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Basic Thermodynamics and System Analysis for Fuel Cells
Dr. Robert Steinberger-Wilckens Institute of Energy Research IEK-PBZ Forschungszentrum Jülich
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 2/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Overview
• Basics of Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics applied to fuel cells and electrolysis
• System analysis
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 3/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
A very brief Introduction to Thermodynamics
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 4/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
The Model Thermodynamic World
Consider a volume and ist boundary:
It has a given state of being, quantified by the ‚inner energy state‘ U.
It exchanges activities with the surroundings by transporting mass and energy across the boundary.
U
system variables: T temperature p pressure V volume m mass Q, W T, p, V, m
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 5/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Example Representation
Ideal gas law:
p V = n R T
U
system variables: T temperature p pressure V volume m mass Q, W T, p, V, m
piston intake/release valves
V
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 6/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
The 4 Laws of Thermodynamics
1. Existance of temperature („0th“ Law)
2. Conservation of energy (1st Law)
3. Definition of Entropy (2nd Law)
4. Entropy at T = 0 (3rd Law)
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 7/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
1st Law of Thermodynamics
Any change of inner energy U is balanced by the exchange of heat Q and work W
U = Q + W
or rather
dU = dQ + dW
Consequences:
- conservation of energy, d U = 0 in isolated system
- impossibility of perpetuum mobile of the first kind (delivering work)
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 8/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Steady State and Transitions
Strictly speaking, all thermodynamic laws are only valid in the steady state (equilibrium).
A transition from one state to another must therefore be calculated in infinitesimal steps. These are assumed to be in balance. Between two states at times t1 and t2 going through a transition, a process takes place. If the process can be reversed and the state at t1 be achieved again, the process is reversible.
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 9/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Every system possesses a property S (entropy) that can be calculated from
d S = d Q / T
In irreversible processes d S ≥ d Q / T
Consequences:
- creation of entropy,
- impossibility of perpetuum mobile of the second kind (converting heat to work)
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 10/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
1st + 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
Combining we get
d U = d W + d S · T
or
d W = d U - d S · T
or
ΔH = ΔG + T ΔS
ΔG = ΔH - T ΔS
with H …. ‚enthalpy‘ G …. ‚free enthalpy‘ or ‚Gibb‘s energy‘ for systems with constant pressure
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 11/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Thermodynamic Machines
The relevant thermodynamic processes can mostly be considered as circular processes or ‚machines‘.
p
V
A
B
C
D
S
T
A
B
C
D
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 12/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
The Carnot Machine: Volume Reaction
1. isothermal compression 2. adiabatic compression 3. isothermal expansion 4. adiabatic expansion
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 13/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
The Carnot Machine (2)
heat source T1
heat sink T2
work
Q1
Q2
efficiency: ηc = W / Q1
from Q1 - Q2 - W = 0 (1st Law) and dS = dQ / T (2nd Law) it follows that ηc = (T1 – T2) / T1 = 1- T2 / T1
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 14/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Chemical Equilibrium Reactions
H2O H2 + 1/2 O2
• forward & reversible reactions • reversibility depends on reactants and products • equilibrium of reaction is temperature dependent • at temperatures above 600°C hydrogen will
spontaneously react with any oxygen present to form water
equilibirum constant [xx] concentration Kc …. molarity Kp …. partial pressure
K = [H2O]1
[H2]1 [O]1/2
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 15/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Chemical Equilibrium Constant
equilibirum constant [xx] concentration Kc …. molarity Kp …. partial pressure
K = [H2O]1
[H2]1 [O]1/2
K > 1 ….. products prevail K >> 1 …. complete reaction K < 1 ….. reactants prevail K
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 17/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Hydrogen Production: Electrolysis Splitting of water by electric current
Question: Definition of ‚cathode‘ and ‚anode‘?
Cathode side 2H2O + 2e- H2 + 2OH-
Anode side 2OH- 1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e-
Overall reaction H2O H2 + 1/2 O2
F ... Faraday constant = 96.587 C/mol
2F
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 18/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Electrolysis Thermodynamics
Free enthalpy ΔGo = 237 kJ/mol (at 25°C, 1 bar = ‚standard‘ conditions) = 2F Uoo It follows that Uoo = 1,23 V which is the voltage necessary for water splitting (ideal case at standard conditions).
2F H2O -----> H2 + 1/2 O2
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 19/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Electrolysis Overpotential
Due to kinetic processes and competition of ion reactions at the electrodes the technically necessary Voltage for electrolysis is considerably higher, generally at the order of 1,7 to 1,9 V. The ideal amount of energy needed per Nm³ H2 is ΔGo / VN = 237 kJ/mol / 22,41 l/mol = 3 kWh/Nm³ Standard electrolysers require about 4,2 to 4,8 kWh/Nm³
Question: lower or higher heating value? (LHV or HHV)
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 20/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Electrolysis Temperature Dependency
Due to the relationship Δ G = Δ H - T ΔS The energy for splitting water can also be supplied by heat, not only electricity.
Graphics from Winter/Nitsch,1988
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 21/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Generating Entropy? Loosing Energy?
T = 0 ΔH = ΔG
T > 0 ΔH = ΔG + TΔS vibrational energy
consequence: - less energy needed for electrolysis - less energy reclaimed in fuel cell
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 22/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Gibbs free energy for H2 - O2 reaction Form of water product Temp. [°C] ΔG [kJ/mol] Liquid 25 -237,2 Liquid 80 -228,2 Gas 80 -226,1 Gas 100 -225,2 Gas 200 -220,4 Gas 400 -210,3 Gas 1000 -177,4
Uo [V] 1,23 1,18 1,17 1,14 1,09 0,92
Other fuels Temp. [°C] ΔG [kJ/mol]
Methanol 25 -698,2 Methane 25 -802,7 Alkali (battery) 25 -277
Uo [V] 1,21 1,04 1,44
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 23/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Electrode Definition
Electrolysis
+ - e- e
-
2 H2O 2 OH-
1/2 H2 O2
- + e- e
-
H2O 2 OH-
H2 1/2 O2
Fuel Cell (=battery!)
Where are cathode and anode?
reverse reaction:
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 24/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Reaction Equilibrium: Fuel Cell Case
Cathode side
H2 + 2 OH- 2 H2O + 2e- Anode side
1/2 O2 + H2O + 2e- 2 OH-
Overall reaction H2 + 1/2 O2 H2O
Uo (open circuit) is identical to that of electrolysis (but negative!) ΔGo = 2F Uoo = -237 kJ/mol (at STP, for H2 - O2 cell) Uoo = 1,23 V (for convenience, U is not marked as negative) i.e. energy is released.
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 25/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Schematic Voltage Characteristics: Electrolysis and Fuel Cell
Uoo (T)
I [A]
U [V]
I * Ri
I * Ri
I * Re
electrolysis
fuel cell
internal resistance due to non-ideal conductibility resulting in heat produced a.o.
work delivered to external circuit
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 26/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Fuel Cell Efficiency
1. Efficiency = useful output / total input
η = Qel / - ΔH
2. Ambiguity: HHV or LHV?
3. Maximum possible efficiency (thermodynamic efficiency)
η = ΔG / ΔH
assuming that all change in Gibbs free energy can be transformed to electricity
alternative: η = U / Uoo (since U = - ΔH / 2F)
Compare to Carnot efficiency (T1 - T2) / T1 (T1,2 in [K]) and Betz efficiency (58%)
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 27/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Maximum Efficiency as Function of Temperature
Form of Temperature [°C] G [kJ/mol] water product Liquid 25 -237,2 Liquid 80 -228,2 Gas 80 -226,1 Gas 100 -225,2 Gas 200 -220,4 Gas 400 -210,3 Gas 1000 -177,4
Uo [V] η 1,23 83% 1,18 80% 1,17 79% 1,14 77% 1,09 74% 0,92 62%
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 28/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Some Fuel Cell Principal Properties
1. not limited by Carnot efficiency (~ (T1-T2)/T1), only by electrochemical, kinetic and ohmic losses
2. modular 3. low noise 4. exhaust emission predominantely water (and maybe CO2) 5. no moving parts
ergo: • efficient and low-emission energy conversion technology
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 29/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
00,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,9
137
3
573
773
973
1173
1373
1573
1773
1973
T1 [K]
eta
Limiting Efficiencies
lim T1 -> ∞
lim T2 -> 0
ηc = 1- T2 / T1 T2 = 273 K
0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
0,6 0,65 0,7 0,75 0,8 0,85 0,9 0,95 1
U
eta
lim U -> Uoo
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 30/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Fuel Cells: High Efficiency Electricity Production
Power Plant Capacity / MW
20
30
40
50
60
70
10005001005010510,50 ,10
10
Efficiency /%
G asturb ine
G U D - Pow er P lant
D iesel Engine
Upper Limiting Curve: Future Technology.(Development tendency: GT / GUD: 2000 ; SOFC: 2010).Lower Limiting Curve: Actual Technology.
Steam Power P lant
Spa rk-Ign itionEng ine
SO FC
PA FC
Fuel Cells
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 31/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
An Introduction to Energy and Efficiency Analysis
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 32/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Overview Indicators • Efficiency * of a single process * of a process chain * of energy services
• Primary energy consumption * direct * cumulative energy
• Fossil energy consumption
• Direct emissions
• Energy payback (harvest factor)
• Direct & indirect emissions (LCA, next section)
• Externalities (next section)
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 33/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Energy Efficiency Definitions
conventional: energy input given as lower heating value (LHV) result (example): out of 1 Nm³ of natural gas equivalent to 10 kWh, 1 kWh is disregarded reason: 10% of the combustion energy is contained in the exhaust gas as water vapour and not sensible heat is calculated approx. 10% higher than corresponds to the factual chemical energy content of the fuel
= (desired) energy output / (necessary) energy input
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 34/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Energy Efficiency Definitions /2
η = energy output / energy input (HHV)
correct (but unconventional): energy input given by higher heating value (HHV)
corresponds to the factual chemical energy content of the fuel and gives the full picture of the conversion technology
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 35/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Efficiency and Efficiency Chains PE primary energy UE useful energy CO combustion
CO
NOx CO2
η LHV = 0,90 UE (heat)
1 PE
Conventional boiler
Condensing boiler
η HHV = 0,81 UE (heat)
CO
CO2
1 PE
η LHV = 1,05 UE (heat)
η HHV = 0,95 UE (heat)
η therm = 105 % LHV
η therm = 95 % HHV
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 36/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Efficiency and Efficiency Chains /2 PE primary energy UE useful energy EG electricity generation
EG
NOx CO2
0,35 UE (LHV) 1 PE
Coal or Nuclear power plant
EG
NOx CO2
0,60 UE (LHV) 1 PE
Combined Cycle power plant
EG 1 UE ( = 1 PE)
Renewable Energy power plant
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 37/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Combined Heat and Power (CHP)
Condensing boiler
Electricity grid
Water supply
Natural gas
Fuel Cell (CHP)
Hot water storage tank use of waste heat from
electricity generation for heating purposes etc.
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 38/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
SenerTec ‚Dachs‘ Hot water storage and buffer
photographs courtesy SenerTec
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 39/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Micro-CHP – Stirling engine
graphics courtesy KWB
gearbox
heater
cooling
cylinder
insulation
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 40/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Efficiency and Efficiency Chains /3 PE primary energy UE useful energy EG electricity generation
EG
NOx CO2
0,37 UE 1 PE
Average German Electricity Grid
CHP
NOx CO2 0,3 UE electricity
1 PE
Gas Engine CHP 0,6 UE heat 0,63 PE
0,91 PE
reference case
∑= 1,54 PE
condensing boiler
electricity grid
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 41/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
FC FP
CO2
η = 0,87 η = 0,85 1 PE
H2O
Natural Gas PEFC Residential System
PE primary energy UE useful energy FC fuel cell FP fuel processing
FC η = 0,80
1 PE
H2O
Natural Gas SOFC Residential System
0,50 UE electricity
0,33 UE heat
CO2
0,34 UE electricity
0,41 UE heat 0,43 PE
1,03 PE
Efficiency and Efficiency Chains /4
reference case
∑ = 1,46 PE
cond. boiler
electricity grid
0,35 PE
1,51 PE
reference case
∑ = 1,86 PE
cond. boiler
electricity grid
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 42/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
CHP Unit Efficiencies
25%
30%
35%
40%
45%
50%
55%
60%
65%
70%
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16Electrical power output [MWe]
Elec
tric
al th
erm
al e
ffici
ency
graph courtesy of RollsRoyce FCS
300 MW
Fuel cells
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 43/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Efficiency and Efficiency Chains /5
FC 1 PE ηel = 0,45
H2O
0,27 UE FP ELY η = 0,67
O2
FC
Hydrogen Fuel cell, wind energy
EG
CO2
ηel = 0,45 η = 0,35 FP
η = 0,85 (CH)
ELY η = 0,67
O2
1 PE η = 0,85 (CH)
H2O
Hydrogen Fuel cell, grid electricity
PE primary energy UE useful energy EG electricity generation FP fuel processing CH compressed hydrogen
NOx
0,08 UE
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 44/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Efficiency and Efficiency Chains /6
ICE
CO2
Internal combustion engine η = 0,15
FP η = 0,9
1 PE
NOx CO
0,13 UE (propulsion)
PE primary energy UE useful energy EG electricity generation ICE internal combustion engine FP fuel processing CH compressed H2 LH liquid H2
ICE EG
CO2
η = 0,15 η = 0,35 0,024 UE FP ELY
η = 0,67
O2
1 PE η = 0,85 (CH)
H2O
H2 Internal combustion engine, grid electricity
NOx NOx
η = 0,1 (LH) 0,004 UE
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 45/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Vehicle Requirement Profile
New European Driving Cycle example
source: EU
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 46/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Efficiency and Efficiency Chains /7
FC 1 PE η = 0,40
H2O
0,23 UE FP ELY η = 0,67
O2
FC
H2 FC vehicle, wind energy
EG
CO2
η = 0,40 η = 0,35
NOx
0,08 UE FP
η = 0,85 (CH)
ELY η = 0,67
O2
1 PE η = 0,85 (CH)
H2O
H2 FC vehicle, grid electricity
PE primary energy UE useful energy EG electricity generation FC fuel cell FP fuel processing CH compressed H2
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 47/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
CUTE Results: Total system efficiency
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 48/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Change in On-Board E-Power Generation
100% 20 – 25%* 50 – 70% (Generator) 70 – 90 % (KSG) 10 – 17% 14 – 22 %
Today:
* Average efficiency
Future:
100% 35 – 50% 35 – 50% (FC-APU) Graph: BMW
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 49/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Cumulative Energy
• Balance of all energy flows required to establish a product or deliver a given service
• Examples: - energy consumed in process steps - energy necessary to manufacture process equipment
• Cumulative efficiency definition
• Harvest factor definition
j
j
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 50/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Cumulative Energy: NG Steam Reforming
primary energy
natural gas supply
NG installations
steam reforming
domestic distribution
installations, transport
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 51/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Cumulative Energy: PV-Hydrogen production
installations
installations
installations
installations, transport
solar
PV
electricity
electrolysis
pipeline transport
domestic distribution
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 52/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Environmental Appraisal of Energy Systems
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 53/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Overview Indicators • Efficiency (as before)
• Direct emissions
• Indirect emissions
• Externalities
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 54/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
LCA Elements
Definition of boundaries
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 55/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
LCA Procedure
• Analysis of all process steps involved • Cumulation of all specific emission and impact factors, i.e. kg CO2 / kWh energy kg CO2 / kg of building material kg SO2 / kWh energy etc. Detail given by inclusion or omission of secondary, tertiary etc. sources (system boundary).
Goal: Comparison of base case with alternative variants
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 56/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Total Balance of Conversion: kg CO2 / kWh
kg CO2 / kWh NG producing • electricity and • heat
kg CO2 / kWh electricity from grid
kg CO2 / kWh conventional heating
kg CO2 / kWh balance
alternative
reference
biogas X
example: natural gas driven fuel cell CHP unit
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 57/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Externalities
costs of energy services not covered by end-user price (e.g. petrol pump price)
for instance: - societal costs (health, environment etc.)
- cost of risk (societal and individual)
- global costs (CO2, flooding, induced natural desasters etc.)
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 58/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Externalities: Examples
- insurance for nuclear power stations (risk related costs)
- cost of damage to forests by acid rain (societal costs)
- cost of water cleaning (societal cost)
- cost of reclaiming contaminated soil (societal cost)
- cost of sound-proofed glazing for residences on main roads (individual costs)
- cost of coastal protection (regional and societal costs)
- cost of abandoned land (individual and societal cost)
- cost of protecting, guarding, monitoring, decontaminating, dismantling nuclear waste, installations etc. (societal costs)
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 59/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
External costs: Example London Bus Transport
Mode Health Costs
Environmental Costs
Global Warming due to CO2 only
Total Calculable Average Costs
Conventional Diesel 32.4 4.93 0.75 38.08 ‘Clean’ Diesel 15.27 2.59 0.75 18.61 CNG 5.45 1.32 0.69 7.46 Hybrid Diesel/Electric 5.5 1.22 0.65 7.37 Trolleybus (UK grid) 1.35 0.32 0.64 2.31 Trolleybus (renewables) 0 0 0 0
Cost in pence / km for - NOx - Particle matter - CO2
From: Kevin Brown: Calculations and references relating to health and environmental costs, in relation to Public Service Vehicles. U Alberta, 2001
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 60/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Integrating External Costs
H2
Diesel 3:1
ext. costs
ext. costs
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22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 61/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
External costs: Problems
- allocation of costs
- estimation of costs
- prognosis of costs and cost development
- allocation of value to natural resources
- allocation of value to human life, well-being, bio-diversity etc.
- estimation of land value for abandoned regions
- etc.
Ref.: STERN REVIEW: The Economics of Climate Change
22 & 29 Aug 2011 Slide 62/62 FC&H Summer School 22 Aug – 2 Sep 2011, Viterbo – Technology Introduction
Thanks for your Attention!
Any Questions?