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DOUBLE TRUTH ANDRELATIVITY
ANKUR BARUA
The Centre of Buddhist Studies, The University of Hong Kong,
Hong Kong
Corresponding address:
Dr. ANKUR BARUABLOCK EE, No. 80, Flat No. 2A,SALT LAKE CITY, SECTOR -2,KOLKATA 700 091
WEST BENGAL, INDIA Tel: +91-33-23215586Mobile: +919434485543Email: [email protected]
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DOUBLE TRUTH AND
RELATIVITY
Abstract
The theory of the two truths is an innovation on the part of the Theravada
Abhidhamma. Here, we find the concept of the two levels of reality, the one
which is amenable to analysis and the other which defies further analysis.
There are some striking similarities present between Buddhist concept of Double
Truth and modern scientific views related to the notion of time and space.
The concept of Time is psychological and it is also considered to be an imputed
entity . This is because it is identified on the basis of something that is other than
itself. The whole process of cosmo-genesis according to Buddhism is catalyzed by
the actions of living beings or Kamma . The Theravda concept of space is found
only in Milindapa ha where the only two things which are considered to be
independent of kamma or of causes or of season are namely Nibb
na and space.But it carefully avoids the use of the term unconditioned (asakhata) and relates
space as neither conditioned nor unconditioned. However, In the Sarvstivda
Abhidhamma, space is elevated to the level of an unconditioned dhamma.
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Key Words: Sammuti , Paatti , Conventional, Paramattha , Absolute,Double Truth, Relativity, Abhidhamma, Einstein, Time, Space,Emptiness, Psychological, Nibbna, Tathata
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DOUBLE TRUTH AND
RELATIVITY Introduction
In Buddhist doctrines, the Sutta passages mention the theory of double truth which
is a logical extension of the dhamma theory. The theory of the two truths is an
innovation on the part of the Theravada Abhidhamma. Here, we find the concept of the two levels of reality, the one which is amenable to analysis and the other which
defies further analysis. The first level is called sammuti because it represents
conventional or relative truth or consensual reality. The second is called paramattha
because it represents the absolute truth or ultimate reality. 1,2
There are some controversies related to the degree of reality that should beattributed to the sum total of the dhammas that make up the person. According to
the Puggalavdins the sum total should be assigned the same degree of reality that
is assigned to the constituents. However, the Theravdins consider that the sum
total is not real in an ultimate sense because of its analyzability. The ultimate
constituents into which, the sum total is analyzable are ultimately real because they
are not amenable to further analysis. 2,3
An interesting feature in the Theravda version of the theory is the use of the term
sammuti for relative truth. For in all other schools of Buddhist thought the term
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used is savrti . The difference is not simply that between Pali and Sanskrit, for the
two terms differ both in etymology and meaning. Since sammuti refers to
convention or general agreement, sammuti-sacca means truth based on convention
or general agreement. On the other hand, the idea behind savrti-satya is that
which covers up the true nature of things and makes them appear otherwise. As
savrti means that which covers, hides, or conceals the true nature of reality, it is
clearly implied that paramrtha is that which reveals the true nature of reality. Thus,
the very use of the term savrt i to express one of the truths shows that that
particular truth is less truthful and therefore inferior to what is called paramrtha-
satya , the absolute truth. That is why, in all other schools of Buddhist thought
belonging to the Hnayna and Mahyna traditions, the paramrtha satya is
considered superior to savrti satya .4,5
In the Sarvstivda Abhidharma the difference between savrti (relative) and
paramrtha (absolute) is explained in a different manner. It is sought to be based on
the principle of physical reducibility and mental analyzability. When there are the
five aggregates as objects of clinging, there comes to be the mere term of common
usage a being, a person, yet when each component is examined, there is no
being as a basis for the assumption of I am or I. Here, the idea of a human
being disappears when it is reduced to pieces. If the notion of a thing disappears
when it is analyzed by mind, then it is to be regarded as existing relatively. If the
idea of a thing does not persist any more when it is analyzed, then it exists in a
conventional sense ( savrtisat) .On the other hand, when a given thing is analyzed
by mind, if the idea of it continues to persist, then that particular thing is said to
exist in an ultimate sense ( paramrtha-sa t). For example, materiality ( rpana ) or
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impenetrability ( pratighta ) continues to persist when what is material or
impenetrable is reduced to atoms or analyzed by mind into their constituents. The
same is true when we consider mental phenomena such as feeling ( vedan ),
ideation (saja), etc . According to Bhadanta rilta, one of the celebrities of the
Sautrntika School of Buddhism, if the thing in question loses its original name
when it is analyzed, then it is savrti and if it does not, then it is paramrtha . Here,
too, analyzability is taken as the sole criterion in distinguishing the two kinds of
truth. 3,4,5
Teachings of the Buddha in the light of Double Truth
The Buddha preached his doctrine by adopting either the sammuti -kath or the
paramattha-kath according to the suitability of the occasion . He had used the
dialect that a person readily understands. There was no implication that one dialect
was superior or inferior to another. After taking into consideration the ability of each
individual to understand the Four Noble Truths, the Buddha had presented his
teaching, either by way of sammuti , or by way of paramattha , or by way of both.
These are just two different ways of presenting the same set of doctrines. Although
the sammuti-sacca is quite different from the paramattha-sacca , but both are
expressed through paatti. The commentarial literatures stated that the
ultimately real is expressed (communicated) without going beyond paatti
(Paattim anatikkamma paramattho paksito ) and also the Madhyamaka stating
that the absolute is not taught without resorting to the conventional ( Vyavahram
ansrtya paramrtho na deyate ). Both statements refer to the invariable
association between the two truths and the symbolic medium of language. 3,4,5
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In the Sutta Piaka there is more use of conventional terms in ordinary parlance,
whereas in the Abhidhamma Piaka more use is made of specific, technical terms
which directly refer to the ultimate categories of empirical existence. The difference
is only pertaining to method and not the content. Thus, what is intended to show by
the description of the Sutta Piaka and the Abhidhamma Piaka as sammuti-desan
and paramattha-desa n respectively is that they represent two different ways of
presenting the same doctrine. So, we should remember that whatever method the
Buddha had adopted, the purpose was the same. He wanted to show the way to
immortality through the analysis of mental and physical phenomena. Hence, one is
advised not to adhere dogmatically to the mere superficial meanings of words ( Na
vacanabhedamattam lambitabba ), while understanding the teaching of the
Buddha. 3,5
Application of the Concept of Double Truth in Modern Science
Though Buddhism did not have any rigorous methodology for studying the physical
world, but the Buddhist scholars and contemplatives had developed views on
matters related to the universe and its contents. This was based on pure logical and
rational thinking and no experimental model was applied to prove or disprove any of
these observations. These phenomena were discussed in detail in the early
Buddhism, the Abhidhamma Pitaka , the Visuddhimagga , the Pali commentaries,
Mahvibh - stra , the Klacackra Tantra and in the literature on Buddhist
epistemology. 1,3,6 Although the study of physical world was not the central focus of
the traditional areas of learning and specialization in Buddhism, but there are some
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striking similarities present between Buddhist concept of Double Truth and modern
scientific views related to the notion of time and space.
Einsteins Theories on Relativity
Albert Einstein is generally regarded as the greatest theoretical physicist of all
times. His contributions to atomic physics and study of the photoelectric effect had
earned him the Noble Prize. His theory of relativity with its profound modifications of
the notions of space, time and gravitation had fundamentally changed and
deepened our understanding of the physical and philosophical conception of the
universe. The historians call the year 1905 as the annus mirabilis or miracle
year, because in that year the renowned scientist Albert Einstein published four
remarkable scientific papers addressing fundamental problems about the nature of
energy, matter, motion, time and space. He was awarded the noble prize in the year
1921 for his outstanding contributions to the Theoretical Physics and especially for
his discovery of the Law of the Photoelectric Effect. 7,8 Some of his theories which
could be viewed in the light of Buddhist concept of Double Truth are as follows: 8,9
In June 1905, Einstein proposed his concept of special relativity . Einstein's
March paper treated light as particles, but special relativity estimated light as
a continuous field of waves. So, Einstein observed light both as wave and
particle.
Later in 1905 came an extension of special relativity in which Einstein proved
that energy and matter are linked in the most famous relationship in physics:
E=mc 2 . (The energy content of a body is equal to the mass of the body
times the speed of light in vacuum squared). This equation predicted an
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evolution of energy roughly a million times more efficient than that obtained
by ordinary physiochemical means. This led to the theory of the conservation
of energy, in the form of the first law of thermodynamics, which stated that
the total amount of energy in any isolated system always remains constant.
Although it can only be changed from one form to another, e.g. friction turns
kinetic energy into thermal energy; this energy cannot be created or
destroyed. If we calculate how much energy is being produced within the
volume by stars and galaxies and also calculate how much energy is leaving
the region, then the difference between the two parts should equal zero.
Therefore, hypothetically, the energy produced by the universe is zero. So,
another expression of this assumption is that the total amount of energy in
the universe is always constant. It is only that one form transforms into the
other.
During 1915, Einstein completed the General Theory of Relativity and
showed that matter and energy actually mold the shape of space and
the flow of time . What we feel as the 'force' of gravity is simply the
sensation of following the shortest path we can through curved, four-
dimensional space-time. It was a radical vision where space was no longer
considered to be the box to enclose the universe. Instead, space and time
along with matter and energy are all locked together in the most intimate
embrace.
The Concept of Double Truth and Relativity
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The Buddhist view was always aware of the unity and mutual interaction of all
events. This concept of seeing things as they are themselves was also called
Tathata or suchness. The Theravda version of the two truths are considered as
conventional truth ( sammuti -sacca ) and absolute or ultimate truth ( paramattha-
sacca ). The theory of double truth as developed by the Abhidhamma has a close
connection with the early Buddhist analysis of empirical existence into aggregates
(khandha) , sense bases ( ayatana ), and elements ( dhtu ) of cognition. Although
what is analysed is called sammuti , unlike in the Abhidhamma, that into which it is
analysed is not called paramattha . What is more, in the early Buddhist scriptures
the term paramattha is used only as a descriptive term of Nibbna, to show that,
from an ethico-psychological perspectivbe, Nibbana is the highest ideal( sumnum
bonum ). Whereas in the Abhidhamma the term paramattha is used in an ontological
sense to mean what exists in a real and ultimate sense. In this ontological sense
the term paramattha denotes not only Nibbna as the Unconditioned Element, but
also all mental and material elements into which the conditioned existence is
analyzed. 2,3 Einstein had also expressed that there is no place in this kind of
physics both for the field and matter, for the field is the only reality. 7,8
In the Madhyamaka system, ntrtha (ntattha) and neyyrtha (neyyattha) are
explained as a parallel to its version of the two kinds of truth ( savrti and
paramrtha ). Nagarjunas analysis of Sunyata was based on the concept of
rejection of all sorts of impositions. It revealed the fact that anything internal or
external that appears to us as existing is in fact unreal and virtual. Thus, it
emphasized the dynamicity and relativity of our own individual perceptions. The
Mahayanists had claimed that nothing exists in our universe of experience in real
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form. What we perceive through our senses is all virtual and subjected to constant
change from moment to moment. 4,5,6 This implies that there is no static and
permanent entity and everything is subjected to transformation. Since, every
phenomenon is relative to each other and follows the rule of Dependent Origination,
it is considered to be dynamic.
Time: A Psychological Concept
Since ages, time had been a topic extensive analysis in both the Buddhist and
scientific traditions. Long before Galileo or Newton, many of the Ancient
philosophers speculated on the nature of time. One view that is relevant to the
history of non-mathematical concept of time is Augustines suggestion that the only
time is lived-time. This theory reflects the existence of psychological time; the
sense of time that we all normally experience. It is psychological, rather than the
mathematical or scientific concept of time, which was most recently explored by the
German phenomenologist Martin Heidegger. This psychological time has been
discussed by Buddhism as well. 7,8
Galileo was the first modern scientist to work with the concept of time. In his
studies, he used a simple water clock to measure relative passages of time while
rolling balls down inclined planes. Despite these pioneering efforts, he could not
provide any systematic or functional definition of time. A clear definition of time did
not come until Newton, who had universalized time and employed the concept of
time in mathematical frameworks. 7,8
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Beyond Newton, time eventually became important in relation to the
thermodynamics and Einsteins theory of relativity. Observing the irreversibility or
asymmetry between the past and future, it has been argued that time is uni-
directional and is also associated with the experience of psychological time. The
concept of the uni-directional nature of time is not without controversy. Einstein
himself had felt the uni-directionality of time and considered the concept of time to
be an illusion. 9,10
According to Newton, time was universal and unchanging and provides a kind of
backdrop with space where all events took place. This concept was also based on
the view that time was completely unrelated to space and uni-directional. As
compared to this existing notion, Einsteins contribution to the understanding of
time was revolutionary. In Einsteins theory of relativity, time (with space) becomes
relative and contingent both on speed and gravity. The faster one travels or the
closer one is to an object with a very strong gravitational pull, time elapses more
slowly. This theory was supported by Langevin who proposed the concept of twin
paradox and predicted that one twin traveling through space at great speeds will
age much more slowly than her twin who is living on earth. A similar concept has
been described in our psychological experience of time. Sometimes, we perceive as
time to fly off very fast while in other situations, we perceive time to move very
slowly.7,11
The Buddhist concept of time is equally diverse. Like psychological time described
in Western contexts, Buddhists recognize that time can be experienced as moving
faster or slower in certain situations. Buddhist contemplatives had often claimed to
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be able to alter their experience of time. What others might experience as only an
instant, could be experienced by a person meditating as a much longer period of
time. From the Buddhist perspective, when one actually analyzes time; it is found to
not really exist. So, according to Buddhism, time is a conventional truth (pa atti)
and a verbal or conceptual designation which is imputed onto experiences of a past,
present, and future. It is called conventional because it is only established
nominally on the basis of words and thoughts. If we actually try to point to an
instant of time, the moment that we try to pinpoint has already passed and a future
moment has now become the present. In this way, we cannot technically speak of
any fixed, locatable present as it always vanishes upon close examination. Because
of its conventional or dependent nature, time is an excellent example of the
Buddhist concept of interdependence. The present only exists in dependence upon
the concepts of past and future and none of these make sense without the
others. 3,10,11,12
Time is also considered an imputed entity in a yet more scholastic and technical
context. This is because it is identified on the basis of something that is other than
itself. A substantial entity , by contrast, is something that can be pointed to and
identified directly. For example, when we speak of time, we point to a clock (a
substantial entity) and as we watch the second hand go by, we perceive that we are
watching the time to pass. We have not pointed to the time in reality, but rather
perceived it through designations on things that are not time, like the clock. Though
the things which serve as the basis for designations of time can be physical or
mental, but time itself is neither physical nor mental. Instead, time fits in a third
class of phenomenon technically referred to as non-associated composite
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phenomena. Here, Non-associated means that it is neither physical nor mental
and composite means that time is dependent on other factors and is
impermanent. 8,10,11
Beyond these technical understandings of time, the Buddhists in Mahayana tradition
believe in the existence of three forms of time consisting of past, present, and
future. But the Theravda tradition only recognizes the present moment as a marker
of time. From a contemplative perspective, a major practice in Buddhism, is abiding
in the present moment. In other contexts, time is discussed as an accessible way
to introduce the Buddhist concept of dependent-origination. Apart from this concept
of time, these two Buddhist schools had also identified the shortest possible
divisions of time that is required to perform an act and the shortest division of time
in general. An example of the shortest possible divisions of time is the time it takes
to blink our eye, which is called a moment. The shortest division of time is
considered to be 1/60th (or even 1/365th, depending on the source) the duration of
a finger snap, a number which one Buddhist scholar has calculated roughly as one
millisecond. 11,13
Considering these facts, we observe that the Buddhist concept of psychological
time is similar to Einsteins perception that time is illusory. Since, Buddhism
originated 2500 years ago and Einstein had a good understanding of the doctrines
of Buddhism, there is a high possibility that he was influenced by this Buddhist
concept of time as a conventional truth and used it to explain his theory of
relativity which is accepted by modern science.
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Space: Ambiguity on its Status of Conditioned or Unconditioned
Another major area of discussion for Buddhists, physicists, and cosmologists is the
nature of empty space and cosmogony. The concept of Time and Space in relation
to Buddhism are the two varieties of pa atti. They are two conceptual constructs
without any corresponding objective reality. In Buddhism, the only two things which
are considered to be not born of kamma (akammaja) or of causes (ahetuja) or of
season (anutuja) are namely Nibb na and Space. In Milindapa ha, the only two
things which are considered to be independent of kamma or of causes or of season
are namely Nibb na and space. But it carefully avoids the use of the term
unconditioned (asakhata) and relates space as neither conditioned nor
unconditioned. The Theravda concept of space is found only in Milindapa ha where
the space is defined as infinite (ananta), boundless (appam na) and immeasurable
(appameyya). It does not cling to anything (alagga), is not attached to anything
(asatta), rests on nothing (appati ha) and is not obstructed anything (apalibuddha).
The Therav dins include the space element concept in the objective field of mental
objects (dhamm yatana) which means that it is not visible but can be cognized only
as an object of mind-consciousness. 3,10,11,12,13
In the Sarvstivda Abhidhamma, the counterpart of space element is referred to as
k a-dh tu. The space element is either light ( loka) or darkness (tamas) andtherefore it is included in the objective sense-field of the visible (rup yatana).
Besides this, the Sarv stivdins recognize another kind of space which is called
ka and not ka dhtu. It is defined not as space bound by matter, but as that
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which provides room for the movement of matter (yatra r pasya gati). It is omni-
present (sarvagata), eternal (nitya) and its nature is non-obstruction (an varaa-
svabh va). It does not obstruct matter, which freely exists therein. It is also not
obstructed by matter, for it cannot be dislodged by matter. However, space is not
the mere absence of obstruction of matter, but something passively real. Hence, in
the Sarvstivda Abhidhamma, space is elevated to the level of an unconditioned
dhamma. Thus, what the Sarvstivdins call unconditioned space is the space
considered absolutely real and as serving as a receptacle for the existence and
movement of material phenomena. 4,10,12
In the Madhyamaka system Nagarjuna had explained the Buddhist Doctrine of
Dependent Origination in the light of Sunyata which means void or emptiness.
The space in universe is also intimately connected to this Buddhist concept of
nyat or emptiness. Just as nothing can exist without space, so too can nothing
exist without emptiness. Because all phenomena are empty of a static, independent
and permanent existence, they can come into existence, change their forms and
pass on. Emptiness is alternatively understood through the concept of dependent-
origination. It is because things arise by depending on other things that exist. The
notion of a permanent and independent phenomenon therefore, can never exist
without interacting with anything else and itself undergoing some changes in the
process. We should realize the absolute truth behind the concept of emptiness
as absence of self-entity and attachment. We should also understand the fact that
interdependence is the nature of reality in order to eliminate ignorance and free our
minds from the ocean of conditioned, karmic-driven existence. 4,8,10,11
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In physics, there are highly developed mathematical theories which suggest the
empty space of a vacuum actually contains an infinite amount of energy. It is
speculated that this energy has a role in the evolution in the universe. While this is
still an area of controversy and mystery within theoretical physics, it makes for a
rough parallel to the Buddhist concept of empty-particles and the universe arising
out of space. In Buddhist literature, empty space is an important concept in
understanding the origins of the universe. It is traditionally presumed that at the
beginning of a cosmic cycle, the various elements arise from empty space catalyzed
by the karmic winds of sentient beings. From space comes wind or kinetic energy.
From wind comes fire or thermal energy. From fire comes water or fluidity. Finally,
from water comes earth or solidity. 10,11,12 According to Hinduism, these five elements
(space, wind, fire, water, and earth) make up the basis for matter in the universe.
But Buddhism does not accept space as a primary element for matter and regard it
as pa atti, which is based on conceptual constructs without any corresponding
objective reality.
The whole process of cosmo-genesis according to Buddhism is catalyzed by the
actions of living beings or Kamma .
When an action or Kamma is performed by an individual based on lust, anger,
hatred and jealousy, then that action creates an imprint on ones consciousness.
This karmic imprint acts as a seed that lies dormant within consciousness until
someday maturing into a fully ripened fruit or experience. When conditions are
right, this imprint would manifest itself and stir into creation of some new universe
of experience. Thus, in Buddhism, the universe is considered to be the space of our
various kinds of Kammic experiences. In the context of cosmogony, Kamma is what
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catalyzes the formation of a new universe. From the Buddhist perspective, there are
said to be multiple world systems which constantly go through a process of
formation and dissipation across vast expanses of space and time without having
any particular point of beginning. Einstein also accepted this concept and
emphasized on the conduction of volitions activities by human beings. 7,8,10,11
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Conclusion
The expression paramattha (absolute/ultimate) means that which is ultimate, that
which is not further resolvable. The reference is to the dhammas, the ultimate data
of existence. Accordingly, sammuti is conceptual ( kappan-siddha ) and paramattha
is objectively real ( bhva-siddha ). Although paramattha can be designated and
conceptualized by mind, it exists without being designated and conceptualized. In
other words, it is the knowledge which is ultimate. Knowledge is present everywhere
all the time irrespective of whether we perceive it or not. Thus, paramattha-sacca
really means the truth expressed by using the technical terms expressive of the
ultimate elements of existence. Similarly, sammuti-sacca or conventional truth
means the truth expressed by using conventional terms in common parlance. It is
to be noted that no preferential value-judgment should be used to distinguish
between sammuti-sacca and paramattha-sacca while deciphering the doctrine of
the Buddha. 2,3,5
As mentioned in the Aguttaranikya, the Theravada tradition also considers these
as the two ways of presenting the same dhamma . Although the Four Noble Truths
represent four different facts, no preferential value judgment is introduced in
respect of them. One particular truth is not held out as superior or inferior to
another. That is why they are all introduced as Noble Truths ( Ariya-saccni) . All are
equally noble ( ariya ), and all are equally true ( sacca ). None of them impose any
preferential value judgment in respect of each of the other. This concept of non-
value judgment is the most important common feature between ntattha and
neyyattha, and the Four Noble Truths. 1,2,3,5
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During the process of evolution of modern science, the basic elementary
philosophical and logical concepts were already present in our religious practices.
Though the modern scientists discard the concept of a Creator God, but they
recognize the fact that there are a number of philosophical concepts of modern
science embedded in Buddhism, which needs careful exploration. The interpretation
of modern scientific theories, related to the universe and cosmology, in the light of
Abhidhamma perspective of Buddhism is a sincere effort in this direction.
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References
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11.Wallace, B.A.1996. Choosing Reality: A Buddhist View of Physics and the
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