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A European reform for US higher education?
The limits of the Bologna process
Dr Cecile HoareauBerkeley CSHE & Maastricht School of GovernancePresentation for 13th February 2012 CHEER Sussex
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Comparison between two higher education reform processes in Europe and the US The Bologna process (Europe) Degree profile experiment (US)
Why did the Bologna process lead to major changes in Europe but similar attempts have been more limited in the US?
An example of theoretical adjustment (from Hoareau, 2011)
For Comparative Journal of Education
1. Introduction
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1. European HE reforms: the Bologna process2. The Bologna process as ‘deliberative
governance’3. Research questions4. Multiple methodologies5. Widespread changes in Europe6. A European style of reforms for US HE? 7. Explaining differences: the limits of deliberative
governance8. Conclusion
Outline
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Who? ◦ 46 member states
What does it seek to achieve?◦ European HE becoming more like
the UK system?◦ Facilitate comparability
Accessible Higher education Consistent measurement of
credits Define and measure learning
outcomes for all disciplines◦ Tackle more sensitive questions e.g.
role of the Government in higher education management, financing etc.
2. European higher education reforms: the Bologna process
Member states of the Bologna process
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Why is it important? ◦ In economic terms, higher education a major
‘export industry’ 1st in terms of output generation in the UK (UUK, 2006) Top third before the entertainment industry in the US
(Douglass, Edelstein and Hoareau, 2011)
◦ For Europe Facilitate movements across borders Start a European-wide debate on learning and its value
2. European higher education reforms: the Bologna process
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Why? ◦ Concern about the quality of European higher
education (Attali, 1998: annex 8). ◦ In perspective of international competition
Growing influence of India, China, Brazil and Australia in the economy and higher education (Allègre, 1993; interviews FF1, 02 May 2007, FCM1 28 April 2007)
◦ ‘Prepare […] for the brain competition that the 21st century will constitute’ (Allègre, 1997)
2. European higher education reforms: the Bologna process
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2. European higher education reforms: the Bologna process
From…
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2. European higher education reforms: the Bologna processTo…
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No coercion A set of ministerial
declarations A complex network of
agencies, programs, evaluations
Eg. Tuning Europe produces ‘reference points’ on what is being learnt
2. European higher education reforms: the Bologna process
Deliberative governance (Hoareau, 2011)
Tuning programme
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3. Deliberative governance
A mode of governance relying on:• Deliberation
• Justify positions with reasoned arguments• Open to each other’s arguments• Reciprocity
• Resulting in • Problem solving, ‘framing’, learning, incremental policy change
• Gehring, 2003; Habermas, 1984; Risse, 2000; Teague, 2001
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Is it possible to obtain significant policy change without coercion? ◦ A ‘talking shop’ or a consequential policy tool?
Does it change participants’ opinions? Does it lead to policy reforms?
4. Resarch questions
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Unit of measurement: individual opinions and subsequent domestic reforms
Multiple methodologies◦ 72 interviews in Europe & 40 in US◦ Cases of deliberations Archival work & secondary sources◦ Analysis of reforms from 1999◦ Online survey of 160 participants (25% response rate)
Retrospectively measure to which extent participants have changed their opinions and how much weight they give to participations to deliberations
Various dimensions of relevant to the Bologna process (institutional management, qualifications, quality assurance)
Objective: triangulation
5. Multiple methodologies
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Object Instit. manag. Qualifications Quality control Models 1 2 1 2 1 2 Delib. 0.62 0.80
* 0.57 **
0.69 ***
0.39 0.74 *
0.38 0.41 0.22 0.25 0.40 0.45 Prox. maj -2.64
**** -2.95 ****
-0.19 -0.75 ***
-0.35 -0.97 **
0.45 0.47 0.24 0.25 0.38 0.42 Profession -0.36 -0.36 -0.14
-0.00 -0.03 -0.13
0.37 0.39 0.21 0.23 0.35 0.42 Country. 0.42 0.60
* 0.32 *
0.46 **
0.13 -0.16
0.34 0.37 0.19 0.22 0.33 0.40 Implemt. 0.11 -0.20 -0.01
-0.09 0.70
* 0.55
0.42 0.44 0.23 0.27 0.42 0.51 Age -0.47
** -0.35 -0.21
* -0.06 -0.11 0.00
0.21 0.23 0.12 0.14 0.20 0.25 Constant 2.24
**** 2.11 ***
-0.04 -0.44 0.04 -0.28
0.66 0.68 0.36 0.40 0.59 0.70 N 203 206 464 472 161 163 LR chi2 58.27 70.32 13.76 63.57 7.1 25.81 P > Chi2 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.3 0.01 Log-likeld -107.40 -139.17 -303.84 -400.90 -106.92 -161.59 Note: The first line represents log-odds; standard errors are on the second line for each category. Note2: * significant at p ≤ .1; ** significant at p ≤ .05; *** significant at p ≤ .01; ****significant at p ≤ .001. Note 3: 1 and 2 indicate models 1 and 2, respectively the logistic regression and the multinomial logistic regression.
Logistic and multinomial regression results
6. Widespread changes in Europe
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Institutional management Qualifications framework
Quality control
0.1
.2.3
.4.5
.6.7
.8.9
1Pr
obab
ility
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1Total number of meetings
LB pr(1)/UB pr(1) institutional management
0.1
.2.3
.4.5
.6.7
.8.9
1Pr
obab
ility
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1Total number of meetings
LB pr(1)/UB pr(1) qualifications framework
0.1
.2.3
.4.5
.6.7
.8.9
1Pr
obab
ility
0 .2 .4 .6 .8 1Total number of meetings
LB pr(1)/UB pr(1) quality assurance
6. Widespread changes in Europe
‘Minds matured and mentalities changed and everyone was aware over all the territory that if we do not agree on what we should do, in any case we cannot leave the system like this.’ (Interview FCM 3, 15 June 2007)
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6. Widespread changes in Europe
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6. Widespread changes in Europe
Other reforms as riders, e.g. France 2003 and 2007
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Interpretation◦ Deliberative governance can lead to a significant
change of opinions and coordinated policy change in Europe (Hoareau, 2010)
6. Widespread changes in Europe
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Increasing attention to the Bologna process (Adelman, 2008 and 2009; Gaston, 2010; Lumina, 2011)
◦ ‘The world has changed. The borders between the US and European higher education are now somewhat leaky […]. A European in America is now somehow thinkable!’ (Robertson, 2009)
◦ ‘Three states […] examine the Bologna process to determine the forms and extent of its potential in U.S. contexts. Scarcely a year ago, such an effort would have been unthinkable’ (Adelman, 2009: 8)’.
7. A European style of reform for US higher education?
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Why does the US care?
◦ Accountability debate So far limited to general skills (AAC&U; 2007;
Gaston, 2010) Especially around for-profits (Douglass, forthcoming)
◦ Threat to international supremacy Relationship with intellectual supremacy and
attracting talents (Gaston, 2010: 11)
7. A European style of reform for US higher education?
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Tuning USA by Lumina foundation (2008) Indiana, Minnesota, Utah and Texas establish study groups Deliberation between administrators, labour market
representatives and students ◦ Document
Degree qualifications profile (2011)
But : Low take-up rate◦ No major reform◦ widespread skepticism◦ No further state support
7. A European style of reforms for US higher education?
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8. Explaining differences: the limits of deliberative governance
Europe USA
Start 1998 Late 2008
Nature A wide pan-European process An experiment
Number of participants
46 +European Commission + associations etc.
4
Level Governments, universities, EU institutions
Universities and states
Topic Quality assuranceQualifications frameworkLearning outcomeSocial dimensionTuning
TuningLearning outcome
Impact Widespread national reforms (e.g. France)
?
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US efforts do not meet the same impact or popularity as the Bologna process
◦ 4 years after its launch, the Bologna process had already led to major domestic reforms in France, Germany and Italy.
◦ Tuning USA has not had such impact
Why is there no Bologna process of the US?
8. Explaining differences
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Deliberative governance
Needs-based argument
Incentive-based argument
8. Explaining differences
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Deliberative governance◦ Led to some agreement in the US (degree profile)
But does not account for differences in ◦ Reforms undertaken ◦ Differences in the number of participants between
Europe and the US
8. Explaining differences
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Needs-based argument should be dismissed
8. Explaining differences
United States
United Kingdom
OECD average
EU 19 average
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Tertiary graduation rate
US = 15th out of 34 OECD countries
Source: OECD (2010)
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◦ Concerns on overall quality of US higher education 45% of undergraduates show no learning gain after
two years in higher education
35% of undergraduates show no learning gain after four years in higher education (Arum and Roksa, 2011)
8. Explaining differences
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8. Explaining differences‘We’ve had a good run - as the saying goes, but we are no longer at the cutting edge. US higher education can no longer sail on the assumption of world dominance, oblivious to the creative energies, natural intelligence, and hard work of other nations’
(Adelman, 2009: 9)
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Incentive-based argument ◦ The paradox of autonomy European universities have more incentive to convert to reform
processes than US ones due to heavy Government steering
Examples Funding structure
Block grant vs performance based funding (Salmi and Hauptmann, 2006)
Evaluation quality assurance in Europe broader than US accreditation
schemes
8. Explaining differences
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In Europe: difference between de jure and de facto autonomy
US universities do not have these constraints, so do not have the same incentive to enlist in a widespread reform process
◦A paradox Government steering in Europe is meant to illicit
university ‘autonomy’ (Bologna declaration, 1999; Vernon, 2011)
8. Explaining difference
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Explain why higher education reform processes are different in the US and Europe◦ ‘Need’ for reform exists ◦ But the incentive structures for higher education
differ between Europe and the US Paradox of autonomy in higher education in Europe
An example of theoretical adjustment Illustrates the limits of deliberative governance and
the importance of incentive mechanisms for change
9. Conclusion
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Further research
◦ Have more comparable data for US/Europe
◦ How do these change processes in higher education relate to broader socio-economic change?
9. Conclusion