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The cross-cultural comparisons of customers’ pro-environmental attitudes, satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional behaviours regarding green hotels: A
survey of British and Taiwanese tourists
A dissertation submitted by
TE CHANG LIU
In partial completion of the award ofMSC TOURISM MANAGEMENT AND MARKETING
I hereby declare that the dissertation submitted is wholly the work of Te Chang Liu. Any other contributors or sources have either been referenced in the prescribed manner or are listed in
the acknowledgements together with the nature and scope of their contribution.
BOURNEMOUTH UNIVERSITY
School of Tourism/ Faculty of Management
2015/2016
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my dissertation may be held by Bournemouth University normally for a period of
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Signed:
Name: Te Chang Liu
Date: 30 Aug 2016
Programme: MSc Tourism Management and Marketing
2
Abstract:
This research explores the relationship among tourist’s pro-environmental
attitude, satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional behaviour in relation to green
hotels in Taiwan and UK. The value of green hotels has been recognised by a
few international hotel chains but more researchers nowadays are promoting
the benefits of green operations in the hospitality industry for energy saving
and environmental protection.
As hotels are always regarded as one of the most resource-consuming
industries, there has consequently been a growing amount of literature in
respect of the trend of green practices in the lodging industry. This is due to
the over exploitation of the natural environment which has been revealed
publicly by media. Tourists’ environmental concerns toward lodging industry
have also been steadily increasing with the environmental information and
news. In general, tourists’ intentions to get involved in green consumption on
vacation are the vital factors to motivate hotels to go green.
Therefore, with the green movement spreading to the whole world, both
academics and practitioners need to understand more about green tourists
with different cultural backgrounds. UK, as a well-developed country for
tourism industry, is always referred to as the indicator of eco-friendly hotel
sectors. Previous studies have revealed that the concepts of green hotels
have already been revealed in UK since 1990s, but green performance of
hotels are also gaining more attention among tourists at present. On the other
hand, Taiwan, as a newly developed country for tourism sectors in Asia-
Pacific region, is also getting involved in the green movement owing to the
over-consumption in natural resources caused by tourists.
Compared with these two countries, it is interesting to find that tourism and
hospitality sectors in both countries are facing the challenge of environmental
crisis. Therefore, this research highlights the dimensions shaping tourists’ pro-
environmental attitude with cross- cultural comparisons. It also examines
whether tourists’ environmental attitude will lead to different level of
satisfaction toward green hotels. Also, enterprises nowadays are searching for 3
the more efficient methods to track customers’ intention to repurchase and
recommend to others. Therefore, this research investigates the respondents
who have ever stayed in green hotels with the view to understanding the
relationship between loyalty and intentional behaviour in the future.
Word count: 14991
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Acknowledgement
I would like to express my appreciation to Dr. Avital Biran, my supervisor in the
project. Her recommendations and suggestions are very useful and also guide me
the way to complete my dissertation more efficiency. This project may not be
complete with an exceptional quality without her valuable advice.
Importantly, I would like to thank my family for the support and opportunity to study
abroad especially my father who had the brain surgery. He always takes care of both
my brother and me. Also, my mother encouraged me all the time until I completed my
dissertation. I am so proud to be their son. In addition, I would like to appreciate my
best friend, Peter. He went through a very hard time with me and supported me in
this entire year. Lastly, I would like to thank for Bournemouth University, for a chance
to let me experience the student life again.
Te Chang Liu
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Table of contents:
I. Dissertation Declaration………………………………………………………...2
II. Abstract…………………………………………………………….3
III. Acknowledgement………………………………………………..5
IV. Table of Contents………………………………………………,,,,6
V. List of Tables……………………………………………………….8
VI. List of Figures………………………………………………………9
VII. List of Abbreviations……………………………………………..10
Contents:
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Research background……………………………………………11
1.2 Reasons for choosing the topic………………………………..13
1.3 Research aims and objectives………………………………….15
1.4 Research Structure……………………………………………….16
Chapter 2:Literature Review
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………17
2.2 Culture and behaviour……………………………………………..19
2.3 Culture and pro-environmental attitudes……………………….30
2.4 Consumer satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour in green hotels …………………………………………………………………………352.5 Research Gap………………………………………………………..39
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Chapter 3:Methodology
3.1 introduction………………………………………………………..413.2 The analysis of hypothesis……………………………………..413.3 The development of hypothesis……………………………….433.4 Research philosophy and approach………………………….463.5 Data collection methods………………………………………...483.6 Data collection and analysis……………………………………503.7 Survey development……………………………………………..533.8 Limitation…………………………………………………………..55
Chapter 4: Main Findings and Analysis
4.1 Introduction………………………………………………………..574.2 The comparisons of demographic profile of tourists between Taiwan and UK who have ever stayed in green hotels…………….604.3 The characteristics profile of tourist’s environmental attitudes between Taiwan and UK…………………………………………………644.4 The analysis of satisfaction and loyalty regarding green hotels between Taiwan and UK…………………………………………………………….694.5 The analysis of intentional behaviour toward green hotels between Taiwan and UK…………………………………………………………….714.6 Hypothesis Testing……………………………………………….744.7 Chapter conclusion……………………………………………….81
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations5.1 Conclusion…………………………………………………………825.2 Recommendations………………………………………………..84
5.3 Suggestions for future research……………………………….86
References…………………………………………………………………88
Appendix………………………………………………………………….107
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List of Tables
Table Title Page
Table 2.1 The six dimensions of Hofstede’s cultural framework P.21
Table 2.2 Trompenaars’ seven dimensions of cultural comparisons P.26
Table 4.1 The comparisons of respondents’s nationality P.59
Table 4.2 The comparisons of demographic information regarding green
tourists between UK and Taiwan
P.60
Table 4.3 Dimension 1: The comparisons of Environmental Concern
between Taiwan and UK
P.64
Table 4.4 Dimension 2: The comparisons of self-expressive benefits between
Taiwan and UK
P.66
Table 4.5 Dimension 3: The comparisons of social norms between Taiwan and
UK
P.66
Table 4.6 Dimension 4: The comparisons of Greenwashing between
Taiwan and UK
P.67
Table 4.7 The comparisons of customer’s satisfaction and loyalty toward green
hotels between Taiwan and UK
P.69
Table 4.8 The comparisons of customer’s satisfaction and loyalty to
influence intentional behaviour regarding green hotels between
Taiwan and UK
P.71
Table 4.9 The comparisons of dimensions of tourists’ environmental
attitude and satisfaction toward green hotels between Taiwan
and UK
P.74
Table 4.10 The comparisons of relationship between satisfaction and
customers’ loyalty toward green hotels they have ever stayed
in
P.78
Table 4.11 The comparisons of relationship between loyalty and
customers’ intentional behaviour toward green hotels
P.81
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List of Figures
Figure Title Page
Figure 2.1 The factors that influence the cross-cultural customer’s
behaviours
P.20
Figure 2.2 Hofstede’s six dimensions of cross-cultural comparisons
between Taiwan and UK
P.22
Figure 2.3 The cross-cultural values and consumer’s behaviour P.25
Figure 2.4 The Process of the Effective Factors to Shape
Consumer’s Repurchase Decision-Making on green hotels
P.31
Figure 2.5 The average country-level beliefs in favour of competition
and individual responsibility, 2002-2008
P.34
Figure 3.1 Framework of hypothesis P.45
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List of Abbreviations
ISPRA: Italy’s Institute for Environmental Protection and Research
UNWTO: United Nations of World Tourism Organisation
TP Trip Advisor
BC Booking.com
MT Mind Tools
HB Hotel Business
GH Green Hoteliers
LOHAS Lifestyle of Health and Sustainability
R.O.I return on investment
SPSS Statistical Product and Service Solutions
ONS Office for National Statistics
EY Executive Yuan ROC
SD Standard Deviation
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Research Background
Due to the over consumption of energy globally, consumers nowadays are
more willing to embrace the eco-friendly concepts or even get involved in
green consumption. According to Hawken (2005), it is recorded that during a
one-day economic session of the entire world consumes the energy which will
take 27 years of solar energy to replace it. As one of the most energy-
consuming industries, the lodging industry is always regarded as a
disproportionate consumer of non-renewable resources, such as electricity
and water. Moreover, following on from the over consumption issues, there
are pollution problems, like the emissions of carbon dioxide and waste water.
It not only causes a shortage of energy but damage to tourism hotspots
(Bohdanowicz 2006).
With the public concerns over environmental issues increasing steadily, more
tourists would now like to pay attention to the green performance of hotels for
the purpose of contributing to the resolution of the accelerating environmental
problems. The environmental problems brought from lodging industry include
the depletion of ozone layer caused by CFC, water contamination from large
amount of waste water, and the solid wastes from tourists (Laroche et al.
2001). Although those visible environmental issues have been generated by
all consumers over the world, there was still space remaining for sustainable
development of hotels when the concept of eco-friendly management just
showed up two decades ago (Erdogan & Baris 2007). Some hotel owners
were reluctant to get embroiled with the new green developments. This was
due to the extra cost for the eco-friendly products or materials of green
construction. Hoteliers also feared that the green operation within travel
accommodation might sacrifice part of consumers’ benefits during their leisure
times, such as the reduction of housekeeping in guest rooms (Lee et al. 2010).
Furthermore, tourists used to regard green initiates as luxurious choice and at
the mean time they also lost some services while staying the green
accommodation (Kahn 2007).11
However, according to Italy’s Institute for Environmental Protection and
Research (ISPRA) (2016), it demonstrated that consumers in more recent
years are now more willing to mitigate the environmental problems by
reducing the excessive consumption of durable goods, water wastage and
energy use on vacation. Therefore, more hoteliers nowadays are getting
involved in eco-friendly operations to meet the green trend. One of the
reasons why they have taken this new direction is because, going green for
the long term operation is more economical (Hays & Ozretić-Došen 2014).
Another reason is that the green initiatives can segment the growing market of
green tourists who are seeking the environmental friendly services, thus
attracting more customers (Chen & Tung 2014).
With regard to the emerging market of “greener” lifestyle, there are more
tourists over the whole world selecting hotels following eco-friendly practices
during their trip. Therefore both academics and practitioners are now
desperate to identify what incentives are capable of drawing tourists to green
accommodation when they go travelling (Manaktola & Jauhari 2007). This
research attempts to shed light on customer’s behaviour regarding green
hotels including environmental attitude, satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional
behaviour, for the purpose of understanding the green trend in hospitality
industry globally. It was confirmed by many past studies that customer’s pro-
environmental attitude leads to positive connection with the green
consumption (Soongil & Yoon 2015). Therefore, this study starts by examining
the dimensions shaping customer’s environmental attitude, and then tries to
finds out the impact of attitude on satisfaction and loyalty. Furthermore, it also
reveals the intentional behaviour in the future based on satisfaction and loyalty
toward green hotels.
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1.2 Reasons for choosing the topic
According to Trip Advisor (2014), millennials in Asian countries and mid-
aged tourists in west Europe and North America, who are below 44 years
old, are the two major groups concerned with the sustainable travel pattern.
As the green consumption emerged in tourism industry recently, consumers
in the developed countries of Asia-pacific area, West Europe and North
America were also more critical of the green practices of travelling
accommodation (Budeanu 2007).
Following this trend, this research discusses the topic of customer’s
behaviour regarding green hotels in a cross-cultural context. It is obvious
that the trend of green hotels has innovated the phase of lodging industry
globally, so this study draws comparisons between consumers’ attitude,
satisfaction as well as repurchase intention in the well-developed countries,
UK, and newly developed country, Taiwan.
It is defined by Green Hoteliers (2016) that green hotels are referred to the
eco-friendly lodging properties implementing a variety of green operation
including water-saving, decrease in energy consumption, reduction of solid
waste, and recycling the routinely durable items, such as containers and
towels reusing etc. As for the green lodging industry in UK, it has been a
valuable domain by academics of tourism and hospitality since 1990s
(Mandese 1991). Nevertheless, it has been growing in popularity among
tourists in UK for the thirteen years with the foundation of “green traveller”
(2003). The “Green traveler” was the first online travel guide for tourists who
have interests in information of eco-friendly travel. Recently, with the
development of more online travel guide platforms, the concepts of green
hotels have also been distributing by tourists’ comments globally via tourism
online guide such as Trip Advisor and Booking.com (Green Hotelier 2008).
The green trend of lodging industry in Taiwan has also been influenced by online
tourism guide websites these few years (Tsai et al. 2014). As McKercher et al.
(2003) presented that hospitality industry is indeed more “supply-driven” than
“demand-led”; hence, if the hoteliers have no offering in green management, there
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will less supply in the green accommodation. It is shown by previous studies that
elder tourists in Far East countries prefer the tour package to individual travelling
pattern (Wong & Lau 2001). It is perceived that there are still rarely tour agencies
in Taiwan offering the eco-friendly packages, and it is obvious that the elder
tourists in Taiwan have no direct chances to experience green hotels (Wang et al.
2000). Thus, this research assumes that the tourists in Taiwan who have
experiences in green hotels will mainly focus on the age group younger than 45
years ago.
Following this context, this research notices the interesting connection between
cultural characteristics and consumption pattern on green hotels in both Taiwan
and UK. This research attempts to analyse the factors of customer’s behaviour
regarding green hotels under these two countries in order to improve the
understanding of green tourists in both countries.
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1.3 Research aims and objectives
The aims of the research are to explore the relationship among tourists’ pro-
environmental attitude, satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour regarding
green hotels in Taiwan and UK. The research is aimed at analysing the
connection between cultural values and customer’s behaviour, and it also
illustrates the four dimensions shaping customers’ pro-environmental attitude
under the cross-cultural background. In addition, this study also explores the
relationship between customers’ pro-environmental attitude and satisfaction
toward green hotels, to understand how influential each dimension of
environmental attitude affects customers’ satisfaction. It also aims at identifing
whether satisfaction and loyalty have impacts on customers’ intentional
behaviour toward green hotels in the future. Previous research has recognised
that loyalty is one of the most important factors to influence green tourists’
repurchase intention and positive recommendation to others (Soongil & Yoon
2015). Therefore, to conduct the study as the research aims above, this
research should be completed through the objectives as detailed below:
1. To understand if customer’s pro-environmental attitude toward
green hotels under different cultural backgrounds, Taiwan and UK,
affects customer’s satisfaction.
2. To find out if customers’ satisfaction under different cultural
background, Taiwan and UK, has impacts on loyalty after green
consumption in the eco-friendly hotels
3. To discover the connection between customer’s loyalty towards
green hotels and their repurchase intention under the cross-cultural
comparisons between Taiwan and UK.
4. To assess if customers’ loyalty toward green hotels under the cross-
cultural values, Taiwan and UK, has influences on the willingness to
recommend to others.
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1.4 Research structure
This research has been divided into five parts as follows:
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION
This chapter outlines the background information of research topic. It presents the
updated trend of green hotels, and the reason for combining customer’s behaviour
regarding green hotels and cross-cultural values. It also identifies the research aims
and objectives, and states the research structure.
Chapter 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
The second chapter presents a review of past research, models, and literature from
secondary data related to the topic of this research.
Chapter 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter elaborates the methodology utilised to achieve the aim and objectives of
this study. It demonstrates the framework of hypothesis in respects of the research
topic. In addition, it also clarifies the tools for sampling method, data collection and
analysis, as well as the limitations of this research.
Chapter 4: MAIN FINDING AND ANALYSIS
This chapter explores the main findings and interprets the statistics to examine the
hypothesis of this research.
Chapter 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The final chapter makes conclusions in relation to the literature review and
results of the main findings. In addition, this chapter offers recommendations
in relation to green initiatives and suggestions to future studies.
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Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.1 Introduction
Nowadays, environmental degradation has been reaching a globally alarming level
due to the depletion of natural resources, the damage caused by climate change,
and the insufficiency of living space (Ayre and Callway 2005). With the release of Al
Gore’s “An Inconvenient Truth” worldwide, pro-environmental awareness is now
prevalent in the tourism and hospitality industry (Olson 2007). Research has also
shown that the concepts of green travel patterns are increasingly popular globally,
especially in Western Europe, Northern America, and Asia Pacific regions (Green
Hotel Association 2016). Furthermore when the trend for “green travel” is examined,
there are more tourists enthused by the positive perception of “green hotels”, and
more hoteliers attempt to get involved in green practices in order to achieve the
segmentation of green lodging industry (Hemlock 2007).
With the international hotel chains now being widespread globally, the need for a
deeper understanding of cross-cultural management in the hospitality industry has
been growing. Since Hofstede’s research in 1980, there have already been related
studies focused on the relationship between cross-cultural comparisons and the
customer’s behaviors in tourism (Cohen, Prayag & Moital 2013), but fewer studies
are focused on the discussion of the consumers' behaviors in the green hospitality
industry under different cultural backgrounds. Therefore, this research will discuss
how the green trend will affect consumers' pro-environmental attitudes by looking at
the values under different cultural contexts, Taiwan and the United Kingdom.
In addition, based on Soongli and Yoon’s research (2015), this study explores how
consumer’s pro-environmental attitude affects consumer’s satisfaction as well as
intentional behaviour toward green hotels (Soongli & Yoon 2015). In general,
people’s attitudes towards environment are affected by their national culture, and
attitude also leads to different level of satisfaction and loyalty. Also, according to
Kotler (2011), the more loyalty tourists maintain toward one specific brand, the more
repurchase intentions and recommendations they will make in the future. Therefore,
17
this research illustrates the relationship among all of these factors and it also draws
the comparisons of these factors between Taiwan and UK.
While sustainable development has had a positive impact on the tourism and
hospitality industry for a few decades, environmental awareness is now turning into
an essential issue both for consumers and hoteliers (Budeanu 2007). This study is
aimed at identifying the fundamental elements of consumer’s mental processing in
preferring green hotels, and it also will look towards locating the possible research
gaps among the connection between consumer’s attitude, satisfaction, and
repurchase intentions in relation to green lodging and accommodation.
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2.2 Culture and behaviour
2.2.1 Cross-cultural values and consumers’ behaviours
According to the World Tourism Organisation (WTO), it is evident to observe that the
international tourism industry has risen up to become more important for economic
development and it has also deepened diversification in the service industry sectors
globally (UNWTO 2014). It is estimated by UNWTO that the tourism industry
accounted for nine percent of GDP around the whole world in 2015 and has become
the fastest-growing economic sectors in the same year too (UNWTO 2015). Due to
globalisation converging with the widespread growth of the tourism sectors, the chain
or franchised accommodation suppliers have had to keep up with progressive ideas
of cross-national management (Holjevac 2003). With an increasing degree of
hoteliers cross-country operating, they are striving for a more efficient method to
position themselves in the market, for example by understanding the cultural values
within different countries and customer behaviours (Cleveland et al. 2016).
With a view to identifying the consumer’s behaviours under different cultural
background, Oswald suggested that culture shapes customer’s preferences,
expectations, and behavioural patterns (Oswald 1999). Following on the trend of
globalisation, the cross-country hoteliers can get access to the local market easier by
means of incorporating the indigenous culture with the value of home country
(Westjohn, Singh & Magnusson 2012). Therefore, since culture is the connection to
bind the group together, cultural values can also be viewed as the fundamental factor
to influence consumer’s behaviours.
Based on the definition presented by Triandis (1996), culture is comprised of the
“shared elements” of one specific community. Hofstede (2010) suggested that the
“shared elements” of culture plays a fundamental role to understand the values of
one specific organisation, enterprise, or even the national characteristics. To
recognise the shared value of one specific culture, Hofstede (2010) characterised
people’s feeling, thinking, and mind as the “mental programs”, and the evolution of
the “mental programs” is based on the socio-cultural environments in which one grew
up and collect experiences. Therefore, the shared value of culture is defined by
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Hofstede as the “collective programming of the human mind which distinguishes one
specific human group from those of another” (Wagnwe 2008).
The following is the model to illustrate the crucial factors of cross-cultural
comparisons affecting customer’s behaviour:
Figure 2.1 The factors that influence the cross-cultural customer’s behaviours
Source: Adopted from ” Cultures and organisation: Software of the mind “ ( Hofstede
2010)
Figure 1 shows that the identity and the institutions of a nation are classified as the
“visible” traits, such as the language, religion and laws. However, in terms of the
invisible traits of the national culture, it is always regarded as the values of one
specific group of people. Owning to the invisible characteristics of cultural values,
Hofstede developed the six dimensions to underpin the cross-cultural comparisons
(Thien, Thurasamy & And 2013). To discuss how the cultural values affect
customer’s perceptions toward green hotels seems to be the inevitable method when
analysing the cultural factors and customer’s behaviours. The following are the six
dimensions of Hofstede’s cultural framework (Hofstede 2002, 2011):
1. Power Distance
2. Uncertainty Avoidance
3. Masculinity - Femininity
4. Individualism - Collectivism.
5. Long Term and Short Term Orientation
6. Indulgence and Restraint
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2.2.2 The cross-cultural values and consumer’s perceptions toward green hotels
Table 2.1 The six dimensions of Hofstede’s cultural framework
The Dimensions Characteristics Typical Cultures
1.Power Distance The tolerances for rank differentials in a group or society, including the extent to which the less powerful people in the society accept the inequality in different class and regard it as normality(Samovar & Porter 2001).
High-Power Distance Countries: Malaysia Guatemala, Panama, Philippines
Low-Power Distance Countries: US, Australia, New Zealand
2. UncertaintyAvoidance
The intolerance to the uncertainty risk, people in the high uncertainty avoidance group have the tendency to behave in a structured situation. On the other hand, people in the low uncertainty avoidance society get used to the unstructured condition (Mazanec et al. 2015)
The high-uncertainty avoidance countries:Greece Ecuador, Portugal
The low-uncertainty avoidance countries: Denmark, Jamaica,Singapore
3.“Individualism”
and
“Collectivism”
The degree to which people appreciate to be independent rather than interdependent (Hofstede 1994). Individualism and collectivism are the vital elements to Hofstede’s cultural framework, which applies to the tourists’ attitudes, satisfactions, and behaviours under the interconnecting cross-cultural context (Xinrin et al. 2000).
The Individualism Countries: US, Australia, UK
The Collectivism Countries: Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan
4. “Masculinity”
and
“Femininity”
The extent to which the male-oriented values are dominated. The masculinity refers to the men-dominated values which take rooted in the assertiveness, the achievement orientation, competition, ambition and materialism. On the other hand, the femininity values present the nurturing behaviours, and femininity values have unclear barriers of gender differentiation. They tend not to look on the human beings as the dominated species in the universe (Chandan 2014).
The Masculinity Countries: Japan, Austria, Ireland, Jamaica, UK
The Femininity Countries: Taiwan, Thailand, Norway, Sweden
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5 Long-term
and
Short-term
Orientation
The values of long-term orientation are focused on the future rewards, based on the concepts of perseverance and thrift (Hofstede 2001). On the contrary, “the short term” orientation takes rooted in the past and present, and it demonstrated the values of the “immediate results” (Venaik, Zhu & Brewer 2013).
Long-Term Orientation Countries: China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea
Short-TermOrientation Countries:U.S, U.K, Canada
6. Indulgence
and
Restraint
The extent to which people stand gratification and control of basic human desire based on having fun (Hofstede 2011). People who are in the indulgence values have tendency to allow permissiveness in consumption. Nevertheless, people who are in the restraint values tend to be more disciplined in personal desire and gratification (Maleki & Jong 2014).
Indulgence countries: USA, UK, Australia, Canada
Restraint countries:China, Taiwan, Japan,South Korea
Source: Amended from Hofstede 2001; 2011; Samovar et al. 2009
Due to the above mentioned traits, there are three cross-cultural comparisons which
applying to the consumer’s perceptions toward green hotels, including “Masculinity”
and “Feminity”, “Long-Term” and “Short-Term” orientation, as well as “Indulgence”
and “Restraint”. Based on the definition illustrated by Hofstede, the masculine
country may consume more natural resources and achieve greater industrial success
than the feminine countries (Hofstede 2001).
When examining the green intention to stay in the eco-friendly hotels, the study will
make distinctive comparisons between Taiwan and UK.
Figure 2.2 Hofstede’s six dimensions of cross-cultural comparisons between
Taiwan and UK
22
Source: Adapted from Hofstede’s Centre (2016)
As figure 2.2 shows above, the UK is ranked 66% of masculinity, higher than Taiwan
only 45 % in the masculinity. It is evident to demonstrate that Taiwan has long been
influenced by the Chinese culture, owing to the majority immigrated population came
from China during World War 2, so Taiwanese eco-friendly concepts also mingled
with the traditional Confucianism, emphasising the eternity of human -nature
relationship (Buckley et al. 2008).
As for the “long-term” and “short-term” orientation, Taiwan ranks 93% versus 51% in
UK. Indeed, in the context of green accommodation, Sullivan noted that British
hoteliers have the tendency to take the immediate reward when operating the green
management, and some may even “pretend green” to attract with the growing
numbers of green tourists (Sullivan 2009). As mentioned in chapter 1, the lodging
industry is indeed more “supply-driven” than “demand-led” (McKercher et al. 2003).
As UK is regarded as a developed country and the green trend in travel
accommodation has been present there for almost two decades, there is still space
remaining for growth in this type of travel pattern in this country (Booking.com 2016).
Compared with the green hotels in UK, the Taiwanese hoteliers may be more tolerant
in the long term sustainable development, initiating the green marketing strategy and
adopting the environmental practices because the green tourists in Taiwan examine
23
the green performance of hotels for the long term (Tsai, Wu & Wang 2014). Although
green hotels are just a new trend in Taiwan, it has been increasing in popularity
among the young, individual tourists recently (Trip Advisor 2016).
Therefore, with environmental concerns increasing among most of the tourists in both
countries nowadays, more tourists now have the consumption pattern to search for
the green practices of the travel accommodation (Han et al. 2011). Hoteliers also
take part in increasing the green practices of their operation in order to explore more
chances in the “greenness” business (Dief & Font 2010).
Finally, applying the indicator of “Indulgence” to green hotels, it is evident to discover
that the UK is 20% higher than Taiwan in figure 2. It demonstrates one factor that
British people are less willing to sacrifice when it comes to enjoying life than
Taiwanese. The higher indulgence values also comprise of increasing rates of
environmental exploitation, to fulfil the customer’s demand or to create the skewed
desires for customers (Goodin 1994).
To meet the green tourists’ demand, there are consequently more environmental
incentives for the hoteliers to turn green recently in both countries due to the
increasing numbers of green tourists, such as benefits gained the eco-friendly
reputation by online travel agency after turning green (O’Neill 2015). The numbers of
Taiwanese tourists, who perceive the eco-friendly value of green hotels as one of the
elements to select when choosing travel accommodation, are also constantly
growing, and it is highly expected that the number of green tourists in Taiwan will
increase 2 percent totally in 2016 (Green Hoteliers 2016). As there has already been
5% increased in the numbers of green tourists in UK according to trip advisor (2016),
it is expected there will be more growth in the green lodging industry in the next ten
years.
24
2.2.3 Cross-cultural values and consumers’ behaviours in green hotels
Mooij (2004) defined the topic “consumer behaviour” as the process of behaviours,
which consist of the selection, the purchasing pattern, the satisfaction, or even the
experiences after using the products. Hence, to obtain a deep comprehension of the
cross-cultural consumer’s behaviours, focus needs to be made on the comparisons
of each value of culture as well as the integration of a variety of components of
human behaviours rather than the pure homogenization (Holjevic 2003). The cross-
cultural comparisons of consumer behaviours also offer a profound understanding of
how the cultural values system affects the marketing and communication strategy,
the customer’s attitude, and behaviours (Luna and Gupta 2001).
The following figure is the model of interconnection between culture and customer
behaviours:
Figure 2.3 The cross-cultural values and consumer’s behaviour
Pro-
environmental attitudes
1. Environmental Concern
2. Self Expressive Benefit
3. Social Norm4. Greenwashing
CulturalValues1. Age
2. Education3.Identity4.Lifestyle
5.Nationality
ConsumerGroup
organisation
The Domains of Consumer Behaviours
1.Consumer’s decision-making
2. Satisfaction.
3. Brand loyalty
4. Intention to repurchase and recommend
25
Source: Adopted from Manrai and Manrai (2001); Mooij (2004)
According to figure 2.3, the consumers are the central element. The components
influencing consumer’s behaviours consist of cultural values including education,
identity and nationality. Also, cultural values not only lead to different prospects of
consumers’ pro-environmental attitude, but also shape the consumer’s satisfaction
and intentional behaviour. The reasons why cultural values have great impacts on
these components are because people’s attitudes, satisfaction, and intentional
behaviour such as repurchase or recommendation are all affected by the foundation
of cultural values (Park 2013).
Cultural values are regarded as the dynamic process to influence consumer’s
decision-making, consumption patterns, and taste orientation toward luxury goods
(Miller 1995; Farah & Fawaz 2016). Since consumer’s behaviours are tightly
connected with the network of cultural values, the mental process of consumption
pattern seems to mainly be affected by the cultural values as well as pro-
environmental attitudes rather than by the individual (Kabaskal & Bodur 2002).In
addition to Hofstede’s six dimensions of cultural values, Trompenaars also discussed
the topic of cultural values applied to the diversity of consumer’s behaviours.
The following is the table to illustrate the cross-cultural comparisons in consumer’s
behaviours:
Table 2.2 Trompenaars’ seven dimensions of cultural comparisons
The Dimension Characteristics Typical cultures
1.UniversalismV.S.Particularism
(1) Universalism: People emphasise the importance of rules and laws; customers tend to rely on the rules to deal with the suppliers rather than the relationship with the business.
(a) U.S.; U.K; Canada; Australia; New Zealand
(2) Particularism: Consumers have the behaviour pattern to change their perception and rules based on different circumstance and situation. Most of the consumers also take the private relationship as the standard to assess the values of the
(b) China; Taiwan; Hong Kong; Latin America
26
products.
2 IndividualismV.S.Communitarianism
(1) People believe in personal freedom and accomplishment. Children growing up under this culture tend to act independently, and they always rake care of themselves.
(a) U.S.; U.K; Canada; Australia; New Zealand
(2) The benefits of organisation are the first priority to the members among it. Praise the obedience and assess the group performance rather than the individual one.
(b) Japan, Latin American
3. Specificv.s.Diffuse
(1) Customers under this cultural values have the tendency to keep the business from their relationships. Most of the consumers believe in the money-oriented value.
(a) US; UK; Germany; Switzerland
(2) Customers tend to highly overlap the personal life with business affairs.People under this cultural values believe that building relationship in the business field is the first priority. The personal affection always leads to the results of the business performance.
(b) China; India; Spain
4 Neutralv.sEmotional
(1) People attempt to control their emotions all the time, not revealing them to the public.
(a) UK, Finland, Germany
(2) People strive for the ways to express their emotions, even at business occasion or at work.
(b) Spain, France, Italy
5. AchievementV.SAscription
(1) People assess the value through the performance, no matter who you are.
(a) US; Canada; Scandinavia
(2) People recognise the value by the brand, title, and power position. There is tight connection between authority and the values.
(b) Japan; Italy; Saudi Arabia
6. Sequential TimeV.SSynchronous Time
(1) People believe in the importance of punctuality, and they also stick to the schedule, setting up the deadlines and keeping to it.
(a) Germany; U.S; U.K
(2) People regard “time” as “flexible subject”. The plans and commitment are all changeable in terms of their own philosophy.
(b) Mexico; Argentina
7. Internal DirectionV.SOuter
(1) Consumers and suppliers take the human-dominated attitudes, presenting the values that human beings control the nature and legally own the resources of it.
(a) Israel; U.S.; Australia; New Zealand; U.K.
27
Direction (2) People in this culture believe that they are controlled by the environment or the nature, and they must maintain a harmonious relationship with the nature. Human beings also rely on the natural resources mainly and should take it appropriately.
(b) China; Taiwan; Russia
Source: Amended from Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner (2010)
To echo Hofstede’s viewpoints of cultural values applied to customer’s green
perception in travel accommodation, Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (2010) also
argued that British people, who are under the cultural value of Universalism, are
more concerned at the obligations and the law (Mind Tools 2016). Green tourists in
UK tend to find their desired travel accommodation by searching for eco-friendly
recognition via online travel agents (Hotels 2007). Therefore, this seriously influences
the overall green operation in the hospitality industry, and there are now more
hoteliers in UK making an effort to take a lead in the marketplace by increasing green
performance (Hotel Business 2007).
Taiwanese cultural values are more “particularism-oriented” than those in the UK, as
their tourists are more flexible in decision-making concerning consumption and easily
changed depending on circumstances and conditions (Trompenaars & Hampden-
Turner 2010). Take the green operation of lodging industry as an example, the
Taiwanese government tend to tolerate the low green performance in the hotels
which have good relationships with public authorities (Taiwan Environmental
Information Centre 2016). As mentioned before, the concepts of green hotels are
more “supply-driven” rather than “demand-led”, though most of the Taiwanese
tourists nowadays understand the concepts of green hotels; however, there are still
fewer eco-friendly hotels for them when selecting the travel accommodation (Wang
2012).
In addition, one of Trompenaars’ cultural dimensions also draws the comparison of
“International Direction” and “Outer Direction”, the former referring to the values of
“Anthropocentrism” and the later presenting the values of “Ecocentrism” (Minfont &
Duckitt 2004). The “anthropocentrism” is the concept showing that human beings are
dominant in nature, and it also presents that human beings are superior and are
28
therefore entitled to exploit the natural resources in the planet (Kortenkamp & Moore
2001; Page & Connell 2009). On the contrary, based on the definition offered by
Page and Connell (2009), “ecocentrism” is focused on the “nature-centred" values,
which means the nature is the centre of the universe and all of the living things are
just part of it. Buckley (2008) presented that both Chinese and British culture are both
focused on the importance of “going green” in the lodging industry, but the
philosophy behind the green operation of hospitality industry is different. The two
approaches both can arouse people’s environmental awareness due to differentiated
reasons (Schultz & Zelezny 1999).
Applying the anthropocentrism to the average tourists in UK, the anthropocentric
customers take the green attitude into the tourism pattern owing to the benefits which
may bring to people; like the green practices sorting out the lack of renewable
resources including water or electricity power (Eslaminosratabadi et al. 2014). Owing
to the anthropocentric values dominated in UK, most British tourists nowadays still
regard the conventional hotels as the first choice during their trips because they fear
to lose the flexibility of being “luxurious” and “leisure” on vacation (Han et al. 2011).
As a matter of fact, even though more than 80% of the tourists in UK realise the
importance of green hotels and have “green attitudes” towards accommodation while
traveling, there are only 32% tourists in UK selecting the less negative impact on
travel accommodation (Budeanu 2007).
However, the ecocentric customers will take the method of green tourism due to the
support appertaining to the nature-based values (Xu & Fox 2014). In traditional
Chinese philosophy, the perspectives of Confucian and Taoist, in pursuit of
“harmony”( 和 )and “middle way”( 中庸之道 ) with the nature, human beings should
search for the unity of men and nature to regulate human’s development in the
nature (Bucklet et al.2008; Scofield & Li 2011; Xu et al. 2014).
Therefore, owing to the Chinese-value dominated in Taiwan, the Taiwanese tourists
take the values of “ecocentrism” as the principles to select the green hotels though
only few hoteliers are capable of implementing the green practices (Claver-Cortes et
al. 2007;Tsai et al. 2014). Up to 60% tourists in Taiwan nowadays realise the
increasing environmental problems such as the over consumption in water resources
and energy caused by lodging industry (Tsai et al. 2014), and there are more “green
29
tourists” concerned at the operation of hotels, selecting the green hotels which meet
the eco-friendly practice (Shamsuddin et al. 2014).
Based on the discussion mentioned in this chapter, consumers’ behaviours are
affected by the complex network of cultural values and the pro-environmental attitude
(Voss, Lucas & Ward 2014). Therefore, the next chapter discusses the factors, which
shape the pro-environmental attitudes under different cultural background, and how it
affects customer’s behaviours.
30
2.3 Culture and pro-environmental attitudes
2.3.1 The four factors to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitudes
With the green movement increasing in popularity in the travel accommodation
industry, there is more research demonstrating that consumer’s pro-environmental
attitude has also been actively growing (Akenji 2014). Since more research has
showed the positive connection between consumer’s eco-friendly attitudes and the
green performance as well as the profitability of hotels (Han et al. 2011), Teisl et al.
(2008) suggested that consumer’s psychological characteristics, such as the
environmental concern or self-expressive benefits, may affect customer’s intentions
and then influence the consumption patterns.
Therefore, according to Soongil and Yoon (2015), there are four fundamental factors
to assess how the pro-environmental attitude will interact with customer’s satisfaction
and intentional behaviours, including (i) environmental concern, (ii) self-expressive
benefits, (iii) social norm, and (iv) greenwashing.
Figure 2.4 The Process of the Effective Factors to Shape Consumer’s
Repurchase Decision-Making on green hotels
Environmental Concern
Self-ExpressiveBenefits
Social Norms
Greenwashing
Pro-Environmental Attitude
Satisfaction
IntentionalBehaviour
RepurchaseBehaviour
RecommendationTo
others
Loyalty
31
Source: Adapted from Soongil and Yoon (2015)
2.3.2 The four factors of environmental attitudes under different cultural
background
Based on the model amended from Soongil and Yoon (2015), it is illustrated by
Figure 6 that there are four fundamental dimensions shaping customer’s pro-
environmental attitude, and then leads to satisfaction, loyalty as well as intentional
behaviours, including repurchase and recommendation.
Environmental concern has been recognised as the most important issue to affect
consumers’ eco-friendly consumption since 1980s (Balderjahn 1988), and recent
studies have also stated that consumers nowadays are quite concerned at the
environmental issues in terms of the increasing environmental crisis widely presented
by media (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez 2012). According to Gosling et al.(2004),
there are a variety of different levels in terms of environmental concern among
tourists, and their cultural values affected tourists’ environmental concern the most
(Woronuk 2008).
Compared the environmental concern between the tourists in Taiwan and UK,
previous research showed that consumers in UK are highly interested in the
connection between environmental crisis and their well-beings in terms of eco-
friendly products (Bahr et al. 2004; Baker et al. 2004). Recently, Taiwanese
researchers also argued that green performance of travel accommodation gives a
competitive advantage to the hoteliers to segment the green trend. It is due to
tourists in Taiwan nowadays have more knowledge of environmental concern while
assessing the overall image of the hoteliers (Chen et al. 2006).
As for the second variable “self-expressive benefits”, Hartmann and Apaolaza-Ibáñez
(2012) suggested that consumers would like to demonstrate their characteristics and
preferences after consumption. In order to receive the psychological reward and
recognition from others, consuming the eco-friendly accommodation is one of the
best perceptions to demonstrate their environmental concern (Hartmann & Apaolaza-
Ibáñez 2008). According to Aaker and Schmitt (1997), they demonstrated the subject
32
of self expressive in consumer behaviours under the influence of cultural values. It
refers to the customers in Collectivist culture, such as Taiwan and China, tend to
recognise “brand” as one way to identify the similarities in one group (Aaker &
Schmitt 1997). On the contrary, the consumers in the Individualism culture, such as
UK and USA, present their characteristic through the brand they choose (Luna &
Gupta 2001).
When looking at self-expressive benefits in relation to green hotels, it is evident to
discover that self-expressive benefits appeal to customers in both UK and Taiwan to
get information of green hotels (Hartmann & Apaolaza-Ibáñez 2006). The customers
in Individualist countries like UK tend to purchase the eco-friendly hotels owing to
personal responsibility to environmental crisis (Jin & Shriar 2013). However, the
consumers in Collectivist culture like Taiwan regard the green accommodation as a
way to demonstrate the identity in one specific group or lifestyle (Cruz-Cárdenas et
al. 2016), such as the LOHAS (Lifestyle of Health and Sustainability) values
widespread in Taiwan recently ( Lohas online 2016).
Social norms are also a key factor to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude
and then intentional behaviours. According to Peattie (2010), social norms are
defined as the expected behaviours in a specific social context which demonstrate
how people to act in a given situation, and being disobedient to the social norms of
environmental problems also leads to unsatisfying services and even the illegal
behaviours to most of the tourists in hotels (Zukin & Maguire 2004). As Kim et al.
(2012) conducted a survey of the relationships between social norms and
consumer’s intention to consume green products, they discovered that injunctive
social norms issued by local government have a stronger impact on consumer’s
attitudes to select green accommodation than the normal descriptive social norms.
Applying the social norms to the cross-cultural comparisons in green hotels, Reese et
al. (2014) discovered that the numbers of tourists’ towel-use in the hotels of central
UK are reducing more when they meet the national or provincial messages issued by
local government, rather than the standard normal messages globally. The same
situation is also applied to Taiwan, there is recent survey demonstrating if the social
norm message in the hotels including the conformity with the environmental
33
regulation, there will be more tourists willing to get involved in the environmental
programme in hotels (Teng et al. 2012).
Compared with the previous three factors, “greenwashing” is regarded as the
strategy to obtain a green brand image to appeal to tourists, referring to the
misleading act concerning environmental awareness or the eco-friendly strategy
presented by hoteliers with the view to appealing to consumers (Delmas & Burbano
2011; Chen & Chang 2013). With the numbers of the eco-friendly hotels increasing
recently, hoteliers attempt to be competitive by meeting consumer’s environmental
concerns; nevertheless, there are many firms advocating the green practices of the
accommodation but indeed they fail to deal with the green performances (Bowen &
Aragon-Correa 2014).
Moreover, tourists nowadays have the tendency to be skeptical about the authenticity
of green hotels, and tourists’ confusion regarding the green image which hoteliers
attempt to demonstrate to the public may also change customer’s attitudes toward
green hotels (Nilasy et al. 2013).
Figure 2.5 The average country-level beliefs in favour of competition and
individual responsibility, 2002-2008
34
Source: Amended from Roulet and Touboul (2015)
According to the survey conducted by Roulet and Touboul (2015), the countries that
believe that competitiveness is an important factor to assess a company’s
performance also have cultural values which lead to a tendency to get involved in
greenwashing. As figure 5 shows that countries, which believe the competition are
the key issues for the economic growth, including China, Taiwan, Singapore, Egypt,
Indonesia, are more likely to operate the greenwashing strategy to change
customer’s attitudes toward the brand images (Lim & Tsutsui 2012).
On the contrary, if the countries, which believe the virtue of individual responsibility,
have the tendency to assess the performance of cooperation by their concrete
participation in green operation (Jackson & Apostolakou 2010). Furthermore, those
individual countries believe the cultural values of corporation social responsibility, so
the customers also take the eco-friendly performance into consideration, as one
35
factor to evaluate the C.S.R (Cooperation Social Responsibility)(Jones & Nisbet
2011). Customers of countries including Switzerland, US, New Zealand, and UK, are
more willing to confirm the green performance before purchasing the green labels
(Maignan & Ralston 2002).
All of these four factors result in the different levels of pro-environmental attitude, and
then they influence the satisfaction and the repurchase behaviour after the
consumption. The next chapter will discuss customer’s satisfaction and intentional
behaviour after the experience in green hotels.
36
2.4 Consumer satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour in green hotels
2.4.1 Cross-cultural comparisons and consumer satisfaction in green hotels
Consumer satisfaction (C.S), also named as customer satisfaction, has been
recognised as the major strategic consideration for most tourist and hospitality
enterprises as customers are their only source for return on investment (R.O.I) (Hill &
Alexander 2006). As Tsoukatos and Rand (2006) defined customer’s satisfaction, it
showed that in order to expand market share, the cooperation needs to fulfill
consumer’s satisfaction by providing services or products based on customer’s
demands. The reasons why most enterprises nowadays lose original customers and
suffer from financial losses of around 10 to 30 percent annually is because they focus
on searching for new sources of customers and innovation rather than maintaining
their existing customer satisfaction base and original brand image
(Mohsen,Mohammadreza & Majid 2012). Therefore, measuring customer satisfaction
is needed to be established, to realise what consumers’ needs are, and based on the
understanding of consumer’s satisfaction, there will be a more precise method to
formulate an effective strategy for the firms to develop their consumer base. (Tabibi
et al. 2015).
As Sen and Bhattacharya (2001) stated that the green performance of hotels has the
positive connection with customer’s emotional needs in satisfaction, there are also
other research supporting the subject that green tourists might experience feelings of
well-being when they behave altruistically, especially for those tourists who strive for
the moral satisfaction (Hartmann & Ibanez 2006). Following after the context,
according to Manaktola and Jauhari (2007), the green operation of hotels are not
necessary for tourists as a factor to affect satisfaction and the service quality is the
key factor to influence consumer’s satisfaction (Eisingerichet al. 2011). Therefore,
based on the survey conducted by Luo and Li (2013), even though tourists in UK and
Taiwan nowadays recognise the eco-friendly values of green hotels, the essential
determinant of consumer’s satisfaction is still the service quality and physical
equipment of hotels.
37
With green practices of hotels increasing in popularity nowadays, assessing
satisfaction of consumption experience under different cultural backgrounds is more
challengeable owing to the diversified values of culture (Bolton & Mathew 2003). As
Kotler (2003) presented four characteristics of the service industry, he illustrated that
the cross-cultural enterprises always meet the challenges of inseparability, variability,
intangibility, and perishability. Even though the green initiatives have already been
taken into account for the travelling trend recently, however, most of the customers
still keep the satisfaction or even remain loyal to the hotels based on the concrete
service sectors rather than whether it is green or not (Kamal & Vinnie 2007).
Compared with the tangible services such as the facilities of gyms, pool, spa, or
guest rooms, most of the green practitioners tend to attach the psychological and
emotional needs for the tourist’s environmental awareness or even self-esteems
(Sen & Bhattacharya 2001). Based on the characteristics cited from Kotler, the green
hoteliers tend to link the affective award with the intangible and the imperishable
values of green lodging, and the customer’s self actualisation after getting involved in
the green travelling may be satisfied with the positive emotions (Gutierrez & Seva
2016).
As for inseparability and variability, the brand images of green initiatives strive to
fulfill the ideas of the green movement or even create the values and expectations for
green tourists. Customer’s satisfaction is determined by customer emotional awards
and their feedback in relation to green experiences after purchasing is important. In
other words, the eco-friendly resources and facilities are tightly connected with the
brand image of those green initiatives (D’Souza, Taghian & Lamb 2006), and
moreover, the services or even the operation strategies are all varied with the newest
environmental policies and trend (Gutierrez & Seva 2016). Therefore, while applying
the green practices to the hospitality industry under cross-cultural comparisons, most
of the green hoteliers nowadays tend to emphasise the eco-label images identified by
green certificate to convey the environmental friendly messages publicly, such as
“biodegradable”,” ozone-friendly”, or “eco-friendly” (D’Souza 2000). Consumers may
perceive the eco-label before purchasing, and they are willing to pay premiums to
those green lodgings by recognising the green certificates (Bruce & Laroiya 2007).
Here, this study aims to analyse the intentional behaviours after purchasing, and
38
clarifying the factors of satisfaction to influence the willingness to repurchase under
different cultural background.
2.4.2 Satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour in green hotels
According to recent study, it has already been verified that there is positive
connection among satisfaction, loyalty and repurchase behaviours in the green hotels
(Han & Yoon 2015). According to Laazi et al.(2016), consumer’s satisfaction has
become a fundamental database for most of the enterprises to enhance the service
quality or innovate the new products, and also satisfaction is regarded as the vital
concern to maintain customer’s loyalty; furthermore, loyalty will have impacts on
repurchase behaviour and positive word of mouth(WOM).
Repurchase behaviour is defined as the success to form the long-term and profitable
relationship with customers, based on the strategy of organisation to fulfil the
promises to customers (Carpenter & Fairhurst 2005). In addition to the intention to
repurchase, the positive WOM can also be taken as an indicator to assess
customer’s satisfaction and loyalty to one brand (Yi & La 2004). Consumers will
repurchase or recommend one product to others due to the great satisfaction with
one brand (Bennett & Rundle - Thiele 2004). Therefore, the question of how to make
the tourists who experience their first-time green experience come back for
repurchasing in the future, turns out to be the most challenging task for the green
hoteliers.
Although there still remains problems recently to confirm the connection between the
relationship between loyalty and repurchase behavior; however,
as Choi and Parsa (2006) presented that actual services of green lodging industry,
which customers indeed experience in their hotels, are actually the key issue to affect
consumer’s satisfaction and maintain loyalty. Also, there are more studies presenting
that customer’s psychological reward, such as the recognition and identification
toward the green practices of the hoteliers, will lead to repurchase behaviours
(Bhattacharya & Sen 2004). According to Kang et al. (2012), consumer’s satisfaction
with green hotels may rely on the actual service quality; however, if the green
39
performance of hoteliers is highly connected to the green practitioners, then
consumers are more willing to repurchase or recommend to others.
With globalisation widespread, Ueltschy et al.(2007) suggested that international
hotel chains should not assume the individual consumer’s satisfaction will represent
local consumer patterns, especially when the cross-country firms would like to take
standardisation to fit the innovative product to a foreign culture. As Jiang and
Rosebloom (2005) suggested that most of the customers in Asian countries, like
China or Taiwan, tend to be ignorant of the values of eco-friendly facilities and
services when they experience the green accommodation at first. Therefore, the
hoteliers should educate their tourists about actually what green hotels are, shaping
their green loyalty further (Jiang & Rosebloom 2005). Laroche et al. (2004) also
suggested that even though the concepts of green hotels are prevalent over
conventional hotels in UK, however, most of the tourists who visit them still remain
ignorant as to whether the hotels they stay in are eco-friendly or not. It is crucial for
the tourists who just firstly experience the green operation to deepen their
understanding of eco-friendly facilities or the green management regarding green
hotels (Hays & Ozretic´-Došen 2014).
40
2.5 Research Gap
A review of the present studies in green products has revealed that most of the
research still remains in the stage of looking at how green practices affect
consumer’s behaviour based on the green performance of lodging industry (Han et
al. 2011), but fewer studies have been undertaken into the framework of cross-
cultural comparisons applied to consumer’s satisfaction and intentional behaviours in
green hotels (Millar & Baloglu 2011).
The future research should focus on more than just the green trend of the hospitality
industry, but attempt to find out the elements among each sectors of cross-cultural
customer’s behaviour (Soongil & Yoon 2015).
The following are the three suggestions that the cross-cultural consumer behaviours
in green hotels may be applied to in the future:
1. The multi-dimensions of emotions and the customer’s behaviours
2. The cross-cultural analysis of consumer’s satisfaction based on green experience
on the travelling guide websites
3. The cross-cultural comparisons of intentional behaviours in green hotels
It has been proven that green practices of hoteliers can boost customer’s positive
emotions. However, based on the research of Dube and Menon (2010), the two
dimensions of emotion positive and negative, are not sufficient to explain the attitude
and consumer’s behaviours. Furthermore, further psychological analysis is needed to
assess customer’s multi-dimensions of attitudes and behaviours.
Also, as the global economy has been growing steadily recently, to understand the
customer’s satisfaction under different cultural background seems to be a more
effective method to maintain the customer’s database (Gilbert et al. 2004). With the
development of the co-creation of the third party traveling websites, such as Trip
Advisors or Booking.com, it is easier for the lodging industry to obtain tourists’
satisfaction in terms of their experiences (Cruz & Marques 2014). Hence, research in
on-line surveys, including the third party traveling guide, is also another approach to
obtain a deeper understanding of customer’s demands and satisfaction.
41
Finally, when it comes to the intention to repurchase, most of the research nowadays
is still concentrated on the general hospitality industry. There are still fewer studies
which are focused on the customer’s consumption relationship with green hotels
(Song et al. 2012). To some extent, the green practices of hoteliers may also apply to
the actual segmentation strategy, not just the academics (Takács-Sánta 2007).
42
Chapter 3 Methodology
3.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the choice of research methodology, and also covers
the research questions and hypothesis in terms of the topic of this study. In
addition, there will be the theoretical background of the research methods, and
the comparison of quantitative and qualitative research. In addition, this
chapter will also discuss the reliability and validity of the measurement.
3.2 The analysis of hypothesis
Due to the research aims and objectives mentioned in chapter 1, considering
there are large amount of statistical factors and correlation among each factor,
the followings are the functions of SPSS applied to explore the main findings
to the hypothesis.
(1) Descriptive Statistics
(2) Characteristic Information
(3) Correlation and Significance
(4) Impact Studies
3.2.1 Descriptive statistics
Descriptive statistics are employed to organise the original datas and present
the basic features of samples in a more logical way, such as the bar charts or
pie graphs. Generally, the descriptive statistics are adapted to the summaries
of demographic information (Powell 2004). As Trochim (2002) stated that the
method of descriptive statistics is commonly utilised to demonstrate the
quantitative descriptions in an arranged form. This research therefore presents
the charts to analyse of demographic factors and the 4 variables which shape
customer’s pro-environmental attitudes, including environmental concern, self-
expressive benefits, social norms, and the green-washing strategy (Soongil &
Yoon 2015).
3.2.2 Characteristics Information
43
Factor analysis, one of the function of SPSS, is mainly utilised in the
characteristics information (Cooper & Schindler 2003). In this research, the
characteristics information identifies the characteristic of each variable, such
as frequency and percentage.
3.2.3 Correlation and Significance
To analyse the significance, this study adopts the simple correlation to explore
the relationship of two groups. In general, it is vital to analyse the non-normal
distribution by examining the T Test for two independent variables (Tolmie et
al. 2011), and to see whether the correlation of two groups is significant or not.
With the view to examining the hypothesis testing, this research reviews the
significant level (sig.) (2-tailed). By exploring the value of significant level, this
survey demonstrates the correlation between the independent variables and
satisfaction, loyalty and repurchase intention of tourists who have ever stayed
in Green hotels in Taiwan and UK. Owing to the majority of 2-tailed value
beginning with the level of significance (sig.) less than 0.01 (P<0.01), this
research will present the significance relationship less than 0.01(sig<0.01)
between independent variable and dependent variable (Plewis, 1997)
3.2.4 Impact Studies
According to Tolmie et al. (2012), it is essential to discover the impacts of
satisfaction and loyalty factors on the repurchase behaviour in business
studies. Therefore, this study adopts the regression function of SPSS, Linear
Regression, to explore the significance impacts of the following three
variables, satisfaction, loyalty, recommendation and repurchase behaviour.
Through the analysis of the relationship among these factors mentioned
above, the linear regression can demonstrate the results of the hypothesis.
44
3.3 The development of hypothesis
This framework of hypothesis is amended from the model proposed by
Soongil and Yoon (2015). As the previous studies showed that the theory of
reasoned action (TRA) is the most influential model to explain customer’s
willingness and purchase behaviours(Fishbein & Ajzen 1975), Soongil and
Yoon (2015) modified TRA into the model which illustrates consumer’s
behaviour under the influence of self-identity, ethical obligation, psychological
factors and corporate social responsibility(CSR). Soongil and Yoon’s model
clearly identified the factors which shape customer’s pro-environmental
attitude in the social and cultural context, so this study adopts their model to
illustrate the variables of consumer’s environmental attitude, satisfaction and
repurchase intention regarding green hotels.
Figure 3.1 Framework of hypothesis
EnvironmentalConcern
45
Self-Expressive
Benefits
Pro-environmental
Attitude
Satisfaction
IntentionalBehaviour
Recommendation to others
H1
H2
H3
H5 H6
46
SocialNorms
Loyalty
RepurchaseBehaviour
H4
H5H6
47
Source: Amended from Soongil and Yoon (2015)
According to the framework of hypothesis, the
followings are the hypothesis of the research:
Hypothesis1: This research assumes the relationship of environmental
concern, one of the factor to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude, and
customer’s pro-environmental attitude toward green hotels between Taiwan
and UK.
Hypothesis 2: The next factor which shapes customer’s environmental attitude
is self-expressive benefits. This research assumed that people have the
tendency to express their contribution to the environment when purchasing the
green products. Therefore, this research examines the relationship of self-
expressive benefits and customer’s attitude towards green hotels between
Taiwan and UK.
Hypothesis 3: This research assumes social norm is also one of the factors to
shape pro-environmental attitude. People are deeply motivated by the social
norms and adapted their behaviours in a certain context of social norms
(Goldstein et al. 2008). Thus, through this hypothesis, this survey will explore
the connection of social norms and customer’s attitude toward green hotels
between Taiwan and UK.
Hypothesis 4: The final variable to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude is
greenwashing, which refers to the strategy that the hoteliers attempt to mislead
customer’s attitude toward the eco-friendly image of their travel accommodation
(Chen et al. 2013). Due to the widespread distrusts among tourists toward
greenwashing lodging industry, this research assumes that the greenwashing will
have the impacts on customer’s environmental attitude. Therefore, this research
explores the relationship of customer’s attitude toward greenwashing and perception
regarding green hotels between Taiwan and UK.
Hypothesis 5 : This research assumes consumer’s pro-environmental attitude has
an overall impact on satisfaction and loyalty in green hotels, so the analysis
GreenWashing
48
examines whether environmental attitude has the impact on satisfaction and loyalty
regarding green hotels.
Hypothesis 6: This research assumes that customer’s satisfaction and loyalty
in green hotels has an effect on customer’s intentional behaviour, including
recommendation to others and repurchase behaviour.
49
3.4 Research philosophy and approach
3.4.1 Research philosophy
It is essential for researchers to understand the method of philosophical
commitment in terms of the investigated topics (Saundars, Lewis & Thornhill
2009). To deepen and discuss the research topic, it is fundamental to select
the appropriate methodology, hypothesis, and the research strategy.
According to Collis and Hussey (2003), the research methodology can be
categorised as the “Pragmatism”,”Interpretivism”, “Realism”, and “Positivism”.
Positivism is the major philosophical concepts regarding the factor analysis,
the theoretical background of the studies, and the results of mathematical
measurement. One of the positivism approach is called quantitative method,
mainly discussing the subject of numerical data collecting, statistical
measurement, and confirmation of hypothesis (Cameron & Price 2009). As for
the “Qualitative research”, it is mainly based on the Interpretivism. Qualitative
research is the method taken rooted in the interviews, and non-statistical data.
It can deepen the research topic and understand the research samples
completely (Hair et al. 2010).
According to Bryman and Bell (2011), quantitive method is widely utilised in
the business and management studies, and it is also applied to the tourism
academics since 1980s. Owing to the previous chapters demonstrating the
research questions and framework of hypothesis based on the statistical data,
and with the view to strengthening the accuracy of measurement and the
validity of figures in this study, this research adopts the quantitive method to
analyse the relationship of customer’s environmental attitude, satisfaction, and
intentional behaviour.
3.4.2 Research approach: Quantitative method
Quantitative method is one of the most common methods in Positivism
(Amaratunga et al. 2002). Due to the attribute of the quantitative method in
50
terms of the hypothesis development, data collecting, measurement of
statistics, as well as analysis of variables, thus, it is essential for researchers
to receive a large number of respondences in order to obtain more precise
measurement of results (Veal 2006; Johns and Darren 1998). Finn, Elliot and
Walton (2000) suggested that the quantitative research is the method to
examine and review the existing theory, to verify if the statistical data matches
the hypothesis of the aims and objectives in the research.
The research aims at determining what the factors shape consumer’s pro-
environmental attitudes under different cultural backgrounds of Taiwan and
the UK. It also discusses the cross-cultural impact of satisfaction and loyalty
regarding green hotels. In addition, this study examines post-purchase
behaviours, including the recommendation to others and the intention to
repurchase. Therefore, considering a huge amount of factor analysis and
impact studies, quantitative research is the most suitable method for this
research.
3.4.3 Research approach: Qualitative method
Piantanida and Garman (1999) stated that the qualitative research is
concentrated on non-numerical data collection. Considering the attribute of the
research purpose, most researchers who take the qualitative method will take
a different approach to maintain the quality of the data, such as interview,
observation, or they will use a focus group (Saunders et al. 2007). With the
lack of previous research results, the qualitative research is highly related to
the research still under development, especially when researchers would like
to discuss a new observation or deepen an existing theory (Creswell 2003).
Due to the data collection and analysis in this study based on the
mathematical measurement, also, there is a large amount of data analysis
focused on the variables of consumer’s behaviour, which the previous studies
have already discovered the related results to the hypothesis in this study.
Therefore, this research will take the quantitative method rather than
qualitative.
51
3.5 Data collection methods
3.5.1 Primary and Secondary data collecting
According to Chisnall (2005), there are two types of method to collect data;
one is primary data and the other is secondary data. The secondary data
collection is based on the research data from the available publications, such
as the journals, organisation reports, financial reviews, official statistics, and
even from newspapers or magazines. Due to the verification by previous
scholars, the secondary data is mainly utilised for the literature review, and it
is also the foundation to set up the framework of hypothesis and theoretical
background of analysis(Wilson et al. 2012).
As for primary data collection, it is based on the hypothesis, observation,
collecting, analysing data, and then confirmation to the validity of
measurement. The primary data can be employed to the qualitative and
quantitative research. As for this study, it takes the primary data collected by
the use of questionnaires, the quantitative method. In general, the secondary
data is focused on the existing data or available statistics in contrast to the
primary data collecting (Bryman & Bell 2007).
Though the secondary data is verified by previous studies, however, the
primary data is straight from the respondents and participants. Compared with
the subjective research bias from the original researchers of the secondary
data (Baxter 2010), the primary approach is more available for the valid
statistical results, so this research will take primary data for the hypothesis and
main findings. As for the literature review, it is mainly based on the secondary
data.
3.5.2 Research Tool
Saunders (2007) presented that the use of questionnaires is the most
dominant tool to adapt in the quantitative research for primary data collecting.
Through a variety of distributions, Sakaran (2003) suggested that
52
questionnaires can be distributed to the respondents directly, or through online
platforms, such as questionnaires by Google forms. The benefits of
questionnaires are objectives, and they are not time-consuming for the
respondents rather than the group discussion or the use of interviews for
qualitative research (Saunders et al. 2003). This research will collect data
through questionnaires, and it will employ the questionnaires by google form
and completion in person.
53
3.6 Data collection and analysis
3.6.1 Data collection
Considering the accessibility and availability to obtain responses efficiently,
online survey is a popular method to undertake questionnaires (Kim, OK &
Canter 2010). According to recent research, there is more academic research
in hospitality industry employed for collecting data online (Han & Kim 2009;
Han et al., 2009). Therefore, this research collects the data via the online
survey tool, “Google Form”, and self completion method.
The questionnaires will be collected from two groups, including 150 samples
from Taiwanese online or in person, and 150 samples from UK in such pattern
as well.
According to Malhotra and Birks (2007), by examining the size of the collected
samples, the research can explore the overall components in each issue and
situation. The following chapters are the illustration for the sampling method
and size.
3.6.2 Sampling method
According to Bergh and Ketchen (2009), convenience sampling is
suitable for low cost research. Convenience sampling is useful not only
for research with limited funds, but for short lead-time data collection as
well. In addition, Kothari (2008) also suggested that convenience
sampling is the appropriate method to set up a systematic survey
without getting involved in a large population frame, as convenience
sampling concentrates only on one specific sampling group.
Concerning the topic of this study, it attempts to
find out the comparison between British and Taiwanese tourists’ pro-
environmental attitude, satisfaction and intentional behaviour regarding
green hotels. It is more appropriate to represent the entire population
by one specific sampling group, only for British and Taiwanese
respondents who had the experience in green hotels before. Therefore,
the target sampling group will be concentrate on the tourists who have
54
the green consumption pattern in green hotels rather than the entire
population frame.
3.6.3 Sampling size
The sampling size refers to the valid and reliable quantity of the respondents
(Malhotra & Birks 2007). In light of the difficulty in examining the entire
population, all of the British and Taiwanese green tourists who stayed in green
hotels before, this research will therefore only examine the reliable and valid
samples collected from the respondents, who had green consumption in
hotels, before analysing through SPSS to represent the whole population.
According to Cooper and Schindler (2003), researchers who adopt the
convenience sampling method are suggested to collect at least 300 samples
to represent the entire population framework. In order to analyse the impacts
of cross-cultural comparisons on consumer’s pro-environmental attitude,
satisfaction and intentional behaviour in green hotels, the questionnaire in this
study is designed in two languages, English and Chinese.
Concerning the validity and reliability of the survey, the questionnaires will be
collected from 300 samples from two groups, including 150 Taiwanese
samples in Chinese mainly online and a few in person, and 150 British
samples in English based on mainly self completion. The online collection is
mainly from the Google form, respondents complete the questionnaires via
Google Form and the data will be collected from the tourists who had the
green consumption while travelling.
3.6.4 Ethical Consideration
As a researcher, it is important to not cause the respondents any harm.
Therefore, this research will assure any personal or private information of the
respondents remains confidential throughout the whole questionnaires and
survey. It is also vital that individuals will not be identifiable when the findings
55
are published. For the purpose of it, the respondents who fill in the
questionnaires will remain anonymous.
Before the survey of the questionnaires, a consent form page will be attached
to inform the confidential and privacy principles both on line and for self
completion, so that the questionnaires will be collected under the mutual
agreement. All of the reasons given for the research will also be attached in
the questionnaires and on-line form, and the respondents will be explicitly
informed of the background of the survey by the instruction on the form.
3.6.5 Pilot study
A pilot study is employed to pretest for the sample respondents before
distributing to the target respondents (Finn et al. 2000). The purpose of the
pilot study tends to examine the validity and reliability of the questionnaires,
and it also tests if the sample size matches the results of the literature review
or not (Saunders et al. 2007). Applying the pilot study to this research, the pre-
test will distribute 30 sample tests to the tourists, 15 for Taiwanese and 15 for
British. As Gilbert suggested that the pilot study can indicate whether there are
any problems with the questionnaires, and it also enhances the
misunderstanding or unclear options for the respondents to answer the
questions.
56
3.7 Survey development
The questionnaires of this research are divided into four sections,
including Section 1 “demographics information”, Section 2 ”the factors
shaping customer’s pro-environmental attitude”, Section 3 ”the
relationship among pro-environmental attitude, satisfaction and loyalty”,
and Section 4 “the repurchase and recommendation behaviour in green
hotels”. Owing to the research aims and objectives, this questionnaire
is only for the respondents who have stayed in green hotels before, so
the first question on the questionnaire, ”Have you ever stayed in green
hotels before”, is trying to filter the valid samples from all of the
distribution. The following is the background profile of each section in
the questionnaire.
In Section 1, there are 6 questions, which tend to find out the
respondents’ demographics including gender, age, nationality,
education level, family status, and income rank. This section attempts
to collect the tourists’ demographic information and discuss the
descriptive statistics of the green tourists from Taiwan and UK.
In Section 2, there are 10 questions related to the factors of cultural
values which shape customer’s pro-environmental attitudes, including “
Environmental Concern”,” Self-Expressive”,” Social Norm”, and “ Green
Washing”. The environmental concern refers to the attitudes toward the
environmental problems and awareness. As for the self-expressive, it
demonstrates the values through which green tourists will get the
psychologically rewarded while selecting the eco-friendly
accommodation. Cultural values are always influenced by people’s
living environment and society, so the social norms will also be
regarded as variables to discuss if it affect people’s motivation for
purchasing green hotels or not. The final one is green washing, which
relates to the strategy that hoteliers tend to promote the green brand
image to the customers but in reality they do not achieve green
practices. There are five options in each question, referring to the
57
degree to which the respondents reply to the questions ranging from
extreme disagreement to extreme agreement. The respondents are to
answer these questions based on their personal experiences.
Due to the design of the questionnaires regarding the satisfaction and
intentional behaviour in green hotels, Part 3 of this questionnaire is
regarding the satisfaction and loyalty toward green hotels, and there
are three questions which are employed to assess respondents’
feedbacks after the real experiences in green accommodation. Also,
this part will also interact with Part 2 to analyse the correlations
between these two sections.
As for Part 4 of this survey, it is directed at the intentional behaviour
toward green hotels in the future, comprising of 5 questions in terms of
the intention to repurchase and the recommendation to others. Owing
to part 4 is also affected by satisfaction as well as loyalty, there will also
analysis of the relations between part 3 and part 4.
58
3.8 Limitation
1. The major limitation of the survey in this research is looking for
the tourists who had experiences in green hotels before. It is
time-consuming to search for the respondents who have ever
stayed in green hotels to fill in the questionnaires. The
questionnaire is trying to filter the valid questionnaires from 664
samples, only 334 samples are valid owing to the respondents
who have ever stayed in green hotels.
2. Due to the attribute of cross-cultural comparisons in this
research, the design of questionnaire should take any language
translation barriers into account. It therefore will take more time
for the research to collect the valid and reliable samples. The
design of questionnaires should also fit into the understandings
for local residents, such as the education section and annual
household income. This research takes more time for interpret
the options of the questions to make a mutual understanding for
respondents in both countries.
3. It is time-consuming to collect the data between both countries,
especially when the researcher tried to contact the respondents
who had experiences in green hotels. Through the contact with
the respondents who stayed in green hotels both in Taiwan and
UK, there are many invalid data owing to lack of experiences in
green hotels.
4. Most British tourists require high privacy. Therefore, conveying
the ideas of the promise to keep the personal and confidential
information highly confidential takes time for English
respondents. Also, with the pilot test undertaken, there was
modification in the income section due to the sensitivity of
personal income. Therefore, this research encounters the
unexpected feedback in terms of personal privacy section of
questionnaires.
5. The pilot tests of the English questionnaires were mainly for the
English native speakers in UK. Through the pilot test, the
59
questionnaires were presented the problems that some
academic terms, such as “greenwashing”, “psychological
reward”, are quite vague concepts for respondents in pre-test.
Although there were modification and explicit statement for the
academic term attached to make the questions simply
understand, however, there were still some respondents replying
the section of greenwashing is too academic to understand.
60
CHAPTER 4
MAIN FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
The main aim of this research is to give a critical analysis of the comparisons
between tourists in Taiwan and UK regarding their perceptions of pro-
environmental attitudes, satisfaction and intentional behaviour in green hotels.
First of all, the study focuses on the comparisons of demographic
characteristics. It demonstrates the comparisons of gender, family status, age,
education, and household annual income between UK and Taiwan.
Secondly, it identifies and compares differences in descriptive statistics across one or
more factors between Taiwan and UK. This research adopts the Means function of
SPSS to identify the characteristics information of the collected samples. The
analysis includes the Means, Standard Deviation, and the interpretation of each of
the variables. With the difference of cultural backgrounds influencing customer’s
attitudes and behaviours, a focus is made on the comparisons of dimensions in
different nationalities which shape customers’ pro-environmental attitude. It also
attempts to find out whether the dimensions of environmental attitude cause any
differences of satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour between UK and Taiwan
tourists In addition, there is a comparison of the total means of each questions,
interpreting the overall mean score of both countries.
The mean score of this survey will be weighted into the category as follow:
1. For data of Taiwanese and British tourists’ pro-environmental attitude
regarding the levels of perception toward green hotels, they were analysed
and interpreted as five levels. These were as follows:
1.00 – 1.80 = Lowest valuable
1.81 – 2.60 = Slightly valuable
2.61 – 3.40 = Neutral
3.41 – 4.20 = Much valuable
4.21 – 5.00 = Strong valuable
61
2. In terms of data regarding satisfaction and loyalty toward green hotels
for Taiwanese and British tourists, they were also analysed and interpreted as
five levels. These were as follows:
1.00 – 1.80 = Lowest influence
1.81 – 2.60 = Slight influence
2.61 – 3.40 = Neutral
3.41 – 4.20 = Much influence
4.21 – 5.00 = Strong influence
3. For data regarding influence of satisfaction and loyalty over the levels
of intentional behaviour in green hotels for the tourists both in Taiwan and UK,
they were analysed and interpreted as five levels including:
1.00 – 1.80 = Lowest influence
1.81 – 2.60 = Slightly influence
2.61 – 3.40 = Neutral
3.41 – 4.20 = Much influence
4.21 – 5.00 = Strong influence
Finally, this analysis also attempts to discover whether the correlation of
environmental attitudes leads to the different results in customer’s satisfaction,
loyalty, and intentional behaviour regarding green hotels. Through SPSS, the
main findings comprises of two functions, T-test and Linear Regression, in
order to explore the correlation among each variables shown in the hypothesis
in last chapter.
62
Table 4.1 The comparisons of respondents’s nationality
The tool used in this study was to gather questionnaires from the sample
group of 664 people. To filter the valid questionnaires, the first question of this
survey attempts to delete the invalid responses which have no experience of
green hotels before. Through the process of filtering, there were finally 334
valid responses, as the table shows above.
63
Frequency Percent Valid percent Cumulative Percent
Nationality Number % % %
British Citizen 150 44.91 44.9 44.9
Taiwanese Citizen
184 55.09 55.09 100
Total 334 100.0 100.0
4.2 The comparisons of demographic profile of tourists between Taiwan
and UK who have ever stayed in green hotels
Table 4.2 The comparisons of demographic information regarding green
tourists between UK and Taiwan
Demographic Profiles Frequency Percent
UKGender :MaleFemale
9456
62.7037.30
Family Status :SingleMarried without childrenMarried with childrenRetired
49207110
32.6713.3347.33 6.67
Age :20 - 30 years old31 - 40 years old41 - 50 years old51 - 60 years oldMore than 60 years old
116149209
7.3340.6732.6713.33 6.00
Education:A LevelBachelor’s degreePostgraduate ( Master’s degree )Postgraduate ( Doctor’s degree )
3057567
20.0038.0037.33 4.67
Household annual income ( Gross) :Less than 28,100 G.B.P28,101 G.B.P - 33,100 G.B.P33,101 G.B.P - 38,000 G.B.P38,001 G.B.P - 43,000 G.B.P43,001 G.B.P - 48,000 G.B.P48,001 G.B.P and above
6617156838
44.0011.3310.00 4.00 5.3325.33
Total 150 100.00
TaiwanGender :MaleFemale
10579
57.0742.93
Family Status :SingleMarried without childrenMarried with childrenRetired
105392416
57.0721.2013.03 8.70
Age :20 - 30 years old 61 33.15
64
Demographic Profiles Frequency Percent
31 - 40 years old41 - 50 years old51 - 60 years oldMore than 60 years old
4636329
25.0019.5717.39 4.89
Education:A LevelBachelor’s degreePostgraduate ( Master’s degree )Postgraduate ( Doctor’s degree )
40775611
21.7441.8530.43 5.98
Household annual income ( Gross) :Less than 28,100 G.B.P28,101 G.B.P - 33,100 G.B.P33,101 G.B.P - 38,000 G.B.P38,001 G.B.P - 43,000 G.B.P43,001 G.B.P - 48,000 G.B.P48,001 G.B.P and above
128196832
69.57 0.54 4.89 3.26 4.3517.39
Total 184 100.00
Total respondents 334 100
Based on Figure 4.2, it demonstrated frequency and percentage of demographic
information of 150 British respondents and 184 Taiwanese respondents as follows:
According to Figure 4.2, gender profile of 150 British tourists who have ever stayed in
green hotels when traveling, males accounts for 62.7%, more than females at only
37.3%. Compared with the respondents in UK, it can be perceived that the gender
profile of the sample group of 184 Taiwanese tourists, who have ever stayed in green
hotels when travelling, males account for 57.07%, more than females at only 42.93%.
The statistics of gender profile demonstrates that the tourists who have ever stayed
in green hotels in both countries are both male dominated.
As for family status for the respondents in UK, the highest rank is families with
children accounting for 71 people or 47.33 %, and the second highest rank is single,
accounting for 49 people or 32.67 %. On the contrary, as the statistics shown in the
family status in Taiwan, the highest rank is single for 105 people or 57.07 %. The
second highest rank is married without children, accounting for 39 people or 21.20%.
It is obvious to find that up to 79% of respondents in Taiwan have no children.
Compared with the top two highest range of family status, it is worth noting that the
majority of respondents who have ever stayed in green hotels in Taiwan is single,
and the respondents of UK who have ever stayed in green hotels are concentrated
on the range of families with children.65
In terms of the age section, it is perceived that most of the tourists who have ever
stayed in green hotels in UK are in the age range of 31-40 years -,61 people,
accounting for 40.67%, and the second highest group is 41-50 years - 49 people or
32.67%. The majority of respondents in UK are the age group ranging 31-50 years
old. However, compared with the respondents in UK, it is obvious to find that the
majority of tourists in Taiwan who have ever stayed in green hotels are in the age
range of 20-30 years, 61 people, accounting for 33.15%, and the second highest in
the group is 31-40 years, accounting for 46 people or 25%. It can be perceived that
the average age for Taiwanese respondents are younger than the age of
respondents in UK regarding green hotels issues.
As for the level of education, it is discovered that most of British respondents
graduated with a bachelor’s degree -57 people, 38.00%, and the next is masters
degree -56 people, accounting for 37.33%. It is interesting to note that more than
75% of British respondents, who have ever stayed in green hotels, is ranked with
higher education above the bachelor’s degree level. On the other hand, based on the
education section in Taiwan, the majority of Taiwanese respondents who have
stayed in green hotels also graduated in bachelor’s degree, accounting for 77 people,
41.85%, and the next range is masters degree accounting for 56 people, 30.43%. In
general, it is worth noting that the majority of respondents, who have ever stayed in
green hotels in both countries, are all ranked at the higher education, above the
bachelor’s degree.
Finally, in term of household annual incomes, due to the pilot test distributed to the
British citizen, it showed only 15 out of 30 participants who had experience in green
hotels would like to leave the information of personal income. Therefore, owing to this
sensitive topic, the survey modified the annual income section to household annual
income. In addition, according to Office for National Statistics (2016), the provisional
2014/15 value of median income for non-retired households is 28,100 GBP. The
range of the household income is added by 5,000 GBP each, based on inflation and
measures of income inequality ahead of revised estimates from the Effects of Taxes
and Benefits on Household Income (Office for National Statistics 2016).
66
Based on Figure 4.2, it is found that most of the tourists in UK who have ever stayed
in green hotels have the income range less than 28,100 GBP - 66 people or 44%,
and the next highest range is over 48,001 GBP for 38 people or 25.33%. On the
other hand, according to Executive Yuan in Taiwan (Executive Yuan ROC 2016), the
average annual household income in Taiwan is NTD 1,157,926 in 2015, equal to
27,569 GDP. Through Figure 4.2, it is found that the majority of respondents in
Taiwan had an income range less than 28,100 GBP for 128 people or 69.57%, and
the second highest range is over 48,001 GBP for 32 people or 17.39%. Compared
with the household income section, it can be found that the majority of respondents
who have ever stayed in green hotels in both countries are concentrated on the
household income range, less than 28100 GDP or above 48000 GBP annually.
4.3 The characteristics profile of tourist’s environmental attitudes between Taiwan
and UK
67
4.3.1 Dimension 1: Environmental Concern
The following is the analysis of one of dimensions, Environmental Concern, shaping
tourists' pro-environmental attitudes between Taiwan and UK
Table 4.3 Dimension 1: The comparisons of Environmental Concern between
Taiwan and UK
Factor Means Standard Deviation Interpretation
UK
1. I think that we, human beings on earth, are facing serious environmental problems.
3.94 0.91 Much
valuable
2. I believe that selecting the green accommodation on vacation helps to prevent environment crisis.
3.95 0.78 Much
valuable
3. I think that obtaining information about green performance of the hotels is necessary when selecting travel accommodation.
3.94 0.91 Much
valuable
4. I agree that having news or information on the environment raises awareness of environmental concern
4.14 0.78 Much
valuable
Total 3.99 0.68 Much valuable
Taiwan
1. I think that we, human beings on earth, are facing serious environmental problems.
4.14 0.78 Much
valuable
2. I believe that selecting the green
4.00 0.81 Much
68
Factor Means Standard Deviation Interpretation
accommodation on vacation helps to prevent environment crisis.
valuable
3. I think that obtaining information about green performance of the hotels is necessary when selecting travel accommodation.
3.94 0.91 Much
valuable
4. I agree that having news or information on the environment raises awareness of environmental concern
3.94 0.91 Much
valuable
Total 4.01 0.68 Much valuable
As figure 4.3 demonstrates the analysis of Means, S.D.(Standard Deviation)
and Interpretation of the dimension of pro-environmental attitude,
environmental concern, which shapes consumers 'environmental attitude in
UK, shows that most of tourists who have ever stayed in green hotels consider
environmental concern as a valuable factor to shape environmental attitude. It
is also perceived from the chart that respondents in Taiwan also refer to
environmental concern as one valuable dimension shaping environmental
attitude.
4.3.2 Dimension 2: Self-Expressive Benefits
The question for dimension 2, Self-Expressive Benefits, is “I feel that I am a better
person when I select green accommodation for my travel itinerary”. The following is
the figure to demonstrate the comparisons between Taiwanese and British’s
perception toward dimension 2.
Table 4.4 Dimension 2: The comparisons of self - expressive benefits between
Taiwan and UK
69
Nationality Means Standard Deviation
Interpretation
UK 3.87 0.87 Much valuable
Taiwan 4.07 0.88 Much valuable
According to the analysis demonstrated above, it is evident that the average
respondents in Taiwan are more valuable in the self-expressive benefits than the
respondents in UK. Although it is shown by Figure4.4 that the average respondents
of both countries refer to self-expressive benefits as much valuable dimension to
shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude, it can still identify that the respondents
in Taiwan are more influenced by the psychological reward brought by green
consumption than the respondents in UK
4.3.3 Dimension 3: Social Norms
The following is the analysis of one of dimensions, Social Norms, shaping tourists'
pro-environmental attitudes between Taiwan and UK
Table 4.5 The comparisons of social norms between Taiwan and UK
Questions Means Standard Deviation
Interpretation
UK
1. I believe that environmental protection is an important issue when assessing the overall image of a hotel.
3.39 1.08 Neutral
2. I purchase green accommodation on vacation because of social pressure.
1.81 0.65 Slightly Valuable
Total 2.60 0.76 Slightly Valuable
Taiwan
1. I believe that environmental protection is an important issue when assessing the overall image of a hotel.
3.85 0.90 Much Valuable
2. I purchase green accommodation on vacation because of social pressure.
2.91 0.74 Neutral
70
Total 3.38 0.78 Neutral
As Figure 4.5 demonstrates the Mean, S.D and Interpretation of Perceptions of
tourists toward the dimension shaping environmental attitude: Social Norms, it can
perceive that Q1”I believe that environmental protection is an important issue when
assessing the overall image of a hotel“, the mean of 3.85 of respondents in Taiwan
is higher than the mean of 3.39 of respondents in UK.
However, in terms of Q2” I purchase green accommodation on vacation because of
social pressure”, the mean of 1.86 in UK is less than the mean of 2.91 in Taiwan.
British respondents think they purchase green accommodation is only slightly
influenced by social pressure compared to respondents in Taiwan. The average
respondents in Taiwan take a neutral attitude toward this factor, social norm, to
shape environmental attitude regarding green hotels.
It is evident from the chart that the British tourists who have ever stayed in green
hotels regard social norm as a less important dimension to shape the environmental
attitude to stay in green hotels. In comparison, the average respondents in Taiwan
refer to this factor as neutral due to there still being some moral principle influenced
by the Confucius philosophy laying deep in customers' perception toward travel
accommodation, such as the “Ecocentrism” mentioned in Ch2.
4.3.4 Dimension 4:Greenwashing
The following is the analysis of one of dimensions, Greenwashing, shaping tourists'
pro-environmental attitudes between Taiwan and UK
Table 4.6 The comparisons of Greenwashing between Taiwan and UK
Questions Means Standard Deviation Interpretation
UK
1. I think that we should pay more attention to the hotels getting involved in green washing.
4.07 0.88 Much valuable
2. I think that distrust of the green washing hotels can lead to the collapse of the
3.87 0.87 Much valuable
71
Questions Means Standard Deviation Interpretation
emerging market of green hotels.
3. I think that green washing hotels should be penalised.
3.93 0.81 Much valuable
Total 3.96 0.71 Much valuable
Taiwan
1. I think that we should pay more attention to the hotels getting involved in green washing.
4.23 0.88 Strong valuable
2. I think that distrust of the green washing hotels can lead to the collapse of the emerging market of green hotels.
4.07 0.88 Much valuable
3. I think that green washing hotels should be penalised.
4.21 0.76 Strong valuable
Total 4.1 0.74 Much valuable
It is perceived from table 4.6 that the tourists on average in both countries regard
greenwashing strategy as a valuable dimension to shape customers’ pro-
environmental attitude. However, the respondents in Taiwan believe more that the
greenwashing hotels may change the relationship between tourists’ trust and
hoteliers’ green brand image. On the contrary, the average British respondents also
take greenwashing as a potentially threatening factor to affect customers'
environmental attitude, but not as highly as the respondents from Taiwan. In addition,
as mentioned in chapter 2.3.2, the value of competitiveness and individual
responsibility, it can be observed that people with cultural values like Taiwan and
China, believe hoteliers get involved in the greenwashing strategy owing to the
competitiveness in marketplace. Therefore, the average respondents from Taiwan
agree that the phenomenon of greenwashing is unavoidable, and it should be
prevented by regulation, such as penalty. However, the respondents in UK refer to
the consumption of green hotels as the individual responsibility, and there are less
respondents in UK agreeing with the regulation to manage the phenomenon of
greenwashing in the marketplace.
72
4.4. The analysis of satisfaction and loyalty regarding green hotels between
Taiwan and UK
Table 4.7 The comparisons of customer’s satisfaction and loyalty toward green
hotels between Taiwan and UK
73
Questions Means Standard Deviation
Interpretation
UK
1. I feel satisfied with the green performance of the green hotels I have ever stayed in.
3.85 0.90 Much Influence
2. I will keep loyal to the green hotels based on their green performance.
3.40 0.81 Neutral
3. I will still feel satisfied with the green hotels I have stayed in even if I have to pay premium on it.
2.60 0.69 Slight Influence
Total 3.28 0.68 Neutral
Taiwan
1. I feel satisfied with the green performance of the green hotels I have ever stayed in.
3.57 0.78 Much Influence
2. I will keep loyal to the green hotels based on their green performance.
4.02 0.74 Much Influence
3. I will still feel satisfied with the green hotels I have stayed in even if I have to pay premium on it.
3.46 1.00 Much Influence
Total 3.68 0.69 Much Influence
Figure 4.7 regarding Question 1 of Satisfaction,“ I feel satisfied with the green
performance of the green hotels I have ever stayed in”, shows a mean of 3.85 in UK
and the mean of 3.57 in Taiwan. It can be perceived that respondents in UK are
averagely more satisfied with the green performance of green hotels they have ever
stayed in compared to the respondents from Taiwan. As for the Question 2 of
Satisfaction,” I will keep loyal to the green hotels based on their green performance”,
the mean of 4.02 in Taiwan is more than the mean of 3.40 in UK, meaning that more
green tourists in Taiwan will keep loyal to the green hotels based on the green
performance compared to green tourists from the UK. In terms of Question 3, ”I will
still feel satisfied with the green hotels I have stayed in even if I have to pay premium
on it”, it shows that the mean of 3.46 in Taiwan is more than the mean of 2.60 in UK,
which shows that more green tourists in Taiwan would like to pay more on green
hotels than the tourists in UK. Compared the total means of both countries, it is
evident to find that the respondents in UK averagely take a neutral attitude towards
74
the satisfaction and loyalty regarding green hotels which they have ever stayed in;
however, the respondents in Taiwan are a bit higher on average to feel satisfied and
loyal to the green hotels they have ever stayed in, with the mean of 3.68 in Taiwan
versus the mean of 3.28 in UK.
4.5 The analysis of intentional behaviour toward green hotels between Taiwan
and UK
Table 4.8 The comparisons of customer’s satisfaction and loyalty to influence
intentional behaviour regarding green hotels between Taiwan and UK
75
Questions Means Standard Deviation Interpretation
UK
1. I will make an effort to repurchase green accommodation that I have ever stayed in.
3.46 1.00 Much Influence
2. After the first experience of booking and staying in a green hotel, I will examine if the same hotel is still “green” when considering rebooking.
4.01 0.86 Much Influence
3. I will repurchase the green accommodation even its higher price than the same level hotels.
3.85 0.90 Much Influence
4. I will maintain loyalty to a certain green hotel if I consider they have excellent green performance.
2.22 0.66 Slight Influence
5. I will encourage my friends and relatives to stay at a green hotel when traveling.
3.59 0.86 Much Influence
Total 3.43 0.68 Much Influence
Taiwan
1. I will make an effort to repurchase green accommodation that I have ever stayed in.
3.92 0.69 Much Influence
2. After the first experience of booking and staying in a green hotel, I will examine if the same hotel is still “green” when considering rebooking.
4.00 0.80 Much Influence
3. I will repurchase the green accommodation even its higher price than the same level hotels.
3.67 1.07 Much Influence
4. I will maintain loyalty to a certain green hotel if I consider they have excellent green performance.
4.02 0.77 Much Influence
5. I will encourage my friends and relatives to stay at a green hotel when traveling.
3.99 0.73 Much Influence
Total 3.92 0.89 Much Influence
According to figure 4.8, the Q1 of intentional behaviour is “ I will make an effort to repurchase
green accommodation that I have ever stayed in”, the mean of 3.46 in UK is less than the
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mean of 3.92 in Taiwan, which indicates that the green tourists in Taiwan are more willing to
repurchase green accommodation than the green tourists in UK.
As for the Q2 of intentional behaviour is “After the first experience of booking and staying in a
green hotel, I will examine if the same hotel is still “green” when considering rebooking”, it
demonstrates that the mean of 4.01 in UK is a bit more than the mean of 4.00 in Taiwan,
showing that a higher percentage of green tourists in UK tend to check the green
performance after first green consumption than the green tourists in Taiwan.
In terms of Q3 of intentional behaviour is “ I will repurchase the green accommodation even
its higher price than the same level hotels”, it can be interpreted that the mean of 3.85 in UK
is more than the mean of 3.67 in Taiwan, which shows that the green tourists in UK are more
willing to pay a premium on price for green hotels even at the same level.
Figure 4.8 in respect of Q4 “I will maintain loyalty to a certain green hotel if I consider they
have excellent green performance” reveals a mean of 2.22 in UK and a mean of 4.02 in
Taiwan. The difference infers to that the green tourists in Taiwan are more willing to keep
loyal to a certain green hotel based on its excellent green performance compared to green
tourists in UK.
Finally, based on the figure table above, Q5 of intentional behaviour is “I will encourage my
friends and relatives to stay at a green hotel when traveling”, it can be seen that the mean of
3.59 in UK is less than the mean of 3.99 in Taiwan, which shows that the green tourists in
Taiwan tend to recommend to their friends to purchase green accommodation on vacation
more than the green tourists in UK.
Compared the total means of both countries, it is evident to find that respondents in both
countries are averagely agreeable with the influence of satisfaction and loyalty on intentional
behaviour in the future toward green hotel. However, it is still obvious that the total means for
the respondents in Taiwan is a bit higher than the total means in UK, with the mean of 3.92 in
Taiwan versus the mean of 3.43 in UK.
77
4.6 Hypothesis Testing
4.6.1 Pearson’s Correlation
With the view to exploring the relations among variables, this research adopts
Pearson’s correlation. As Emerson (2015) presented that Pearson’s
correlation can be summarised as, “A statistical measure of the strength of the
linear relationship between a pair of variables”, this research analyses the
78
data by Pearson’s Correlation in order to understand the statistical measure of
how closely two variables are correlated. The correlation between two
variables is regarded as a perfect positive relationship if the correlation
coefficient (rs) is +1. On the contrary, a value of -1 presents a perfect negative
relationship (Saunders et al. 2009). In addition, this research presents values
of ±0.1 as a weak correlation, and ±0.3 for a medium correlation and ±0.5 for a
strong correlation (Field 2009).
4.6.2 Tourists’ dimensions of environmental attitude and satisfaction toward
green hotels in Taiwan and UK
As mentioned before, this study assumes customer’s pro-environmental attitude
affects satisfaction regarding green hotels. Therefore, this study illustrates 4
dimensions which shape consumer’s environmental attitude and compare how these
4 dimensions influence tourists’ satisfaction toward green hotels between Taiwan and
UK. The following is the figure to illustrate the comparisons of correlation between
tourists’ pro-environmental attitude and satisfaction toward green hotels. Therefore,
according to the framework of hypothesis, the following figure is the comparisons for
the hypothesis testing of this study.
Table 4.9 The comparisons of dimensions of tourists’ environmental
attitude and satisfaction toward green hotels between Taiwan and UK
Pro-environmental attitude Tourists’Satisfaction
Environmental concern
Taiwan
Correlation Coefficient 0.699**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 184
UK
Correlation Coefficient 0.465**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
79
Pro-environmental attitude Tourists’Satisfaction
N 150
Self-Expressive Benefits
Taiwan
Correlation Coefficient 0.627**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 184
UK
Correlation Coefficient 0.219**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 150
Social Norms
Taiwan
Correlation Coefficient 0.130**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 184
UK
Correlation Coefficient -0.053**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 150
Greenwashing
Taiwan
Correlation Coefficient 0.419**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 184
UK
Correlation Coefficient 0.334**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 150
80
It is demonstrated by figure 4.9 that tourist’s environmental concern and self-
expressive benefits in Taiwan both have strong linear relationship with
satisfaction regarding green hotels, with a correlation coefficient of rs = 0.699
and 0.627 respectively. In addition, Figure 4.9 also illustrates the significance
value of this correlation is p < 0.001, indicating that the relationship between
all of these four attitude dimensions and satisfaction regarding green hotels as
statistically significant. Therefore, according to the chart above, it is possible to
make a conclusion that the higher level of tourists’ environmental concern and
self-expressive benefits in Taiwan, the higher level of tourist’s satisfaction
toward green hotels which they have ever stayed in.
However, on the contrary, it is shown by figure 4.9 that customers’
environmental concern has only a moderately linear relationship with
satisfaction regarding green hotels in UK, with a correlation coefficient of rs =
0.465. In addition, it is also found that customers’ self-expressive benefits has
a weakly positive linear relationship with satisfaction regarding green hotels in
UK as well, with a correlation coefficient of rs = 0.219, p<0.001. Thus, it is
possible to make a conclusion that the higher level of tourists' environmental
concern and self-expressive benefits in both countries, the higher level of
tourists’ satisfaction toward green hotels which they have ever stayed in;
though tourists’ satisfaction in Taiwan is more strongly influenced by the
environmental concern and self-expressive benefits than in UK.
In terms of the correlation between social norms and satisfaction toward green hotels
in both countries, it is evident to perceive from Figure 4.9 that social norm in Taiwan
has a weak linear relationship with tourists' satisfaction, with a correlation coefficient
of rs = 0.130 In addition, it is also identified by Figure 4.9 that the relationship
between social norms and tourists’ satisfaction toward green hotels in UK is
negatively correlated, with a correlation coefficient of rs = - 0.053. Based on the
statistics presented above, it is interesting to note that the respondents in UK do not
refer to social norms as issues to assess the satisfaction toward green hotels. Also,
the respondents in Taiwan regard “social norms” as a weakly related dimension to
affect satisfaction regarding green hotels. Therefore, it is possible to make a
conclusion that respondents who have ever stayed in green hotels in both countries
81
averagely view “social norms2 as a less influenced dimension to interact with
satisfaction regarding green hotels.
Finally, in terms of the reception toward greenwashing for respondents in UK,
it is found that the relationship between Greenwashing and the satisfaction
toward green hotels is just moderately positive (rs = 0.334, p < 0.001). In
addition, it can be seen from figure 4.9 that there is a stronger positive
relationship between Greenwashing and customers' satisfaction toward green
hotels in Taiwan, with a correlation coefficient of rs = 0.419. Conclusively, the
environmental attitudes of tourists in Taiwan tend to be affected by
Greenwashing strategy more. Considering the theory background in chapter 2,
it is verified that hoteliers in Taiwan are under the cultural values of
competitiveness compared with the dominant cultural values of individual
responsibility in UK. Therefore, the tourists in Taiwan also regard
“Greenwashing” as a more influenced dimension shaping their environmental
attitude and then affecting their satisfaction regarding green hotels than in UK.
4.6.3 Hypothesis 5 The relationship between tourists’ satisfaction and loyalty
regarding green hotels
Table 4.10 The comparisons of relationship between satisfaction and
customers’ loyalty toward green hotels they have ever stayed in
Satisfaction Loyalty
Taiwan
Correlation Coefficient 0.715**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 184
UK
Correlation Coefficient 0.643**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
82
Satisfaction Loyalty
N 150
It is demonstrated by figure 4.10 that tourists' satisfaction toward green hotels in both
countries has a strong linear relationship with loyalty, with a correlation coefficient of
rs = 0.715 and 0.643 respectively. It is evident to make a conclusion that the higher
level of tourists' satisfaction regarding green hotels in both countries, the higher level
of tourists' loyalty toward green hotels which they have ever stayed in; though the
tourists in Taiwan tend to keep loyal to green hotels based on the satisfaction more
than in UK.
4.6.4 Hypothesis 6 The relationship between tourist’s loyalty and the
intentional behaviour regarding green hotels
Table 4.11 The comparisons of relationship between loyalty and customers’
intentional behaviour toward green hotels
Loyalty RepurchaseBehaviour
TaiwanCorrelation Coefficient 0.498**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 184
UK
83
Loyalty RepurchaseBehaviour
Correlation Coefficient 0.334**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 150
Loyalty Recommendationto
Others
TaiwanCorrelation Coefficient 0.762**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 184
UKCorrelation Coefficient 0.652**
Sig(1-tailed) 0.000
N 150
It is demonstrated by figure 4.11 that tourists' loyalty toward green hotels has strongly
positive linear relationship with intentional behaviour, including repurchase behavior
and recommendation in both countries. It is evident to make a conclusion that the
higher level of tourists' loyalty regarding green hotels in both countries, the higher
level of tourists' repurchase behaviour and positive WOM to others toward the green
hotels they have ever stayed in; though it is obvious that green tourists in Taiwan
have the tendency to repurchase and recommend to others more than in UK.
84
4.7 Chapter Conclusion
This chapter has focused on the data analysis by primary research results
relevant to the previous hypothesis. It is evident that tourists' satisfaction
regarding green hotels is mainly positively associated with pro-environmental
attitudes, besides the social norms.
It is worth noting that social norms have a negative relationship with
customers' satisfaction. In addition, it is presented by statistics that the
environmental concern, self-expressive benefits and greenwashing all seem to
be the key factors to shape customers' pro-environmental attitude. In general,
85
the interaction of environmental attitude, satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional
behaviour are all tightly interconnected with each other in terms of the green
hotels.
Furthermore, a critical analysis and evaluation with the perspective to test
hypothesis have also been covered in this chapter. The conclusions of this
analysis are outlined in next chapter.
Chapter 5 Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1 Conclusion
Since green hotels are a new trend in the hospitality industry throughout the world,
customers’ satisfaction and intentional behaviour have become important issues for
discussion in terms of the competitiveness for the global lodging industry. Through
this research, it has been verified that customers’ perception toward green hotels are
influenced by the cultural values. This study analyses cross-cultural values and
consumer’s perceptions toward green hotels by Hofstede’s cultural framework, and it
also explores customer’s behaviour under different cultural values, Taiwan and UK,
via Trompenaars’ framework of cultural comparison.86
Through the present studies on tourists’ environmental attitude toward green hotels,
this research modifies Soongil and Yoon’s model. It is concentrated on customer’s
attitude and purchasing intention on green products. In Chapter 2, Literature Review,
it discusses the dimensions to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude, and it
also illustrates the comparisons of these four dimensions under different cultural
values, Taiwan and UK. Furthermore, in order to explore customer’s satisfaction and
loyalty under the influence of environmental attitude, this research also examines the
relationship among these three variables of, satisfaction, loyalty and attitude.
In addition to the relationship of satisfaction and loyalty regarding green hotels, this
research also examines the topic of tourists’ intentional behaviour in the future.
According to the discussion in Chapter 2, it concludes that the connection among
satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour have a positive relevance to each
other. Due to the topic of this research being based on cross-cultural values, the
previous chapter also looks at the cross-cultural comparisons between satisfaction
and intentional behaviour regarding green hotels under Taiwan and UK.
As for the main findings, the aim is to verify the relationship among tourists’ attitude,
satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour. Therefore, through Chapter 4, main
findings and analysis, this research adopts quantitative method to explore the
comparison of the demographic information, descriptive statistics and T-Test as well
as Linear Regression under different cultural background, Taiwan and UK. With the
view to testing the hypotheses, this study not only explored the relationship among
variables regarding green hotels, but also interpreted the variables as having a
strong or weak impact.
As the main findings and analysis demonstrates, tourists’ pro-environmental
attitude has a positive impact on satisfaction regarding green hotels. The
dimensions of environmental attitude comprise of environmental concern, self-
expressive benefits, social norms and greenwashing. To understand how
cultural values shapes customers’ pro-environmental attitude, this research
explores the comparisons between tourists’ perceptions toward the four
87
dimensions shaping environmental attitude and satisfaction regarding green
hotels under different cultural background, Taiwan and UK.
Also, it is found that only social norms have a weaker relationship toward the
satisfaction regarding green hotels in Taiwan, and it is even negatively
correlated with satisfaction regarding green hotels in UK. However, besides
social norms, the other three dimensions shaping tourists’ pro-environmental
attitude are all examined to have strongly or moderately positive relationship
with satisfaction regarding green hotels in both countries.
It is also worth noting that the relationship between satisfaction and loyalty is
also strongly positive in both countries, but it is obvious to find that customers’
satisfaction is more strongly correlated with loyalty regarding green hotels in
Taiwan than in UK. With the further analysis focused on customers’ loyalty
and intentional behaviour regarding green hotels, it was found that the
relationship between loyalty and repurchase behaviour is also positively
correlated; however, it is perceived by the statistics that the influence of loyalty
on repurchase behaviour for respondents in Taiwan is a bit stronger than in
UK. In addition, the relationship between loyalty and recommendation to
others regarding green hotels has been presented. It can see from these
statistics that customers’ loyalty toward green hotels also has a positive
relationship with recommendation, but there is stronger relationship between
the two variables for respondents in Taiwan than in UK.
5.2 Recommendations
According to the main findings through the analysis, the results can be used to
present green hoteliers with a framework of comparisons of tourists under a
different cultural context. To meet customer’s satisfaction, hoteliers must
understand tourists’ perception toward the “green operation” and “green
management” of hotels. This research examines the four dimensions of
environmental attitude, and it is perceived that environmental concern and
self-expressive benefits both are positively correlated with tourists’ satisfaction
regarding green hotels. However, according to Table 4.9, social norms are the
least influential factors to shape customer’s pro-environmental attitude both in 88
Taiwan and UK. Therefore, it is suggested for the green practitioners that it is
unnecessary to incorporate the social norms into the green operation.
Take the environmental message for towel reusing as an instance, according
to the results of previous studies presented in chapter 2, there are positive
connection between environmental message in the bathroom of hotels and the
reduction of towel usage. However, as the survey of this research shows that
there is only a weak correlation for Taiwanese respondents between social
norms and satisfaction toward green hotels, and it is even identified that there
is a negative correlation of social norms and satisfaction regarding green
hotels in UK. Therefore, through the results, it is inappropriate to shape
customers’ positive perception by social norms.
As for Greenwashing strategy, it is shown by Table 4.9 in chapter 4 that it is
only moderately positively correlated with satisfaction toward green hotels in
both countries, and the statistics is a bit higher for respondents in Taiwan than
in UK. Through the statistics, it is found that respondents in Taiwan tend to
believe there are more greenwashing information offered by hoteliers, and
greenwashing accumulates their distrust towards green hotels. Compared with
the respondents in Taiwan, the green tourists in UK regard the green practice
of hotels as a less important factor to assess the overall performance of travel
accommodation. Therefore, in terms of the green image to appeal to the green
tourists, it is more efficient for hoteliers in UK than in Taiwan.
In addition, based on the research aims and objectives, the results of this
study also show how important tourists’ satisfaction is as it impacts on loyalty
regarding green hotels. It is suggested by the statistical measurement that the
respondents in both countries on average regard satisfaction as an influential
factor to shape loyalty toward green hotels. Therefore, it is suggested by
statistics that the more satisfaction that green tourists maintain, the more
loyalty the green tourists keep in the same green hotel. According to the Table
4.7 in Chapter 4, tourists in Taiwan are more willing to pay a higher premium
on the same green hotels than tourists in UK. It is also perceived that green
89
tourists in Taiwan refer to premium price as a less influential factor to shape
brand loyalty toward green hotels.
Finally, it is also suggested by statistics in chapter 4 that tourists’ loyalty
toward green hotels leads to positive connection to the intentional behaviour
both in Taiwan and UK. According to the framework of hypothesis, it assumes
that intentional behaviour including repurchase behaviour and
recommendation to others. Following the analysis in chapter 4, it is found that
the respondents in Taiwan will keep loyal and repurchase the same green
hotels they have ever stayed in more than in UK. As for the positive world of
mouth (WOM), the correlation between loyalty and recommendation is
strongly positive in both countries. It is suggested that green hoteliers can
measure customers’ intention to repurchase by maintaining their loyalty, and
also the higher loyalty will lead to the positive WOM.
5.3 Suggestions for future research
From the discussion illustrated in the previous chapters, this study presents
recommendations based on the findings and statistics via convenience
sampling collected in Taiwan and UK. The results of this research present the
analysis of the tourists’ perception toward green hotels, in respect of attitude,
satisfaction, loyalty and intentional behaviour in the future. Nevertheless, there
is still some suggestions for future study as follows:
90
1. For the future research, it is suggested to identify more dimensions of
customers’ pro-environmental attitude which shape satisfaction toward green
hotels. It is identified by previous studies that tourists’ environmental concern,
psychological reward, and even the hotelier’s green brand image may all have
impact on satisfaction. However, owing to the green consumption widespread
globally, the future research may explore more factors which influence
consumers’ attitude.
2. The questionnaires of this survey were distributed to 664 samples and
there were only 334 out of them who had experience in green hotels. Although
green consumption on vacation is more popular nowadays, however, in terms
of the investigation of satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional behaviour, it still
needs more samples to support the entire population. On the other hand, due
to the research being focused on discussing the comparisons of cultural
values, the data collection of this study was from only two countries, Taiwan
and UK. It was also found that the respondents in both countries who had
visited green hotels were made up of those who had graduated from college
or universities. Nevertheless, the idea of green hotel, as a new trend for
traveling pattern, only exists in some countries with full eco-friendly
information. Tourists who are concerned at green practitioners while traveling
only account for 50 percent in both countries. It can be perceived that “green
hotels” are still the term for luxurious tourism style in some developed
countries, full of well-educated people. The future research can be carried out
clarifying satisfaction, loyalty, and intentional behaviour in different types of
green hotels, or even in different areas of the world.
3. As chapter 2 stated that the concepts of “green hotels” are more “supply -
driven” than “demand - led”, therefore, it is suggested that the future research
can also find out the managers’ viewpoints and employee attitude toward
green hotels. In addition, it also needs to illustrate the differentiation in
marketplace in respect of green management or green operation. In general,
the green consumption on lodging industry is increasing more attention among
tourists globally at present, but the hoteliers should pay more attention to the
green trend to meet customers’ emerging needs.
91
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AppendixQuestionnaire
Dear participants:
My name is Te Chang Liu. This questionnaire is part of my MSc. in Tourism Management at
Bournemouth University which conducts cross-cultural comparison of customers’ pro-environmental
attitudes, satisfaction, and intentional behaviours regarding green hotels. Your participation and
honest response will be highly appreciated.
* Green Hotels: Green Hotels are environmentally-friendly properties whose managers are eager to
institute programs that save water, save energy and reduce solid waste—while saving money—to help
protect our one and only earth(Green Hoteliers Association 2016).
Please note that this questionnaire is completely anonymous; your answers are confidential and for
academic use only, and may help to create a better experience for tourists at green hotels in the
future.
Thanks for your cooperation and feedback. If you decide to know more of this academic research, let's
start from the first question .
Are you ready, let's get start !
Have you ever stayed in the green hotels while traveling?
☐ YES, I have been to a green hotel before ☐ NO, I have never been to any green hotel
Part 1:Personal Information
1. Gender
☐ (A) Male ☐ (B) Female
2. Age
☐ (A) Below 20 years old ☐ (B) 20 – 30 years old
☐ (C) 31 – 40 years old ☐ (D) 41 – 50 years old
☐ (E) 51 – 60 years old ☐(E) More than 60 years old
3. Nationality
☐ (A) British Citizen
☐ (B) Taiwanese Citizen
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4.Education
☐ (A) A Level
☐ (B) Bachelor’s Degree
☐ (D) Master’s Degree
☐ (E) Doctor’s Degree
4. Occupation
☐ (A) Entrepreneur ☐ (B) Private employee
☐ (C) Government officer ☐ (D) Student
☐ (E) Others (Please specify)...................................................
6. Household Annual Income (gross) *the provisional 2014/15 value of median
income for non-retired households is £28,100
☐ (A) Less than 20,000 GBP ☐ (B) 20,000 GBP – 25,000 GBP
☐ (C) 25,000 GBP – 30,000 GBP ☐ (D) 30,000 GBP – 35,000 GBP
☐ (E) 35,000 GBP – 40,000 GBP ☐ (F) More than 40,000 GBP
______________________________________________________________
Part 2:The 4 dimensions of cultural values to shape customer’s pro-environmental
attitude
Customer’s Attitude
Strongly
Disagree
(A)
Disagree
(B)
Neutral
(C)
Agree
(D)
Strongly
Agree
(E)
1. Environmental Concern(1) I think that we, human beings on
earth, are facing serious
environmental problems.
(2) I believe that selecting the green
accommodation on vacation helps to
prevent environment crisis.
(3) I think that obtaining information
about green performance of the
hotels is necessary when selecting
travel accommodation.
(4) I agree that having news or
information on the environment raises
awareness of environmental concern.
2. Self – expressive Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
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Disagree
(A) (B) (C)
(D) Agree
(E)
I feel that I am a better person
when I select green
accommodation for my travel
itinerary.
3. Social Norm
(1) I believe that environmental
concern is an important issue
when assessing the overall image
of an hotel.
(2) 13. I purchase green
accommodation on vacation
because of social pressure.
4. Green Washing * Green washing refers to hoteliers who mislead their customers into believing that their products or services are eco-friendly.
(1) I think that we should pay
more attention to the hotels
getting involved in green washing.
(2) I think that distrust of the green
washing hotels can lead to the
collapse of the emerging market
of green hotels.
(3) I think that green washing
hotels should be penalised.
Part 3:The pro-environmental attitude which leads to the satisfaction and loyalty
toward green hotels
Customer’s satisfaction and loyalty
Overall Image of green hotels
Extremely
Disagree
(A)
Disagree
(B)
Neutral
(C)
Agree
(D)
Extremely
Agree
(E)
(1) I feel satisfied with the green
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performance of the green hotels I
have ever stayed in.
(2) I will keep loyal to the green
hotels based on their green
performance.
(3) I will still feel satisfied with the
green hotels I have stayed in even if I
have to pay premium on it.
_____________________________________________________________
Part 4 The green satisfaction and loyalty in relation to intentional behaviour toward
green hotels in the future
1. Customer’s repurchase behaviour
Green satisfaction and loyalty Extremely
Disagree
(A)
Disagree
(B)
Neutral
(C)
Agree
(D)
Extremely
Agree
(E)
(1) I will make an effort to repurchase
green accommodation that I have ever
stayed in.
(2) After the first experience of booking
and staying in a green hotel, I will
examine if the same hotel is still
“green” when considering rebooking.
(3) I will repurchase the green
accommodation even its higher price
than the same level hotels.
2. Customer’s recommendation to others
Green satisfaction and loyalty Extremely
Disagree
(A)
Disagree
(B)
Neutral
(C)
Agree
(D)
Extremely
Agree
(E)
(1) I will maintain loyalty to a certain
green hotel if I consider they have
excellent green performance.
(2) I will encourage my friends and
relatives to stay at a green hotel when
traveling.
End of Questionnaire
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