on
organisational as individual development. Three key areas are proposed for attention by individual
agencies: the development of an infrastructure to support collaborative leadership, clarification of
supportive organisational values, and the development of skills, particularly in conversing
productively about difficult issues. It is recognised, though, that the development of leadership
capability, no matter which approach is followed, is problematic.
The Need for Leadership
It is difficult to discuss the need for leadership before exploring the meaning of the term, so for the
moment the reader is asked to accept the proposition that leadership is concerned with deep-
reaching change, particularly when shifts in underlying assumptions and beliefs are required. As
Behn (1998) points out, without leadership by managers, public sector organisations would be
unable to achieve what governments require of them. He points to factors underscoring a need for
leadership including the possibility of ambiguous or unclear directions from government, the danger
of capture of agencies and programs by sectional interests and the need to deal with organisational
dysfunction, such as when parts of an organisation are pursuing conflicting agendas.
While the need for leadership at top management levels in establishing policy and directions might
be accepted, subsequent implementation is often seen as a relatively technical, linear matter - more
a question of effective management than leadership. However, as Beer and Eisenstat (2000)
suggest, implementation efforts frequently go awry, and for reasons which could be avoided. They
identify six sources of implementation error: top-down or laissez-faire senior management style,
unclear strategy and conflicting priorities, an ineffective senior management team, poor vertical
communication, poor cross functional coordination and inadequate down-the-line leadership skills
and development. Later in this paper it will be suggested that creating the conditions under which
these sorts of problems are less likely is itself a leadership challenge.
Many of the problems that government organisations - and governments - face are messy and ill
defined with different possible interpretations and pathways for action. The terms 'wicked
problems' (Harmon and Mayer 1986:11) and 'adaptive problems' (Heifetz 1994:8) have been used to
describe such problems, the main characteristic of which is that there is no technically correct
answer waiting to be found. Contemporary examples include balancing the needs of salinity
management and farmers, reconciling development and heritage values in urban areas and dealing
with youth homelessness. Part of the leadership challenge in working with such issues is to harness
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Ateneo School of Government
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and integrate the knowledge and expertise of diverse people and groups, to make explicit and
scrutinise underlying assumptions and to build common ground and momentum for change.
Without leadership, the likely outcomes are reactive decision-making and unsatisfactory
compromises that leave the deeper issues largely unchecked.
Achieving cultural change is another leadership challenge facing public sector managers. One
example is the need in the health services to create a more open culture in relation to
acknowledging and dealing with clinical errors and to gain greater involvement of clinicians in
quality improvement efforts (Leap 1994; Wilson et at. 1995). In relation to place management
initiatives, Walsh (2001) observed: 'improving responses to local communities will require attention
to issues of culture and relationships and an end to compartmentalised mentalities and behaviour in
the public service at all levels'. Cultural change is always difficult, particularly in cases like those
described where behaviour is based on deep beliefs and assumptions that may have been shaped
over decades, if not generations. There are many intricacies for leadership in culture change,
including dealing with strongly held emotions, encouraging people to question what has been taken
as given and not least the fact that change leaders may be steeped in the same culture themselves
(Schein 1992). While one is wary of over simplifying highly complex issues, it is difficult to see how
such changes could come about in the absence of positive leadership.
Organisations may state that they are already focusing attention on leadership and its development,
and no doubt in various ways they are, perhaps with great success in some cases. The intention here
is not to diminish these efforts or to suggest that present approaches are 'wrong'. Rather the aim is
to encourage reflection on the values and assumptions underpinning those approaches and to open
up possibilities for enhancing what is presently being done. One area where some reappraisal could
be useful is in the relationship between leadership and management.
Leadership and Management - A Question of Competencies?
Most, if not all, Australian jurisdictions have developed competency frameworks for their senior
executives (Morley and Vilkinas 1997). While their approaches vary somewhat, these frameworks
generally share an implicit assumption that leadership and management at senior levels are much
the same thing, or at least cannot usefully or meaningfully be distinguished. Perhaps the most
authoritative support for this view comes from Enterprising Nation, report of the Industry Task Force
on Leadership and Management Skills, better known as the Karpin Report (Industry Task Force
1995). Drawing on the findings of specially commissioned research (Craig and Yetton 1995), the task
force took the view that, rather than trying to distinguish between leadership and management, 'the
more pertinent questions centre around the broad areas of competence that managers in the new
structures require' (Industry Task Force 1995:135).
In their research report for the task force, Craig and Yetton noted (1995:1185) that thousands of
leadership studies had failed to discern any traits, behaviours or qualities that could be reliably used
to set leaders apart from others and to form the basis of leadership selection and development.
They further concluded (1995:1213) that 'since the search for the leadership panacea has failed
everywhere else, it seems a bit pointless to try and find or develop specifically Australian leaders ...
However, there is a whole range of theories and techniques that have been shown to improve
organisational performance. These all deal with managerial competencies'.
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While management competency frameworks have their value, for example in providing a structure
to guide processes such as selection or 360-degree feedback, one would be wary of relying too
heavily on them. Ultimately, any framework reflects the biases and assumptions of its creators. A
review of the various SES frame works in terms of their underpinning - and perhaps implicit theories
- of leadership could be a useful research project.
In the writer's view, Craig and Yetton and - by extension the Industry Task Force - have erred in
conceptualising leadership as being primarily a matter of the characteristics and behaviours of
individual 'leaders'. They correctly recognised that there is more to organisational effectiveness than
focusing on the potential and actions of high calibre individuals, and this apparently led them to play
down the contribution of leadership. Perhaps for this reason, the Task Force on Leadership and
Management Skills focused mainly on management (Sheldrake 1997).
A more useful approach may be to conceptualise leadership, not in terms of the attributes of
individuals, but as a mode or action quite distinct from management, as advocated by Harvard
professor John Kotter (1990). Kotter argued that leadership and management, are two sides of a
coin; leadership being about coping with change while management is about ensuring stability and
continuity. Kotter saw both leadership and management as necessary with organisations needing to
find and maintain a suitable balance between the two modes. Organisations need to develop leader-
managers with capability in both domains, while recognising that some individuals will have
preferences for management and others for leadership. Similar distinctions between leadership and
management have been made by other authors including Bennis and Nanus (1985:217-18)
Before developing the contention that the distinction between leadership and management is one
of consequence for the public sector, it is necessary to consider further the meaning of leadership
and management and, in particular, to critically assess the values and assumptions implicit in each.
It is important to acknowledge at this point a potential danger in creating a bi-polar distinction
between leadership and management, in that too much may be made of the difference (Barker
1997). The ability to hold leadership and management apart is necessary if organisations and
individual executives are to be able to consider what leadership means to them, in their context,
and how much of their effort is being devoted to leadership. Equally, the distinction between
leadership and management must be a soft or 'permeable' one, recognising that both leadership
and management are required, that there is a degree of overlap between them, that many or most
managers probably do some of each, and that different balances between leadership and
management may be required at different levels of the hierarchy (with senior managers focusing
more on leadership).
It is also important to recognise the realities of leading and managing in contemporary public sector
environments, among them intense pressures for achieving results, maintaining accountability,
using resources efficiently and responding quickly to changes in direction or priorities. In order to
enable a clear assessment of the values implicit in leadership and management, however,
consideration of the effects of these public sector realities is head over until later in the paper.
The Management Mode of Operating
According to Kotter (1990), management - as a manner of operating rather than a formal role or set
of roles - is concerned with such aspects as planning and budgeting, organising and staffing, and
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Ateneo School of Government
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controlling and problem solving. Management, from his perspective, is concerned with predictable
and orderly operations.
Extending Kotter's view, the focus of management, as distinct from leadership, can be seen as being
on ongoing concerns, such as delivering results for customers or clients, solving routine problems,
improving business processes and ensuring control and account ability through monitoring,
measuring and reporting on performance. The emphasis is on rational analysis (Barker 1997) and the
'harder', more explicit aspects of organisation such as plans, policies, tasks, service level agreements
and the like.
This is not to say that the management way of working is simply concerned with tangibles and not
with people. Management is sometimes described as 'getting things done through people'. This can
take different forms, on a continuum from a directive approach to a more empowering style.
The directive approa.ch relies on formal authority and implies unilateral decision making, although
desirably informed by consultation with those affected. Directive approaches can be necessary in
situations where external circumstances dictate a particular response, or where unpopular decisions
need to be taken. Consider, for example, the local government council in which top executives
decide, after consultation, that the only resources for an important service enhancement can come
from a reduction in over time for a group of staff. As the staff are opposed to such a decision, the
only way it can be taken is by direction - although desirably with the reasoning made explicit.
A problem with directive approaches, however, is that they can be at odds with the need to build
staff commitment to change and improvement. If used excessively, such approaches can encourage
a self-fulfilling logic among senior executives, that they need to act decisively as staff are not 'on
side'.
In a more empowering approach to management, the strategy involves clarifying directions,
assigning responsibilities, allocating resources, ensuring people have the skills and other supports
needed, and holding them accountable for results (Quinn and Spreitzer 1997). However, as these
authors suggest, such an approach is likely to place little emphasis on the development of people in
ways that enable them to contribute fully as members of the organisation. Moreover, as the
management mode implies a strong operational orientation, problem solving is likely to be confined
to task or technical matters, where reaching agreement on a solution is relatively straightforward.
An empowerment-oriented management style, by itself, is unlikely to create the conditions
necessary for dealing with the deep and multifaceted issues implied in cultural change.
Take the example of two departments, one responsible for maintenance and one for operations, in
a state infrastructure agency. The departments are in continual conflict and relations between them
are poor. A particular conflict arises around the introduction of a new business system. Top
managers are able to get the departments together to resolve this issue, but after this it is business
as usual: the underlying tensions continue to bubble away with adverse effects on productiveness.
Dealing effectively with deeper issues, such as between the departments, implies the need for an
organisation to be capable of handling disagreement or contention constructively (Goss et al. 1993).
This requires an organisational tolerance for differing perspectives, a respect for the contribution of
others and processes to help the protagonists find common ground. When there is contention there
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Ateneo School of Government
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is threat and discomfort, and these are at odds with the values of stability, control and predictability
central to the management mode.
While organisations in which the management mode dominates often declare values like respect,
trust and diversity, the experience of people in the organisation is likely to be that actual practice
falls a good way short of the stated values. Unless managers and staff believe that the stated values
really do drive behaviour, they are likely to be pessimistic about the organisation's ability to deal
with its problems, and mistrust, cynicism, blame and the avoidance of threatening issues can figure
strongly. Changing these dynamics is a leadership issue.
Perspectives on Leadership
While many leadership frameworks can be found in the academic and practitioner literatures, the
attention here is towards approaches that can be broadly described as transformational, drawing on
the ideas of Burns (1978). Burns emphasised transformational leadership as a process of mutual
influence in which leaders inspire followers by recognising and responding to their more noble
needs:
The transforming leader looks for possible motives in followers, seeks to satisfy higher
needs, and engages the full person of the follower. The result of transforming
leadership is a relationship of mutual stimulation and elevation that converts followers
into leaders and may convert leaders into moral agents (Burns 1978:4).
His stress on the higher needs is in keeping with a public sector emphasis on ethical conduct and
probity, and precludes the actions of charismatic but malevolent or narcissistic individuals being
considered as 'leadership'.
Two approaches to transformational leadership can be identified. The first might be termed
charismatic transformation (Stace and Dunphy 1994) and emphasises the individual leader as the
agent of transformation or deep change. The second approach, referred to here as learning-centred
leadership, reflects a more collectivist view of leadership, and emphasises processes such as
dialogue and other forms of reflective conversation to build shared understandings and momentum
for change. A distinction needs also to be drawn between leadership and formal authority (Heifetz
1994). A good deal of the so-called leadership by some people in positions of authority might more
accurately be described as management behaviour.
Much of the popular leadership literature takes a charismatic transformational stance. The emphasis
tends to be on the individual leader as defining and articulating a compelling vision for the future, as
engaging and inspiring staff towards the desired direction, and as building alignment of people,
structures and systems to support the vision. The leader's role as coach, facilitator and supporter of
people is commonly emphasised, as are contemporary social values such as trust, respect and
diversity. Examples broadly falling within this school of thought include the works of Kouzes and
Posner (1987), Tichy and Devanna (1990) and Dess and Picken (2000).
While not denying that some organisations, including in the public sector, may have achieved
dramatic change under charismatic chief executives, a number of issues arise with such an approach
to leadership. The possibility exists that the leader's vision, or the strategy for implementation, may
be flawed or out of step with government priorities. The 'aura' surrounding the leader may reflect a
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cult of personality, making it difficult - or at least risky - for others to criticise the leader's views or to
offer contending ideas. As a result charismatic leaders may not receive the feedback necessary to
prevent problems arising; for example, differences of view around vision or implementation may be
suppressed or masked (Morrison and Milliken 2000). An excessive focus on the leader may inhibit
the development of a depth of leadership capability in the organisation, potentially leaving it
vulnerable in the event of new challenges arising or the leader's voluntary departure or contract
termination. While leaders seek the 'buy-in' and commitment of staff, it may be that what staff offer
is compliance, in the sense of making all the right noises in public but privately switching off or even
rebelling. Although leadership is necessary in public sector organisations, the charismatic
perspective is of limited utility as a general model - notwithstanding that some individuals may
demonstrate charismatic qualities and behaviours to good effect.
Perhaps a fear of some of the aspects of the charismatic style contributes to ambivalence towards
leadership, as suggested in the introduction, with concerns such as the maverick leader
reinterpreting government policy to suit their own agenda, or the ego-driven leader preoccupied
with self-promotion. If organisations do not have a viable alternative concept of leadership to the
charismatic approach, they can find themselves caught between an understanding that they need
leadership and their fear of leadership. The response may be a top-down management style with
declarations upholding leadership-related values. Employees may also find themselves in a bind.
They can see the contradictions between espoused values and actual practice. Yet they remain silent
because of the perceived threat involved in raising these issues with senior management {Argyris
1990). This dynamic can fuel resentment, frustration and a disengagement with the organisation - all
of which make organisational goals harder to achieve.
Learning-centred Leadership
To begin with, a qualification: the term learning-centred leadership is used here to enable a contrast
to be drawn with charismatic leadership. The intention is not to imply that there is one best way or
style of leadership but rather that there are differing underlying values, and that perhaps the core
values of learning-centred leadership are, generally speaking, more helpful to public sector
organisations than those of charismatic transformation.
The conceptual basis of learning-centred leadership comes from organisational learning theory,
reflecting the contributions of scholars such as Argyris (in many publications, for example,
1990,1991), Senge (Senge 1990; Senge et al. 1994) and Dixon (1994). Following the publication of
Senge's The Fifth Discipline in 1990, 'the learning organisation' was something of a fad in this
country, including in public sector organisations, in the early to mid 1990s. At the time there was a
tendency by consultants and practitioners to focus on quick fixes and simple prescriptions, and
when these failed to deliver the desired results the learning organisation went the way of all fads.
However, organisational learning theory is much more than a fad and has a significant history dating
back over 25 years (Senge, quoted in Fulmer and Keys 1998).
The following definition from Dixon (1994:5) may help to convey something of the nature of
organisational learning:
[Organisational learning is] the intentional use of learning processes at the individual,
group and system level to continually transform the organisation in a direction that is
increasingly satisfying to stakeholders.
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The intentional use of learning processes implies that learning is not just a haphazard affair but
something that needs to be consciously worked at. Dixon (1994:5) emphasises learning as a
'dynamic process of the construction and reconstruction of meaning'. She adds that 'learning
concerns the processes the organisation uses to gain new understandings or correct the current
understanding; it is not the accumulated knowledge of the organisation'.
Leadership from an organisational learning perspective is to do with creating the conditions under
which organisational members, jointly and individually, can better make sense of, or interpret,
issues and opportunities they face that are not purely of a technical nature, and then take effective
action. Leadership, from this standpoint, is essentially about capacity building (Heifetz 1994).
Leaders at all levels can contribute to developing the capacity of others in the system for getting to
the core issues beneath apparent problems, generating and testing ideas about what might be
achieved, and mobilising energy for action. The challenge of leadership development becomes one
of developing a 'leadership ecology' in which leadership is a valued mode of operating throughout
the organisation (Fulmer and Keys 1998).
One key leadership capability is in helping others to make meanings clear. This involves enabling
people to recognise what they may take for granted and generate new ways of seeing, and helping
them to apply these understandings in action. When people are able to frame problems differently,
they open possibilities for acting that otherwise could well have been outside their field of view. In
this sense of assisting people to reframe issues and opportunities and identify viable pathways for
action, learning-centred leadership is transformational. However, the transformation occurs not so
much through individuals responding to the appeal of a charismatic individual, but through
processes that executives and others design, nurture and model.
A learning-oriented approach to leadership may also avoid or minimise some of the problems
associated with the charismatic approach. The prospect of the maverick leader is likely to be less of
a problem if leadership responsibility is widely distributed and ideas are contestable. For the same
reasons, there is less likelihood of egocentric individual leaders being able to impose their ideas on
others. As with the distinction between leadership and management, however, it is important that
the line between charismatic and learning-centred leadership not be too heavily drawn. Building
learning-centred leadership capability implies the need for individuals to take leadership roles. To
the extent that individuals may demonstrate some charismatic qualities, such as a high degree of
self-confidence and enthusiasm, this may have some positive effects in inspiring others.
To bring the analysis to a more applied level, leadership is considered at each of the three levels
proposed by Dixon (1994).
Leadership in Enabling lndividual-level Learning
Fostering learning at the individual level is not just a matter of supporting and coaching people in
acquiring new skills and knowledge. This is arguably a management challenge, in line with the focus
on operational aspects. The leadership challenge implies such aspects as working with people to
assist them to become more self-aware, to clarify their assumptions and goals, and to identify
realistic strategies for moving forward. Such processes have been termed generative coaching
(Murphy 1995).
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Managers operating mainly in the management mode are likely to see their role as analysing and
problem solving, and providing advice, assistance and solutions. From a learning-centred leadership
perspective, the challenge is to keep the other person in charge of their own learning and assist
them to achieve deeper insights into the problems they face, so that they might better identify and
implement action strategies. This is not a matter of trying to change people's personalities or
interfering in matters better left private; rather it is about the tough challenge of engaging with
another's work-related thinking processes in ways that minimise defensive reactions and build
capacity for productive action.
As an example, a middle manager works with a team leader in a human services agency to assist
them to deal with a conflict between two staff. The team leader assumes the problem is caused by a
'personality clash' between the two staff. The middle manager inquires into the thinking behind this
explanation in ways that minimise threat to the team leader while encouraging reflection. After
some deliberation the team leader comes to their own conclusion that the underlying problem is to
do with an unresolved issue about perceived unfair treatment in favour of one of the workers. They
now feel in a position to discuss the conflict with the workers at this level, and are confident about
being able to handle the conflict productively.
This is a leadership intervention since it operates at the level of underlying assumptions rather than
business as usual. The middle manager's role is not to solve the problem but to assist the team
leader remain in control of their own learning and improve the prospect that they will be able to
handle similar situations effectively in future.
Leadership in Enabling Group-level Learning
Leadership in this context entails assisting a group to move beyond competitive or dysfunctional
dynamics in order that they may achieve more creative and deeper understandings of the issues
they face and build new insights as the basis for action. The key process here is dialogue (Senge
1990; Ellinor and Gerard 1998), an approach to conversation for enabling a group to discover shared
meaning. A dialogue is a quiet, reflective conversation in which differing perspectives are
encouraged, people tend to feel listened to and valued and there is a sense of collaboration,
working together to build a common understanding. However, it is a mistake to think of dialogue
simply as 'nice talk'. Paradoxically, the dialogue process enables difficult issues to be tackled more
directly and conflicting viewpoints to be aired. Leading organisational development scholar Edgar
Schein (1993) observed, 'All problem-solving groups should begin in a dialogue format to facilitate
the building of sufficient common ground and mutual trust, and to make it possible to tell what is
really on one's mind'.
As powerful as it is, dialogue is somewhat counter-cultural in most public sector and business
organisations. It requires a suspension of judgment, a temporary letting go of outcomes, attention
to process, and a willingness to talk issues through quietly - all of which can be against the grain of
day-to-day organisational life. Accordingly, building capability for, sponsoring and supporting
dialogue are key leadership challenges.
Leadership in Enabling System-Ievel Learning
Leadership at this level is about creating the conditions under which a system or part of a system
may increase its ability for effective performance. While a range of strategies may be applied to
foster system-level learning, one is an action learning process, in which groups of staff work on key
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organisational or business problems while simultaneously advancing their individual and joint
learning.
Royal Dutch Shell is one organisation to have made extensive and effective use of such processes. In
the words of one of the company's managing directors, Steve Miller: 'Change your approach to
strategy, and you change the way a company runs. The leader becomes a context setter, the
designer of a learning experience - not an authority figure with solutions' (Pascale 1999).
The notion of the senior executive leadership function as context setting is some way removed from
concepts of charismatic leadership. In organisations emphasising collective leadership, top
managers still play an important leadership role, but the emphasis is more on helping others
understand what is important, clarifying meanings and shaping the way the organisation responds
to stakeholder pressures. A key capability from the learning-centred perspective is an understanding
of organisational development and dynamics and an ability to influence these productively. To
succeed in collaborative leadership, top managers need also to have a deep belief in the value of
leading with people, not just 'from the front'. Of utmost importance is the notion of top executives
as 'lead learners' (Negroni 2000). This implies that the executive is appropriately open to the ideas
of others and capable of seeing issues from multiple points of view, as well as being able to
recognise and question their own assumptions.
Four Domains of Learning-centred Leadership
While there are undoubtedly many ways in which learning-centred leadership could be
conceptualised, the four-dimension framework, as sketched in Table 1, is suggested as a useful lens.
The framework is not proposed as comprehensive, more as indicative of some of the key areas of
effectiveness and required capabilities. A fuller articulation of the framework than is possible here
would differentiate senior and middle management leadership roles and would point to more
specific capabilities, including personal capabilities, within each of the domains.
Table I: Four Dimensions of Learning-centred Leadership
Strategic Leadership
Working with others to: understand changing external and internal environments, clarify a
preferred future (whether for the organisation or a particular program or initiative), engage
with 'current reality' (Senge 1990), build momentum to achieve the vision, and develop
alliances internally and externally.
Leadership for Knowledge Creation
Enabling people of diverse perspectives/backgrounds to integrate what they know, generate
novel perspectives and achieve deeper understandings about the underlying nature of
difficult problems facing the organisation, as well as strategies for dealing with those
problems.
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Values-based Leadership
Clarifying and articulating values to guide staff in decision-making; creating a climate in
which values-related issues (such as ethical dilemmas) are discussed openly and in which
gaps between espoused values and the values being enacted can be explored. Personally
acting in ways that model the values espoused.
Developmental Leadership
Working with individuals and groups so as to strengthen their capacity for effective action.
Acting as coach, mentor and facilitator in ways that enable open and relatively safe
exploration of underlying assumptions and beliefs.
What unites these four dimensions is that they involve processes of collaborative inquiry into
underlying assumptions and differing conceptions of reality. This means colleagues working together
to deal with deep problems, handle the conflict and threat that arises, and devise and implement
new solutions and strategies. The leadership task is to create the context and environment in which
such inquiry can occur, to contribute as appropriate, to facilitate and support the process, and to
enable the insights gained to stimulate new action.
The leadership process here is subtle. An executive needs to be able to sponsor and orchestrate
joint inquiry simultaneously, as with a dialogue process, but also contribute as a colleague alongside
others at different levels in the organisation. Particular challenges include how to advocate one's
views while at the same time being open to the views of others, and how to guide and shape the
inquiry process without taking too much control. The leadership role in collaborative inquiry
involves interpreting and possibly reframing the contributions of others, recognising and developing
important but perhaps only partly formed ideas, creating syntheses from diverging viewpoints and
extending the range of ideas considered. These capabilities are not suggested as replacing those in
the various senior executive capability frameworks (Morley and Vilkinas 1997) but a learning-
centred leadership perspective may imply a need for some modification of those frameworks.
The process emphasis in each of the dimensions of the learning-centred leadership framework is in
marked contrast to the focus on tangibles in many public sector organisations. For example,
strategic leadership deals with - among other things - the process of creating shared vision and using
vision to propel action in the desired direction. In many organisations, however, 'creating a vision
statement' is a mechanical exercise that emphasises the statement per se rather than the process of
arriving at the statement and using it to enable change. Not surprisingly, vision has become a
management cliché. The same applies with leadership for knowledge creation. The focus here is on
the leadership process of integrating and building knowledge by bringing together different
perspectives. In some organisations, however, the focus is on the stock of explicit knowledge, that
which can be captured and documented in databases, rather than the knowledge creation process
(Nonaka and Takeuchi 1995).
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This focus on process may seem problematic in outcomes-driven public sector organisations. After
all, the contemporary focus on outcomes is in part a response to what was seen as a preoccupation
with internal bureaucratic processes as ends in themselves. The challenge here is different. As
Langer (1989:5) puts it, 'every outcome is preceded by a process'. The challenge for leadership
practitioners, from a learning-centred perspective, is to be more explicit and open about their
'theories of action'. These are the implicit beliefs that executives hold about the processes by which
their plans and actions will bring about the outcomes they desire.
Take, for example, the case of a newly arrived head of a branch in a service delivery agency. Part of
her performance agreement involves making significant changes to the product and service delivery
methods of the branch. In conversation with the writer, she observes that most of the branch staff
have 'been here too long' and are 'resisters', and that she will need to 'drive change through'. A
process perspective on leadership would suggest that the manager needs first to reflect on her
assumptions about what she means by resisters, why these people are resisters, what specifically it
is they are resisting about her plans and actions, what other explanations there might be for their
observed behaviour and what all this means in terms of strategies she might adopt. A more mindful
conception of resistance might enable the executive to see the issues from the point of view of
different staff and perhaps even recognise that her own actions in 'driving change' are feeding into
the reactions she finds problematic.
A learning-centred, process-oriented perspective on leadership offers promise in dealing with the
implementation issues identified by Beer and Eisenstat (2000), including poor communication
laterally as well as vertically, and ineffective senior teams. A process perspective encourages people
to think more dynamically about what is really going on, and to test their assumptions and analyses
openly. To take the issue about vertical communication, a process perspective on leadership invites
inquiry into what is occurring in the organisation such that people feel unable to communicate
openly up and down the line. How does the problem look to people at different levels, including
one's own? What underlying factors, including possibly undiscussed or undiscussable issues, are
driving the responses of people in different parts of the organisation? There may be strongly
divergent and heated views on these issues, but leadership involves assisting others to develop
more grounded, testable analyses of the problems they face.
Leadership and Management Reconsidered
Now that management and leadership have been reviewed, and learning-centred leadership has
been differentiated from the charismatic variety, we are in a position to return to the question of
the relationship between leadership and management, and whether the distinction between them
is of consequence to the public sector. The discussion so far has suggested that the essence of the
distinction lies in differences in underlying values. Table 2 summarises some of these values.
Table 2:
Values underlying Management and Learning-centred Leadership
Values underlying Management Perspective
Values Underlying Learning-centred
Leadership
Outcomes, accountability Process before outcomes
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Control, stability, order
Analysis, deductive logic
Measurement, monitoring
Leadership as province of individuals
Current operations
Avoidance of threat and conflict
Deep change, transformation
Creativity, insight, emotional awareness
Development, inquiry
Collective and individual leadership
Capacity building
Embrace of diversity, contention and
uncertainty
It needs to be emphasised, as Kotter (1990) has done, that both leadership and management are
necessary; it is not a matter of regarding one as more important than the other. The question is
whether there tends to be an imbalance between them and, if so, what are the causes and the
implications.
Kotter (1990) argues that most people are over-managed and under-Ied. This writer's experience,
from discussions concerning leadership and management balance with hundreds of Australian
public sector managers in workshop settings, is in line with Kotter's dictum. These managers not
only tend to regard their organisations as over emphasising management at the expense of
leadership, but report that in their own work they are driven overwhelmingly by management
imperatives.
One danger of an over emphasis on management is that managers will focus on doing what they
already do, although perhaps with an eye to fine-tuning and continuous improvement. Building
capacity for achieving effective implementation, for dealing with contentious issues and for
achieving cultural change, however, might require that they do some quite different things as well.
Examples could include identifying and exploring emerging issues, building a widely understood and
shared strategic agenda, finding ways to create new knowledge by integrating the perspectives of
diverse specialties, creatively exploring new ways to introduce and implement change, and building
external relationships. Many agencies might respond along the lines of 'we do these things already'.
The question is how well they do them, and whether they devote enough attention to these issues.
An example might illustrate the point. The SES group in a development workshop in one agency
were asked to nominate the significant emerging issues that the agency would need to engage with
over the next three years. The assembled group had no trouble in brainstorming a list of several
issues. When asked what action the group was currently taking in relation to these issues, the
collective response was 'none'.
An organisation focusing too strongly on management is at risk of failing to deal effectively with the
major issues it faces. The danger is that the organisation is caught up in reacting to events and
managing crises, and is unable to give due attention to the deeper or more long-term matters. In
such organisations important problems often fester unresolved or are the subject of organisational
politics and perhaps patch-up or mediocre decisions. There can be much wasted effort in circling
around the issues rather than dealing with them directly.
Why the Over Emphasis on Management Values?
If, as has been suggested, management is to do with ensuring stability and continuity and leadership
is concerned with deep change and transformation, a fundamental tension arises between the two.
The potential exists that decision-makers operating chiefly from the control-oriented values of
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management will seek to 'reign in' any leadership-oriented efforts to break out of existing moulds or
question basic assumptions. By Kotter's (1990) definition, the change that is synonymous with
leadership is threatening to the status-quo orientation of management.
Several other factors can be seen as operating to reinforce an over emphasis on management
compared to leadership. The first concerns the unrelenting pressure on managers and staff in the
public sector to achieve more and better results. While a results focus is critical, the achievement of
those results can be compromised if there is not also sufficient attention to the processes and
dynamics of change, as indicated in the earlier example of the new branch manager trying to 'drive
through' change against resistance. Attention to accountability is also vital. The danger is that
managers can interpret this as implying a need for direct control, thereby reinforcing a top-down
management style.
Most public sector managers, at least in the writer's experience, work under considerable time
pressures; there is always more to be done than can be achieved. Under such pressures managers
are likely, this writer suggests, to focus their effort on the more urgent challenges they face.
Important but less urgent issues (Covey 1989:151) such as clarifying organisational values or
developing a shared agenda for the future, are likely to be relegated to second place. These aspects
may only be given attention when they become urgent or when there is a crisis, making a proactive
approach to organisational capability development difficult to achieve.
The management emphasis on achieving tangible results provides feedback and affirmation, which
are powerful rewards in themselves - particularly given the limited scope for incentive pay and other
material rewards in the public sector. While leadership work may bring its own satisfactions, the
organisational benefits can take time to appear, resulting in a lack of immediate reinforcement.
Leadership, with its focus on major change, necessarily involves risk and threat. What if people don't
like our ideas, or don't share our vision? How do we deal with those who have different views, and
especially with those who seem ambivalent about our ideas, or oppose them, yet who may not
indicate the basis of their reactions? Leadership also implies a need to deal with emotional factors
including the fear of one's own response to the reactions of others. To those with a strong bias to
detached, rational analysis this can be a frightening prospect, resulting in procrastination or
complete avoidance.
Another dimension to the threat issue comes from learning-centred leadership having a personal
aspect. The management paradigm, with its emphasis on analysis and tangibles, sees problems as
'out there' and requiring a solution to be found by examination of external factors. Leadership, with
its emphasis on modelling and reflection, requires the manager to ask in effect, 'in what ways might
my behaviour or approach be contributing to the problems that I am engaging with?' Such a
question implies taking personal responsibility for seeing ourselves as part of the system we find
problematic, rather than as separate from it. It is much easier to side step this question and look for
an external cause.
Implications
As well as the factors outlined, other pressures facing public sector managers include operating
within tight resource limits, dealing with multiple competing pressures simultaneously, working with
systems that might reinforce the status quo, and the size and complexity of many government
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organisations. With all of these factors, it might be suggested that a learning-centred conception of
leadership is a romantic ideal for the public sector.
The writer agrees that developing and maintaining a learning-centred approach is difficult in the
public sector, indeed in any setting. It is especially difficult when the priorities of governments call
for sudden changes of direction or decisions likely to be unpopular within the organisation, such as
outsourcing or downsizing. The question in relation to leadership is how to deal with these
difficulties. On the one hand, executives can use such problems to justify a style that is essentially
top-down management, albeit perhaps dressed up with the jargon of leadership. Alternatively, they
can elect to work in a way that specifically recognises the unavoidable tensions between leadership
and management, and seek to reconcile these tensions as best they can. The reconciliation process
requires that managers consciously evaluate the choices they face, rather than deciding implicitly.
This can involve balancing the focus on results and tangibles of management with the process and
values orientation of leadership. Such balancing is not necessarily an either/or matter, a question of
this or that. What is required is that managers take into account the principles of leadership when
working under pressure; for instance, in explaining the thinking behind decisions which may seem to
be at odds with declared values, or explicitly testing assumptions. The more managers can
demonstrate that they are attempting to model leadership while getting on with the business of
managing, the more likely they are to be seen as credible and believable, and to build staff
satisfaction, capability and commitment.
This discussion has focused on the choices facing individual managers. Making such choices and
following through with action will
be much easier for managers if they are operating in an environment that supports the
development of leadership capability.
Building Capability for Learning-centred Leadership
Readers will appreciate that there are many issues that an organisation thinking of pursuing this
path will need to deal with, some of which are summarised in Table 3. Not the least of these issues
is that getting started on the process requires a measure of leadership to begin with. The capability
development process calls for sponsorship by executives with enough self-awareness to appreciate
their own leadership and management style and their impact on others, enough awareness of the
potential benefits of collaborative approaches to commit to the effort and resourcing required, and
enough patience and persistence to maintain the focus under tough conditions until an evaluation
can reasonably be made.
A range of approaches will be required, variously emphasising the development of organisational
and individual capability, though this discussion is concerned mainly with the former. It is suggested
that approaches can usefully be grouped under three headings:
Establishing an infrastructure to support leadership development and practice
Articulating and nurturing values supportive of learning-centred leadership
Developing skills, particularly in reflective conversation
The three broad approaches need to be regarded as mutually reinforcing. Focusing on one without
attention to the others is unlikely to be highly effective.
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Establishing an Infrastructure for Learning-centred Leadership
Infrastructure in this context refers to explicit aspects of the organisation that can provide support
or ‘light scaffolding’ for leadership efforts. Specific aspects include competency frameworks,
meeting structures, budget allocations, business plans, position descriptions and performance
indicators. For example, competency frameworks can be reviewed in terms of their underlying
assumptions about leadership and management. Aspects such as dialogue and mindfulness
(focusing on observable behaviour, avoiding rushing to judgment or attributing motives, reflecting
on one's own assumptions) may need to be given greater attention. Management position
descriptions and team role statements can be reviewed in terms of the balance between
management and leadership aspects.
In high-pressure public sector workplaces, 'the lack of time' is often raised as an inhibiting factor. If
leadership is to be more than rhetoric, time for creating shared understanding must be set aside and
protected. Otherwise, the tyranny of the urgent will soon take over. As well as making time,
structures and supports need to be established that legitimise and encourage this type of activity. As
re-engineering guru Michael Hammer (Hammer and Stanton 1997) observed, 'we need to treat
reflection as a business process'. This implies that leadership- related practices need to have their
place among organisational priorities and to be resourced like other activities.
Table 3:
Some Issues in Building Collective Leadership
How to ensure more attention to leadership in public sector organisations operating under
intense pressures, which tend to reinforce management-related values?
How to reconcile the need for top-down executive decision-making in some circumstances
with the importance in leadership of congruence between stated and enacted values and
modelling of the desired behaviours?
How to gain support for capacity-building approaches to leadership when the outcomes may
be remote in time?
How to encourage executives and others to reflect on their underlying assumptions and
values about leadership?
How to ensure that developing leadership capability is treated as a discipline, like learning a
sport or a musical instrument?
How to deal with the reality that people yearn for 'practical' solutions but that some of the
most powerful approaches are counter-intuitive and require commitment and practice to
produce results?
How to build legitimacy and space for reflection, which is often regarded as people 'not
working'?
How to help executive managers reflect on how their own behaviour may contribute to the
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problems they see?
How to get people elsewhere in the organisation to take responsibility for their contribution
to what is happening, rather than pointing the finger at others?
An executive team in a state government agency realised that its monthly full day meetings were
being taken up largely with information sharing and with routine and operational matters. The team
divided its meeting in half, to enable it to spend 50 percent of each meeting on leadership-related
issues. Another agency with a staff of 500 sets aside one day per month for all managers to explore
common issues together, thereby providing an opportunity for the development of a shared
leadership focus while building understandings and strategies on important issues.
The US Army has a well-known process called After Action Reviews (Baird et al. 1999). This involves
a systematic debriefing process being followed after any significant exercise, incident or project.
Other organisations are using a range of creative methods, including so-called strategic communities
and communities of practice, to ensure they learn effectively from their experience, and that the
knowledge of differing specialists is productively tapped (Cross and Baird 2000; Storck and Hill 2000;
Wenger and Snyder 2000). While public sector organisations would be advised against adopting
these methods uncritically, the models do point to possibilities for adaptation.
Articulating and Nurturing Values
Supportive of Building Organisational and Individual Capability
Statements of organisational values have become almost obligatory for public sector organisations.
Yet such statements, in the writer's experience, are often seen as little more than empty platitudes
by staff. As with vision, the emphasis is often on the statement, rather than on the process of
building the statement and then using it to guide and shape action in the organisation.
Collins and Porras (1994) demonstrated the centrality of working with values as a means of building
high-performing organisations. They compared a set of outstandingly successful companies with
another group of good, but less exceptional, companies. They found that the main differentiating
factor was not visionary leadership or use of the latest management practices, but commitment to a
clear purpose, beyond making money, and core values. The more successful companies were able to
maintain stable values over time while simultaneously cultivating an ethic of change. Interestingly,
in relation to statements, Collins and Porras observed (1994:11), 'Creating a statement can be a
helpful step in building a visionary company, but it is only one of a thousand steps in a never ending
process of expressing the fundamental characteristics'.
The challenge for public sector organisations in working with values is to attend to the subtle,
process aspects, not only to 'the statement'. Working with the subtle aspects involves exploring the
values currently in use in the organisation (values that might be inferred from observable
behaviour), the factors that drive these values-in-use, and possible sources of leverage that would
support behaviour in line with desired values.
Widespread involvement in the values clarification process is essential, in order to build employee
commitment to, and understanding about, working with values. One vital aspect is to make the
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values operational, to specify the kinds of behaviours that would demonstrate the values in action.
Such specification is necessary to deal with ambiguity in the interpretation and application of values,
and to ensure that members of the organisation think through what is involved in applying the
values. For example, Argyris (1990:106) notes that 'respect' can mean deferring to others, or it can
mean attributing to others the competence to deal with their own issues, including emotional
reactions. The second interpretation is in line with building a leadership community, the first is
possibly at odds with it, since deferring to others suggests a holding back from raising tough issues
that might generate emotional reactions. Of course, respect can also mean valuing a person's
unique background and perspective without undue deference.
While organisations will determine values according to their own needs, a focus on learning-centred
leadership implies a need for emphasis on the value of openness, however this is expressed. In the
writer's view, openness implies people believing they are 'able to say what needs to be said, without
setting out to upset or provoke others.
As well as clarifying values, organisations need to make ongoing efforts to ensure that the values are
embedded and reflected in all organisational systems and process. There also needs to be a periodic
testing of the degree to which employees believe the values are being upheld. In the earlier stages
at least, this might be via anonymous employee survey. Finally, senior executives and others need to
be able to deal productively with apparent departures from value-based behaviour, and use these as
opportunities to advance individual and organisational learning.
Developing Skills in Reflective Conversation
Building shared understanding on difficult issues implies the need for conversation. In order that
new synergies can be developed from participants' partial perspectives, such conversations need to
have a reflective dimension to them. Reflective conversation can be understood by thinking about
the problems that tend to bedevil conversations about difficult or strategic issues in the workplace
(Senge 1990). People commonly make little effort to listen to one another - except perhaps to find a
space to jump into the conversation! There is a tendency for participants to compete with one
another through scoring points and defending and justifying their own arguments. Issues that might
result in embarrassment or threat tend to be avoided, ensuring that everyone can save face. The
discussion wanders all over the place with little sign of progressive development. Assumptions are
frequently made but rarely acknowledged and questioned. In such conversations, the prospects for
creative integration of knowledge and for collective learning are minimal.
Some might argue that this is 'just human nature'. In the writer's view, it is possible for people and
groups to improve the quality of their interaction, and thereby extend the possibilities for
transformational thinking and learning. In reflective conversations there is an emphasis on creating
a quieter 'space' for conversation, in which people more truly listen to each other (and to
themselves), differing opinions are seen as a source of data, and participants realise that they have
only a partial hold on the truth. An important leadership role for managers at all levels is to support
and model reflective conversation practices.
Enabling reflective conversation requires the development of infrastructure and organisational
values as discussed, but there are some specific, trainable skills involved. As described by Senge
(Senge 1990; Senge et al. 1994), these skills include advocacy, inquiry and dialogue, which was
introduced earlier.
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Advocacy involves articulating one's own views in ways that are assertive (as opposed to dogmatic)
and reflective. The challenge is to help others gain deeper insights into why we think and feel about
issues the way we do. Highly skilled advocacy is characterised by recognition of one's assumptions,
disclosure of feelings and a willingness to receive feedback from others. Advocacy can be difficult for
people unused to asserting, appropriately, their deeper thoughts and feelings. However, one might
hypothesise that, with some training, just about anyone could become more effective in articulating
their ideas so that others will better understand them.
Inquiry is the process of asking questions in such a way as to enable others to reveal more of what
they know, without putting the person on the defensive. Inquiry is not cross-examination. Rather,
the aim is to assist the other person in making public more of their thinking and feeling through the
use of effective questioning. Skilled inquiry involves the questioner probing deeply while minimising
threat to the other.
Like any discipline, such as golf or piano, the central requirement for developing capability in
reflective conversation is continued practice. Executives can support the development of collective
leadership capability by practising and modelling reflective conversation skills themselves and
encouraging others to do the same. The need for practice represents a huge challenge in many
organisations, where people are impatient for action and results. Often people believe that once
they understand the concept of reflective conversation, they can apply the skills immediately.
Practice in the workplace can seem like a waste of time, but as any musician will testify, high-Ievel
competence is not possible without it.
Conclusion
Learning-centred leadership has been advocated not as a panacea or a prescription but a way of
thinking about leadership that might assist public sector organisations in implementing new
initiatives, in dealing with vexing problems and in achieving cultural change. In its emphasis on the
creation of conditions under which people can make their most effective contribution, the approach
represents a distinct departure from charismatic leadership. It is recognised, however, that
individual leaders can have a dramatic and beneficial effect on organisations. Leadership needs to
exist complementary fashion to management and the challenge for organisations is to develop and
maintain a suitable balance between them. For many organisations, this will entail giving greater
attention to the leadership component, in a disciplined and ongoing manner. The difficulties of
doing so, given the pressures faced by contemporary public sector organisations, should not be
underestimated.
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