D O S S I E R
F or the scientific community involved in research relying on space
assets, a CNES space science seminar is always a major event to look
forward to. It gives scientists the opportunity to review the latest advances
in their field of research and look at what needs to be done in the years
and the decade ahead.
A space science seminar also provides a focal point for exchange between
scientists and the agency, and a chance for scientists from a
broad range of disciplines—astronomers, geophysi-
cists, physiologists and biologists—to meet. It helps
CNES to plan science programmes by concert-
ing with these communities through its eval-
uation committees, among which the Sci-
ence Programmes Committee or CPS plays
the leading role.
The 12-member CPS is appointed by exec-
utive order. It meets three times a year
on average, sometimes more frequently
if CNES feels the need to focus on a spe-
cific project, and advises the CNES President
on space science policy and programmatic
issues. The CPS was chaired by Gérard Mégie,
who passed away on 5 June. Gérard played a key
advisory role for many years, and he received a vibrant
tribute at the latest seminar in July from all concerned.
The CPS receives input from thematic working groups: five for sciences
of the Universe (astrophysics, Solar System, Sun/heliosphere/magneto-
sphere, fundamental physics and cosmobiology), federated by the CERES*
committee, chaired by M. Blanc; four for Earth observation (solid Earth,
ocean, continental landmasses and atmosphere), federated by the TOSCA*
committee, chaired by M. Diament; one for life science, chaired by A. Hol-
ley; and one for materials science, chaired by R. Borghi. These groups,
which provide direct support to CNES’s Strategy and Programmes Direc-
torate, worked almost non-stop from 2001 to prepare for the seminar on
6 and 7 July.
The CPS is now poring over this seminar’s findings and rec-
ommendations, and will then advise CNES on
which projects it deems the highest priority
or most urgent. At its initial review meet-
ing on 2 September, it confirmed the
importance of maintaining France’s
significant contribution to the
European Space Agency’s science
programmes, mandatory pro-
gramme and Earth Observation
Envelope Programme (EOEP).
In this area, it also acknowl-
edged the need for continuity
of measurements that could
be provided by future GMES
assets, under the purview of
the European Union. It com-
mended the quality of
formation flying pro-
posals selected by the working groups, and proposed that CNES should
immediately give the go-ahead for phase 0 and phase A, so that the
project can be ready to kick off phase B by end 2006. Lastly, it recom-
mended making a start on the Venus project to observe continental
landmasses at high resolution, in partnership with Israel. At its next
meeting scheduled on 15 October, the CPS will decide on short-
term choices, projects and the early phases (0 and A)
of other proposed missions, particularly bilat-
eral cooperation projects, after a more in-
depth review.
All in all, we have an abundance of ideas,
projects and enthusiasm. The ball is
now in CNES’s court to translate them
into reality, working closely with the
scientific community.
Geneviève Debouzy,
CNES Deputy Director
Bernard Dupré,
Acting Chair, CPS
* Comité d'Evaluation sur la Recherche et l'Exploration Spatiales
* Terre, Océan, Surfaces Continentales et Atmosphère
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Every four years,
CNES brings together the
space science community to estab-
lish its medium-term programmatic
science plan.This unique exercise is
unparalleled at any other research
organization.The approach and work-
ing method adopted for this year’s
seminar made a break with the past
and were more akin to a pre-pro-
grammatic symposium. In fact, the
latest seminar was atypical in more
ways than one.Preparations begun
in 2001—subsequently pushed back
on several occasions and preceded
by a pre-seminar in September 2002—
were eventually abandoned as a
result of financial difficulties at CNES
in late 2002 and early 2003, from
which it recovered after revising pro-
grammatic plans during the course
of 2003. As the agency is also keen
to bolster
upstream research activ-
ities under these new plans,the sem-
inar could not have come at a bet-
ter time. CNES President Yannick
d’Escatha took the opportunity to
assure the scientific community that
budgets devoted to science pro-
grammes—in sciences of the Uni-
verse, Earth and environmental sci-
ences,and microgravity sciences—would
remain stable. This was a welcome
message in today’s difficult environ-
ment,shaken by the loss of Columbia
and the grounding of the US space
shuttle,ESA’s revised programme and
the arrival of the European Union as
a new player in space.
The seminar on 6 and 7 July in Paris
was attended by 300 researchers.
The science proposals presented to
CNES well and truly confirmed the
utility of space research activities,
with over 60 projects demonstrat-
ing that space research remains
attuned to real needs and is a fertile
source of innovation.
Europe firstThe seminar yielded a consensus
on the need for Europe to play a
central role,putting research firmly
within a European perspective,even
if this was sometimes at the expense
of historic partnerships. But there
is still plenty of scope for coopera-
tion on small projects.
ESA’s mandatory science programme
was reaffirmed as the number one
priority. Everything points towards
a clarification of the principle of
subsidiarity with respect to Euro-
pean science and national roles.
The adoption of space as a shared
competency with the European
Union is bound to impact policy
and will go beyond the current
remit of the EU’s Research DG and
Framework Programme. Today’s
complex programmatic context
spans national, European, bilat-
eral and multilateral initiatives.
So, rather than all moving in dif-
ferent directions, we should com-
bine our efforts and pursue pro-
jects within a European framework,
as we have already achieved for
Mars. We must accept that this
new context implies a different
approach to space science plan-
ning,including medium-term plans.
CNES must therefore realign its
programmatic plans to develop
new,non-recurring projects fuelled
by a vigorous R&T programme.
Continuity and innovation It is not hard to trace themes recur-
ring from one seminar to another.
CERES* chair Michel Blanc explains:
“Picard is still just as relevant as
PHARAO.The study of Mars is a con-
stant theme.Today, it is being pur-
sued through ESA’s Aurora pro-
gramme,which plans,among other
things, to build a lander demon-
strator. The promise of discoveries
in geoscience and exobiology is
underpinning a major technology
programme to build the next gen-
erations of in-situ instruments.”
The emphasis here is on the
medium term, so as not to leave
13
A boost for phase 0 and phase A of projects, a shift
towards operational observatories, an assured con-
stant budget and projects with an increasingly European flavour
are the trends to emerge
fromthe 2004 CNES space
science seminar at the
Maison de la Chimie, in
July. On the engineering front,
formation flying captured a lot
of attention.
The future of space science
Sustaining a vigorous R&T programme
© N
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DOSSIER BY BRIGITTE THOMAS
14
the United States free to occupy
the terrain on Mars.
Many new lines of research and
thinking are also appearing. For
example, astronomers are grap-
pling with the concept of dark energy
as a possible new cosmological
paradigm.In planetary science, the
systems approach is gaining
widespread acceptance. The idea
of data access centres has entered
the debate concerning the organi-
zation of French research. In life sci-
ence,new research themes in plan-
etary exploration are emerging to
study how the nervous system and
bone system develop and function,
and the impact of nutrition (see
interview with André Berthoz p.20).
And materials science is adopting
a new approach and positioning
itself as an application-driven sci-
ence (see interview with Bernard
Zappoli p.18). In particular, physi-
cists are showing a strong com-
mitment to space transport and
exploration,working with existing
inter-organization structures.
The issues involved in transferring
space assets to operational struc-
tures or research observatories—
for example, to Meteosat, Spot
Image, CLS and Galileo—are still
with us. In the past, such transfers
were heavily funded by space agen-
cies. Today, transferring assets to
operational structures requires a
new approach based on a system-
oriented view of satellites geared
towards producing data (like GMES),
with support from space agencies
but also from other quarters. New
channels need to be conceived by
identifying users and finding new
sources of funding. This is one of
the objectives of the TOSCA group,
as its chair Michel Diament (see
interview p.15) explains: “Improv-
ing spatial and temporal resolution
is obviously a priority, but above all
we are looking to ensure conti-
nuity through space-based obser-
vatories and set up data access
centres to provide unin-
terrupted monitor-
ing of the envi-
ronment
and more accurate predictions.”
It is these social challenges that are
encouraging space research to
become an increasingly applica-
tion-driven science.
Transitional technologiesToday’s most pressing science
issues are driving the evolution
of space technologies. For exam-
ple, systems physics is calling for
large telescopes; astronomy and
fundamental physics for clocks
and inertial sensors, high-angu-
lar-resolution imaging instru-
ments capable of detecting grav-
itational waves and high-energy
observations using large focal
lengths (hence the value of for-
mation flying); planetary explo-
ration for in-situ analysis on the
surface of planets and sample
return for geosciences and exo-
biology; and space environment
physics and studies of the Sun-
Earth relationship are calling for
constellation flying and in-situ
measurements of the solar corona.
In Michel Blanc’s view (see inter-
view p. 17), “we need a multi-year
D O S S I E R
© E
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Y Interferometry to detect exoplanets,large-focal-length telescopesfor X-ray and gamma-ray astronomy
The utility of formation flyingDominique Séguéla, Formation Flying R&T Programme Manager, CNES
Paul Duchon, CNES
E merging science missions discussed at the CNES
space science seminar call for ever-larger instru-
ments that would require unreasonably large satel-
lites to carry them—too large to loft into orbit with
current launcher technologies. Structures capable
of deploying or inflating in space are also restricted
by their dimensional and rigidity limits. So, the only
conceivable way to deploy very large instruments
today is formation flying.
The concept of formation flying is based on con-
trolling the position and orientation of several satel-
lites very precisely to constitute a “virtual rigid plat-
form”. It is this precise control, performed autonomously
by the satellites themselves, that distinguishes a for-
mation from a constellation. The number of satel-
lites flying in formation may vary greatly, from just
two to as many as several tens, depending on the
mission. As a general rule, satellites in a formation
are not identical: the “pieces” of the instrument are
not the same on all the satellites, and one of the
satellites often plays the lead role in holding for-
mation.
Formation flying is particularly well suited to astro-
physics missions—like ESA’s Darwin mission or
Pegase—at a Lagrange point 1.5 million kilometres
from Earth to discover and observe extrasolar plan-
ets. These missions require fine control of the satel-
lites’ relative positions to within a few milliarcsec-
onds (Darwin) or 100 milliarcseconds (Pegase) along
their line of sight.
Other missions, devoted to X-ray and gamma-ray
astronomy (Simbol-X, Max) or observation of the
Sun’s corona (Aspics), are not quite so demanding
and centimetre precision of positional control is suf-
ficient. Earth observation missions using radar inter-
ferometry, such as the interferometric cartwheel or
Micromega, are also envisaged. Again, control require-
ments are less strict, but perturbations are a lot
stronger since the satellites orbit at low altitude.
Beyond the missions CNES has already selected to
begin phase 0, formation flying also holds out the
possibility of much more futuristic astrophysics mis-
sions observing across the spectrum from the infrared
to the X-ray and gamma-ray regions. An example is
based on deployable Fresnel plate lenses spanning
a few metres to a few tens of metres, with a Fresnel
surface pattern (like lighthouse lenses) to focus light
by diffraction onto a focal plane tens or thousands
of kilometres away.
Formation flying thus affords the ability to conduct
very ambitious missions much cheaper than with a
single satellite, by adapting existing spacecraft
buses—Proteus-type minisatellite buses and Myri-
ade-type microsatellite buses—and using current
launchers like Ariane 5 and Soyuz. ■
y What has brought Earth observation research to
what seems today to be a turning point ?
Michel Diament: We already possess basic data at a
global scale, but not always with good resolution
and accuracy. That’s why we need new instruments
or combinations of instruments to improve our
understanding of the Earth system and predict its
evolution. Advances in technology and methodol-
ogy will be required to achieve this. Paradoxically, it
is sometimes easier for us to obtain certain kinds of
data about Mars than about our own planet. Learn-
ing more about the water cycle, greenhouse gases,
15
science programme to demonstrate
formation flying and a small mis-
sions programme based on
microsatellites.” While the Paris
seminar confirmed the need to
consolidate the microsatellite
product line, which responds to a
real need, it went further than a
mere rehash of the conclusions of
the Saint Malo seminar. Forma-
tion flying is where attention must
be focused. It now remains to
establish if the concept is techni-
cally feasible.
Wrapping up the seminar, Jean-
François Minster, CEO of IFREMER,
the French institute of marine
research and exploration, stressed
the importance of acknowledg-
ing that “science needs to adopt a
holistic approach embracing all
aspects from technology through
to outreach. Deciding which pro-
jects to keep is not difficult. The
hard part is putting everything
together, from the technology pro-
gramme to forming the project
team and selecting the PI, and from
data access to the communication
strategy, which should be built into
projects from the outset, as it is in
other countries. Because we have
to raise the profile of science to
defend it effectively.”
The CPS’s task in the months ahead
will be to finalize CNES’s space sci-
ence programme, on the basis of
the scientific community’s work
and taking into account staffing
issues. In this regard, the CIO inter-
organization committee has initi-
ated a review of how laboratories’
human resources should evolve to
meet emerging needs and offset
the wave of retirements expected
in the coming decade.CNES is ready
to provide more people for project
management and development of
science instruments, coordinating
its support with partner organi-
zations under an overall plan the
CIO is currently working on. ■
* Comité d'Evaluation sur la Recherche
et l'Exploration Spatiales (Space research
and exploration evaluation committee)
© C
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E arth is a complex and fascinating object that we do not yet fully
understand. It is also unique in the way humans interact with its
natural environment.The key issues facing us in the future pose a number of
technical and methodological challenges to improve data accuracy and reso-
lution,and to acquire new data to better understand,monitor and predict the mech-
anisms driving the Earth system. All fields of investigation involved in this endeav-
our need to interact. And we need continuous, complementary measurements at a human
scale. For Michel Diament, who chairs the TOSCA* committee, integrated observatories are the
way to go.
Earth observation
Integrating observatorieswithin data access centresInterview with Michel Diament, TOSCA Chair
16
sea level variations and the origin
of Earth’s magnetic field are just
some of the big challenges that
lie ahead. We are ready to make
the leap from research to envi-
ronmental monitoring, and we
need to prepare for and support
the transition to operational pro-
grammes and applications, as we
have succeeded in doing in
oceanography with Mercator. To
fulfil these objectives in funda-
mental and applied research, we
must observe Earth over the long
term while seeking to assure data
quality and acquire complemen-
tary measurements.
y The value of restructuring
Earth observation around obser-
vatories would appear vital. Is
this move being driven by users
or is it the only way for EO to sur-
vive as a discipline?
M.D:We need continuity of mea-
surements on the ground and
in space. Space-based mea-
surements have become
an essential component
of Earth observa-
tion systems.
Take vol-
canology, for example.We can use
radar interferometry or space
geodesy techniques to monitor
building displacement before,
during and after a volcano erup-
tion. Or oceanography, which com-
bines satellite altimetry data with
in-situ measurements. We need
integrated measuring systems,
observatories capable of acquir-
ing ground data (on land, at sea,
and from the ocean depths), data
from airborne or balloon-borne
platforms, and satellite data. For
future missions, we must define
new sensor combinations to estab-
lish long-term space-based obser-
vatories. Lastly,we need to develop
thematic data access centres to aid
the many users working in Earth
observation. So the shift we’re see-
ing is being driven by user require-
ments and is a vital development
for Earth observation.
y So, what are your priority
avenues of research in the years
ahead?
M. D: France has a history of pio-
neering achievements in Earth
observation.For example,the mete-
orology observatory at the Parc
Montsouris in Paris was one of the
first of its kind; and in Brest, we
have obtained one of the longest-
running time series of tide gauge
measurements in
the world. We aim
to pursue this tra-
dition of French sci-
ence into the 21st
century through
integrated obser-
vatories reaching
from the Earth’s sur-
face to space. We
must now strive to
improve the spatial
and temporal reso-
lution of observa-
tions, which will
involve R&T studies and develop-
ing new sensors. Our objectives
are threefold: ensuring continu-
ity of observatories, which implies
that CNES must partner with other
organizations such as INSU, IRD
and IFREMER**,for example;acquir-
ing new EO data to meet new sci-
entific challenges; and sustaining
a vigorous R&T programme. For
solid Earth sciences, that will mean
pursuing measurements of mag-
netic field variations after Oersted
and CHAMP, and producing high-
resolution digital elevation mod-
els (10-metre vertical accuracy, 20-
metre horizontal accuracy); for
oceanography, it will mean new
series of altimetry satellites to suc-
ceed Jason and Envisat, measur-
ing ocean colour and designing a
dedicated sea-state mission; for
continental landmasses, we will
need continuous high- and medium-
resolution optical observations to
follow on from SPOT and POLDER,
and a high-resolution (100 metres)
infrared imaging mission with a
daily revisit capability; and for the
atmosphere, continuity of radia-
tion balance measurements after
Calipso and Parasol, and an atmo-
spheric chemistry mission to mon-
itor pollution at a spatial resolu-
tion of 1 to 10 kilometres, every
hour. Lastly, R&T efforts will need
to focus on areas like formation
flying,high-resolution observation
from geostationary orbit, lidar and
P-band radar to prepare the mis-
sions of the future. ■
* Terre, Océan, Surfaces Continentales et
Atmosphère (Earth, ocean, continental land-
masses and atmosphere committee)
** INSU: INstitut des Sciences de l’Univers,
the French national institute for universe
sciences
IRD: Institut de Recherche par le Développe-
ment, the French development research
institute
IFREMER: Institut FRançais de recherche
pour l’Exploitation de la MER, the French
institute of marine research and exploration
D O S S I E R
Y Space component of an Earth-observation system
© Ip
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17
y Are you optimistic about ESA’s
Mars plans?
Michel Blanc: The two big issues
facing us are: How do we respond
to the scientific community’s desire
to get to Mars and how do we
accommodate this ambition,which
CNES has pursued for many years
at national level, within a Euro-
pean programme? The key science
goals of Mars exploration in geo-
science and exobiology fold natu-
rally into ESA’s Aurora programme.
But Aurora is still awaiting official
go-ahead. France must advance
this project, in particular to con-
vince our German and Italian col-
leagues. Ultimately, we will cer-
tainly work with our American
colleagues, too.But the most urgent
priority right now is to get our
European programme on the rails.
y There’s been a lot of talk about
formation flying projects. How is
this technology relevant to your
field of work?
M. B: Astronomy observations
are evolving in two directions:
towards systems with long base-
lines and separate collectors (inter-
ferometric systems), for exam-
ple to acquire very-high-resolu-
tion imagery of stars or extrasolar
planetary systems; and towards
systems with large focal lengths,
in particular for observing high-
energy objects. To do that, we
need to operate separate tele-
scope elements together, spaced
tens or hundreds of metres apart
to begin with, and in the future
thousands of kilometres apart,
by controlling their positions with
extreme accuracy. That’s what
we mean by “formation flying”,
which represents a real leap-
ahead technology for future-gen-
eration satellites. It’s a concept
that requires a great deal of rigour.
We have to position the satellites
relative to one another, to within
a few centimetres at least and
sometimes with sub-millimetre
accuracy. In comparison, con-
stellation flying is less constraining.
It meets the current need in mag-
netospheric physics to explore
space in three dimensions at dif-
ferent scales, by acquiring mea-
surements simultaneously from
a constellation of accordingly
spaced satellites.
y Acquiring systematic in-situ
surface measurements on other
planets seems to be the other lead-
ing-edge technology right now.
M. B: We have completed our ini-
tial exploration of the Solar System,
with the exception of Pluto, and
orbited almost all of the planets
from Saturn to Mercury (which we
will achieve with the forthcoming
Bepi-Colombo mission). The next
step is to land on the surface of plan-
ets and small celestial objects to
study them using the tools of the
geophysicist and the geochemist,
rather than those of the astronomer.
That’s the best way to analyse a solid
planet, but Europe is yet to accom-
plish such a feat on the surface of
another planet. This new in-situ
exploration approach confirms the
prospect that we will be sending
geologists to Mars in 30 years’time!
Science of the Universe
Mars still taking pride of placeInterview with Michel Blanc, CERES Chair
T he list of space science issues
involved in exploration of the
Universe is a long one. Astronomy and
fundamental physics, planetary exploration, physics of
the space environment and the Sun-Earth relationship are just
some areas fuelling revolutionary technologies in the effort to push
back the frontiers of discovery. Formation and constellation flying, and techniques
for in-situ analysis on the surface of other planets are promising concepts. The first
step is to test their feasibility through demonstration missions. Michel Blanc, who
chairs the CERES* committee, explains how far we have come.
© E
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y The new trend this year would
seem to be towards viewing mate-
rials science as an “application-
driven” or “use-inspired” science.
What does that mean exactly?
Bernard Zappoli: First, we need to
be clear that all science is by defi-
nition use-inspired. A researcher
discovers what already exists in
nature. S/he conceives models to
explain what s/he observes in the
world around us, and then stores
that away in a repository of knowl-
edge. An engineer builds some-
thing that does not exist in nature
on the basis of what the researcher
has described, and in that sense is
a creator. So, any scientific discov-
ery can serve to build something
new. Microgravity research is fun-
damentally important, because it
lets us see things we cannot see
on the ground and reveals new
mechanisms and laws of interest
to a broad community.That is what
our materials science programme
is trying to achieve.The space sem-
inar emphasized the close rela-
tionship between materials sci-
ence knowledge and space
technologies. It underlined the
value for CNES and major research
organizations of strengthening the
ties that bind research and appli-
cations in this field.To make mate-
rials science an application-driven
science, we must seek to leverage
synergies between the two, iden-
y How about fundamental physics?
M. B: Fundamental physics is a key
area in which France is playing a
leading role. We can only survey
space and time and study how they
are related to gravitation in space,
and that calls for extremely sophis-
ticated measuring instruments. A
major national effort is now under-
way with the PHARAO and Micro-
scope projects to test the equiva-
lence principle and study gravitation
at microscopic to Solar System scales,
which is set to yield very important
results in fundamental physics, as
well as precise positioning (with
the Galileo programme) and time-
keeping applications. In the not-
too-distant future, we can expect
the atomic time reference to be
provided from space. ■
* Comité d'Evaluation sur la Recherche et l'Ex-
ploration Spatiales (space research and explo-
ration evaluation committee)
D O S S I E R
R esearch into combustion, granular media, foams, emulsions and
supercritical fluids will logically lead to a wealth of applications, mak-
ing materials science a truly application-driven science. Bernard Zappoli, who leads
CNES’s materials science programme, explains.
Materials science
New fields
of research emergingInterview with Bernard Zappoli, CNES materials science programme manager
18
Y Proposed geophysical station on Mars
© E
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tify common ground between sci-
ence and technology issues and
then address those issues.For exam-
ple, sloshing of cryogenic propel-
lant inside a tank and pressure
changes during the gaseous phase—
key to maintaining control and
mechanical strength during long
orbital transfers, as for the Rosetta
mission—are technology and sci-
ence issues. So are capillary phe-
nomena during phase transitions
when dealing with propellant leaks
or the flow of caesium in capillary
tubes. Researchers could find new
fields to explore in applied science,
while engineers could draw off-
the-shelf results from the corpus
of knowledge acquired by labora-
tories or orient researchers towards
new areas of investigation. We’re
not trying to turn research labo-
ratories into design offices or get
industry to perform fundamental
research. Simply, we need to care-
fully identify who does what rather
than who thinks they can. CNES
could play a key role here clearing
the way for future programmes.
There are plenty of ideas,so it’s just
a matter of will and coordination.
y Is the planned decommis-
sioning of the International Space
Station in 2016 limiting your
activities?
B. Z: The ISS is a large-scale facil-
ity that has been a magnet for all
microgravity experiment resources,
to the detriment of other tech-
niques such as sounding rockets,
parabolic flights, drop shafts and
Photon capsules. It has always been
turned towards the future. Indeed,
the instrument racks developed
by ESA are yet to fly. By virtue of
its design inherited from tech-
nologies used on Russia’s Mir space
station, DECLIC (Dispositif pour l’E-
tude de la Croissance et des LIquide
Critiques)—the mainstay of our
national programme—is an instru-
ment that requires very little astro-
naut time. And, because it takes
up very little space, it doesn’t need
the US space shuttle and can be
launched by the ATV or by a Soyuz,
and installed anywhere inside the
U.S. module. However, the limited
number of shuttle flights to the
ISS will probably impact DECLIC’s
schedule. On the other hand, more
than its planned decommission-
ing, it is the probable shift in ISS
utilization that could constrain
the ESA programme to which we
are very attached, particularly with
regard to the use of instrument
racks in the European module.
y What new avenues of research
emerged from the 2004 space sci-
ence seminar?
B. Z: Since the Arcachon seminar
in 1998, experiments on parabolic
flights and sounding rockets have
brought new areas of research to
the fore. These include the rheol-
ogy of heavy, humid foams and
the response of granular media
and critical fluids to calibrated
vibrations. New experiments will
be performed in instruments devel-
oped by ESA. Research projects
focusing on combustion have also
started to emerge, for example to
study three-dimensional droplet
arrays and levitation of dense
sprays (over a long period) to under-
stand how flames propagate at
high pressure. Such projects will
help to mature combustion tech-
nologies needed to restart engines
in orbit and increase chamber pres-
sure. For critical fluid research,
DECLIC will be used to investigate
corrosion, combustion in water
and dissolution. In materials sci-
ence, growth of lamellar eutectic
materials and the formation of
massive microstructures have been
identified as a priority area of
research, and will also be studied
in DECLIC.
The science community has iden-
tified fields of research where
microgravity is contributing sig-
nificantly to advancing knowledge.
We must take note of the appli-
cations side of the research effort,
in relation with exploration pro-
jects,and make the transition from
research in space to research for
space.
y So, is materials science turn-
ing it sights towards Europe?
B. Z: France is maintaining a strong
contribution to the European pro-
gramme. At the same time, ESA
is implementing a programmatic
structure to invite calls for ideas,
establish groups of experts, and
select and put together European
research groups to compete with
those in the United States. This
shift will only benefit science if
we rethink the way CNES, ESA and
working groups function: for exam-
ple, ESA could issue calls for ideas
to put together European groups
converging toward specific pro-
jects, while CNES could select Euro-
pean research actions and assign
budgets to laboratories. That
would be the logical way to oper-
ate a true network of centres. We
must experiment, and I believe
in experiments more than I believe
in models.
y You have underlined the need
to strengthen French-Russian coop-
eration through the Krit project.
What will this project lead to?
B. Z: Russia approached us to study
the effects of vibrations on criti-
cal fluids, since CNES has acted as
a focal point for nurturing inter-
nationally renowned expertise,
and has itself acquired unrivalled
engineering prowess in this area.
They also talked to ESA, which nat-
urally pointed them to us. As a
result, ESA has agreed to fund the
instrument, Russia the launch and
operations, and CNES will coordi-
nate the project. Krit therefore pre-
figures what could be a truly Euro-
pean approach. ■
19
y One of the most striking effects on collision inelasticity
y Topological transformation caused byshearing of a dry foam
y Side view of a eutectic solidification front
© C
nes
Y Gravity has major effects on the development of many vital functions(here, amphibians and small mammals). Space is ideal for studying these
effects. Gravity also exerts a big influence on bones, muscles, nutri-tion mechanisms and plants. Experts in these fields are now
devising new projects and instruments for fundamentalresearch.
y What new avenues of research
emerged from the 2004 space sci-
ence seminar?
Alain Berthoz: Life science in fact
covers several fields of research. A
major new development this year
is the ties that some fields are forg-
ing to achieve integrative physiol-
ogy. For example, the science com-
munities researching muscles and
bones are working more closely
with those focusing on the nervous
system. A new community is also
looking at nutrition aspects. At the
same time, the two leading areas
of life science research—the car-
diovascular system and neuro-
sciences—are also working
together on mechanisms
or spatial orientation,
coordination of
movements
and
the regulation of peripheral vas-
cularization.
In neurosciences, new issues are
emerging to do with perception,
spatial memory and motor systems.
An issue of both fundamental and
applied interest is dual adaptation.
For example,can a motorist’s brain
stay adapted to driving on the right
in France and on the left in the United
Kingdom? For future flights to the
Moon and Mars,a centrifuge could
be used to maintain a crew’s adap-
tation to gravity. But will humans
be able to stay adapted to gravity
and to microgravity during the jour-
ney, or to low gravity on the Moon
or Mars? This is a broad problem of
multiple parallel processing in the
brain that also impacts clinical reha-
bilitation methods on Earth.
New brain research to find answers
will be made possible by the SENS
project.SENS is a multi-user instru-
ment designed to succeed Cogni-
lab, which flew on the Mir space
station. Among other things, SENS
will comprise a computer and periph-
erals to test sensorimotor functions
and memory; an oculometer; a vir-
tual reality headset; a force-feed-
back stick; an acoustic stimulator;
and a motion measurement sys-
tem. In other words,a complete lab
for exploring neural functions that
could also be used to study tele-
operation and telepresence. This
instrument could be combined with
measurements of brain activity
using the MEM electroencephalo-
gram system developed by ESA. For
the first time ever, we will be able
to see what goes on inside the
human brain in space!
This integrated device will com-
plement the Cardiolab and Car-
diomed instruments for the explo-
ration of cardiovascular function,
and the Teresa robotic remote-
scanning instrument designed to
explore cardiovascular functions
remotely from Earth.
Several research laboratories have
proposed new projects to study the
development of sensory receptors
and the nervous system in rats and
mice. A very active community is
also concentrating on the effects
of gravity on plants. And biologists
are calling for a dedicated cell-cul-
ture instrument.
y Are there any international part-
nership projects pursuing space
research in life science?
A.B:Life science research teams are
all working with partner laborato-
ries in Europe, Russia, the United
States,Canada and around the world.
L ife science research—
whether into the effects
of gravity on the way life
evolves, develops and func-
tions, or applied space
medicine research—is help-
ing us to better understand
the human body. Scientists are
on the verge of new dis-
coveries about the car-
diovascular system, the
brain, nervous system,
muscles and bones,nutri-
tion, plants and much more
besides, fostering new ties between science communities and new
international partnerships. The life science community is pursuing a two-track research agenda: first, it is working on fun-
damental research projects, some focusing on animals and humans, to ascertain how gravity affects life forms; and second,
it is studying human adaptation to life in space with a view to exploring the Moon and Mars. These areas of research are complemen-
tary in more ways than one. Alain Berthoz, Professor at the Collège de France, explains.
20
D O S S I E R
Life science
Probing deeper inside the human brainInterview with Alain Berthoz, Professor at the Collège de France
© G
.Mit
hieu
x et
P.Be
snar
d/In
serm
© C
ollè
ge d
e Fra
nce
The community is fully involved in
ESA programmes and we have worked
with the team preparing the VISION
of Europe for future flights. They
have already flown experiments on
many spaceflights as part of inter-
national projects,and some of them
are playing a leading role.The French
and Japanese life science commu-
nities are cooperating in many areas
on ground-based bilateral programmes,
but not in space. The remarkable
quality of Japanese research in neu-
roscience and its interest in links
between neuroscience and robotics,
for example,is proving important in
addressing issues related to teleop-
eration and telepresence for plane-
tary exploration. The explosion of
space science in China also makes it
a potential partner. We are hoping
to forge closer ties with India,where
there is a neuroscience community
and a vibrant computer science
research community involved in
neuro-informatics,as we are big data
consumers, particularly in brain
research. Here again, there are new
opportunities for us. And we must
not forget our continuing close ties
with Russian research laboratories,
with whom we have cooperated so
fruitfully in the past.
y The utility of CADMOS is already
well proven.What role do you see
for MEDES?
A. B. : CADMOS provides vital sup-
port in developing and testing
instruments, and in monitoring
missions for our research com-
munity. It also has a fundamental
role to play in cementing ties
between scientists and CNES engi-
neers. MEDES has a dual role as a
space clinic and in supporting lab-
oratories looking to exploit space
assets. It must therefore help to
drive forward European research
projects and encourage coopera-
tion initiatives and applications
to biomedical fields. ■
y Catching a ball:the effect of gravity on sensorimotor functions is a centraltopic of fundamental research. It is also important in studying human adap-tation to space for interplanetary exploration missions to the Moon andMars. What’s new in projects now emerging is the use of equipment to mon-itor brain activity (MEMS and SENS instruments) and virtual reality for tele-operations and telepresence.
21
A to ZNew projects
in the offingMarie-José Vaissière, CNES
This A to Z is not an exhaustive list.
Rather, it provides a glimpse
of projects among the 60 discussed
at the CNES space science seminar,
some new and some back in favour.
All will be subjected to close scrutiny
in the coming months.
AltiKa • Aspics • DECLIC • DUNE • Eclairs •
Interferometric cartwheel • Mars network • Max •
Microméga • NEO • Pégase • Picard • Pollution •
Sanpam • SENS • Simbol-X • Swarm • Swimsat •
Taranis
© N
asa
D O S S I E R
22
A to ZNew projects
in the offing
Marie-José Vaissière, CNES
A
● AltiKa - Earth observation - The key feature of
this project to develop a Ka-band (35 GHz) altimetry instrument for space
oceanography applications is its very high altimetric resolution. AltiKa is
designed to complement Jason-2 in terms of spatial and temporal cover-
age. It could also find applications for studying continental waters and ice
sheets. AltiKa will be a compact instrument able to ride as a passenger on
a mission of opportunity or on a dedicated microsatellite. Its first scheduled
flight is being envisaged as part of a follow-on mission to Envisat, around
2008-2009. ●
D
● DECLIC - Mate-
rials science - This
mini-laboratory comprises
an ancillary module pro-
viding mechanical, thermal
and optical diagnostics, and
a locker to accommodate inserts for specific experiments. DECLIC (Disposi-
tif d’Etude de la Croissance et des Liquides Critiques) will allow micrograv-
ity investigations near the critical point, in particular combustion of super-
critical water, and solidification of transparent model materials. CNES is
prime contractor on this project, partnered by the French national scientific
research centre CNRS and the French atomic energy agency CEA. Delivery
of the flight model to NASA is scheduled in November 2005 for launch in
the first half of 2006. ●
● DUNE - Study and exploration of the Univers -
This cosmology observation mission aims to detect and characterize dark
matter by studying and detecting the most distant supernovae, and by inves-
tigating gravitational shear (gravitational lens effect). This research theme
has been proposed in response to ESA’s 2004 call for ideas. The phase 0
study, scheduled to begin in 2005, will seek to establish the main lines of the
mission concept. DUNE (Dark UNiverse Explorer) is a wide-field imager.
French atomic energy agency CEA and the IAP Paris astrophysics institute. ●
E
● Eclairs - Study and exploration of the Uni-
verse - This science mission aims to detect and characterize gamma-
ray bursts. Before the end of the decade, Eclairs will guarantee the ability to
observe 100 gamma-ray bursts every year, thus making a unique contribu-
tion to two extremely rich areas of astronomy research: understanding the
phenomenon of bursts and how they relate to cosmology. The project is
expected to employ a Myriade-type microsatellite to observe gamma-ray
bursts—no matter how short-lived—in the gamma ray and visible portions
of the spectrum. The Eclairs mission will be conducted by a team of partner
laboratories, including in France the DAPNIA astrophysics, particle physics
and nuclear physics department at CEA’s Saclay facility; CESR, the French space
radiation research centre, and the LATT astrophysics laboratory; the LAM astro-
physics laboratory in Marseille and the Observatoire de Haute Provence; IAP,
the Paris astrophysics institute; and the APC astroparticles and cosmology
research federation, Paris. ●
● Aspics - Study and exploration of the
Universe - This solar physics mission aims to observe the Sun’s
corona at close quarters, at a distance of about 7,000 kilometres. Aspics
will have the capability to conduct fine observations of UV phenomena dif-
ficult to see from Earth. Two
satellites orbiting in for-
mation will make up a
coronograph. The first
“occulting” satellite will hide
the Sun’s disk, leaving only
its corona visible, while the
second “observing” satel-
lite will measure visible UV
phenomena. The two satel-
lites will be spaced 100
metres apart, their posi-
tions controlled to within one centimetre, and measurements will be accu-
rate to one millimetre. Phase 0 studies are expected to begin this year.
If the Aspics project gets the final go-ahead in 2006, it could be ready
for launch between 2010 and 2012. ●
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23
● Max - Study
and exploration
of the Universe
- With sensitivity nearly
double that of existing
instruments, Max offers
extraordinary potential for
fine gamma-ray spec-
troscopy. Observing nuclear
gamma rays is one of the keys to fundamental questions concerning the
structure and evolution of the Universe, in particular about matter cycles
and how matter behaves in extreme conditions. Following in the footsteps
of the Claire gamma astronomy experiments, this mission will tell us more
about black holes, compact objects and gamma-ray bursts—high-energy
phenomena capable of generating about 400-500 keV. Max will be an
astronomy observatory consisting of two satellites in formation, with a “lens”
satellite focusing gamma rays onto a “detector” satellite to achieve a focal
length of approximately 90 metres. The relative position of the satellites will
be controlled to within one centimetre, and the focusing satellite will be
pointed with a precision of about 10 arcseconds. Phase 0 studies are sched-
uled to begin this year and project go-ahead is expected in 2006.
CESR space radiation research centre. ●
● Micromega - Earth observation - This mis-
sion aims to precisely measure Earth’s gravity field by studying orbit per-
turbations of a formation of three or four satellites in low-Earth orbit. Micromega
builds on the heritage of GRACE (Gravity Recovery And Climate Experiment,
to measure temporal variations in the gravity field) and GOCE (Gravity Field
and Steady-State Ocean Circulation Explorer, to provide precise, high-res-
olution observations of the gravity field). The satellites will carry accelerom-
eters capable of distinguishing gravitational forces from the surface forces
acting on the satellites. A laser link will be used to control the relative veloc-
ity of the two satellites, whose position will be determined by GPS. The French
aerospace research agency ONERA will be a project partner, supplying the
accelerometers in particular. The project—which has not yet entered phase
0—was initiated by GRGS, the French space geodesy research centre. ●
y
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M
● Marsnetwork- Study and exploration of the Universe - The
Mars network mission aims to deploy a network of small landers on the
surface of Mars to study its climate, carry out seismic and magnetic sound-
ing measurements, and acquire geodetic data. The network principle involves
operating sensors across the planet’s surface simultaneously. Such time-
correlated measurements will yield new data that could not be obtained
otherwise. We know that at least three stations will be needed to triangu-
late Marsquakes. The project’s central aim is to study Mars’ inner structure
using seismology techniques. Now that the reliability of landing systems is
proven, mission planners are leaning towards sending four stations, which
would be relatively light and low power. Since the stations would not have
enough power on board to send science data directly to Earth, a relay satel-
lite will be used in Martian orbit. It is now planned to pursue the mission
within a new framework, possibly through ESA’s Aurora programme, NASA’s
Scout mission in 2011, or with the Canadian Space Agency. Phase 0 is sched-
uled to start in 2005, followed by project selection in 2006 for a target launch
date in late 2011. ●
I
● Interferometric cartwheel - The chief
objective of the interferometric cartwheel mission is to produce a global dig-
ital elevation model of the Earth, in other words, to precisely measure ter-
rain elevation at every point on the surface of the globe. The project intends
to fly three passive radar
microsatellites in for-
mation, in low-Earth orbit,
in the vicinity of an active
radar imager. These
microsatellites would
rotate about a fictional
point a few tens of kilo-
metres from the active
radar and retrieve part of the radar beam after it has been backscattered
by the surface. The data acquired will make it possible for the first time to
map the entire Earth with metre accuracy, in just one year. The interfero-
metric cartwheel could also conduct secondary missions, for example to
measure ocean currents or demonstrate how data processing could improve
the resolution of the active radar imagery. The main mission partners will
be the imaging radar operator, and possibly Germany for data processing.
The preliminary project has reached phase A. No decision has yet been
taken to move to phase B. ●
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D O S S I E R
A to Z cont.
● Pollution - Earth observation - This mis-
sion, currently in the concept study phase, aims to monitor chemical pollu-
tion in the lower layers of Earth’s atmosphere. Pollution is an innovative
satellite mission that would complement ground measurement networks,
providing continuous, uniform temporal and spatial coverage of industri-
ally developed regions. The system’s instruments will be based on infrared
spectrometers, an area where CNES has acquired engineering expertise
on the IASI project. Atmospheric chemistry missions are also being defined
at European level, to achieve the level of scientific and engineering excel-
lence needed to meet operational requirements, as part of the Global Mon-
itoring for Environment and Security programme (GMES). Data collected will
be assimilated into models to complement ground data and guide Euro-
pean policy decisions concerning industrial emissions, energy and trans-
port, health and ecology, and other environmental protection issues. Pol-
lution is a partnership mission between science laboratories and national
agencies in charge of energy, the environment and disaster management.
A phase 0 study got underway in mid-2004, and a team of CNES engineers
and a mission group of scientific experts is working to define technical spec-
ifications. The objective of this phase is to identify obstacles and initiate R&T
actions if needed in order to converge, within the next year or two, toward
a single mission concept that could be operational around 2012. ●
S
● SANPAM - Study and exploration of the
Universe - SANPAM (Satellite pour l’ANalyse Polarisée des Anisotropies
Micro-ondes) intends to measure the cosmic microwave background in the
submillimetre range. These measurements will enable scientists to pursue
their research into the primitive Universe after ESA’s Planck-Surveyor mis-
sion. A phase 0 study to flesh out the concept is expected. IAS space astro-
physics institute, Orsay. ●
P
● Pegase -
Study and exploration of the Universe - Pegase
is an infrared interferometry demonstrator mission aimed at understand-
ing how stars and planetary systems form. It is part of ESA’s Darwin science
mission to study Earth-like exoplanets. Pegase will fly three satellites in for-
mation to explore the concept of seven satellites imagined for Darwin. Two
of the satellites will each carry a mirror inclined at 45° with a pointing accu-
racy of around 0.1 arcsecond to catch light from stars. This light will be
reflected to a central recombining satellite with two opposing telescopes
each pointing at one of the mirrors. High-precision optical systems on the
recombining satellite will merge the infrared radiation from the two “mir-
ror” satellites. The mirror satellites could be spaced up to 500 metres apart.
The decision to go ahead with the project will be taken in 2006. IAS space
astrophysics institute. ●
● Picard - Study and exploration of the Uni-
verse - Picard is a purely scientific mission to observe the Sun and how
it affects weather conditions on Earth. It will measure the Sun’s diameter,
sunspot movements, the solar constant and radiometry at certain wave-
lengths. The payload will comprise three instruments: a telescope developed
by CNRS’s aeronomy research laboratory; a radiometer developed by the
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● NEO (Near Earth
Object) - Study
and exploration
of the Universe - This Solar System exploration mission plans
to study primitive asteroids on a potential Earth-crossing trajectory. A satel-
lite will be placed into orbit around an asteroid to drop a Rosetta-type lan-
der onto its surface and carry out in-situ measurements of its chemical com-
position. The mission will address science issues related to the formation of
the Solar System, as well as the social issues posed by the risk of an aster-
oid impact. The scope of the project goes beyond science programmes and
could involve the European Space Agency and European Union member
countries. CNES will complete a phase 0 study in house in 2005. ●
Royal Meteorological Insti-
tute of Belgium (IRMB); and
a second radiometer devel-
oped by the Physico-Mete-
orological Observatory of
Davos (PMOD) in Switzer-
land. Picard is built around
the Myriades system, with
a generic ground segment
and a near-generic spacecraft bus. The project was frozen in 2003 and a
decision was expected at the latest meeting of CNES’s Science Programmes
Committee (CPS) in October. If approved, the mission would be launched at
the start of the next ascending phase of the solar cycle, in 2008. ●
25
● Swarm - Earth observat ion - Swarm is the
next Opportunity Mission in ESA’s Earth Explorer programme. It will consist of
three satellites carrying magnetometers and placed in orbits optimized to
sense the different sources of Earth’s magnetic field. CNES will supply the
instruments: a first magnetometer will acquire absolute measurements of
the magnetic field to calibrate the other payload instruments, which will take
three-axis readings. The magnetometer will be built by the LETI electronics,
technology and instrumentation laboratory at CEA’s Grenoble facility. Target
launch date: 2009. ●
● Swimsat - Earth observation - Swimsat (Sur-
face Waves Investigation and Monitoring from SATellite) is a candidate ESA
Opportunity Mission that will seek to measure certain sea-state spectral
properties, such as the directional wave spectrum (direction, wavelength
and height of waves). Swimsat will carry a multi-beam, real-aperture radar
operating in Ku band that could be accommodated on a minisatellite bus.
This radar will use six beams: a nadir beam, and five off-nadir beams posi-
tioned around it every two degrees. This system will describe a surface pat-
tern of around 150 kilometres, scanning at a rate of about six rotations per
minute, making it possible to observe a point on the ground with several
beams and from different angles. Collected data will be processed for assim-
ilation into sea-state prediction models. Users of the system would be sea-
state forecasting centres, shipowners and sailors. Phase A of the project
has already been completed at CNES, and it is now awaiting a go-ahead
decision for phase B. ●
T
● Taranis - Study and exploration of the
Universe - Taranis (Tool for the Analysis of Radiations from Lightning
and Sprites) is a micromission intended to study sprites—luminous flashes in
the upper atmosphere, also referred to as “high-altitude lightning”—and asso-
ciated emissions, as well as other energetic phenomena occurring between
the lower atmosphere, the Sun and the upper atmosphere. It will focus on
atmosphere-ionosphere-magnetosphere couplings under the influence of
phenomena in the lower atmosphere (atmospheric storms, weather activity,
volcanoes, human activity) and in space (solar wind and cosmic radiation).
Possible partner laboratories likely to supply payload instruments are: the
LPCE environmental physics and chemistry laboratory (Orléans, France); CEA,
the French atomic agency authority; the CETP terrestrial and planetary envi-
ronment research centre; the CESR space radiation research centre; the LESIA
space and astrophysics instrumentation research laboratory; CNRS’s aeron-
omy research laboratory (SA);
the French national weather ser-
vice Meteo-France; the Danish
Space Research Institute; and
Los Alamos National Labora-
tory (United States). ●
● SENS - Life science - SENS is a multi-user instrument
designed to enable the neuroscience community to investigate human sen-
sorimotor functions (perception, motion control, spatial memory, balance
and brain activity). It will comprise a central computer connected to mea-
suring instruments, including an oculometer, virtual reality headset, force-
feedback stick and acoustic stimulator. SENS could also operate in concert
with ESA’s MEM electroencephalogram system to study brain activity. It is
designed for fundamental research applications, as well as for space
medicine and human factors studies, and planetary exploration (of the
Moon and Mars). The project is moving forward at CNES, where it has
reached phase A. ●
● Simbol-X - Study
and exploration of the
Universe - Descended from
ESA’s XMM-Newton X-ray astronomy
observatory, Simbol-X will observe the
most violent known phenomena in the
Universe—black holes, neutron stars, supernovae, etc.—in the X-ray and
gamma-ray portions of the spectrum, at energy levels below 100 keV. A
high-resolution telescope will be formed by two satellites in formation: a
“mirror” satellite will collect rays and focus them onto a second “detector”
satellite. The two satellites will be 30 meters apart, with positioning con-
trolled to within one centimetre and measurements accurate to one mil-
limetre. Phase 0 studies began in 2003 and a firm go-ahead decision (phase
B) will be taken in 2006 for a launch some time between 2012 and 2014.
French atomic energy agency CEA. ●
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