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Diffuse pollution of groundwater in urban areas
David Lerner, Nigel Tait and Brenda ChisalaCatchment Science Centre
University of Sheffield
…and thanks to our funders, NERC,
EPSRC, EA
With thanks to Mike Rivett, Yuesuo Yang, Mike Barrett and other colleagues
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Outline
• The message:– Multiple urban sources ≡ diffuse pollution
• Outline:– Urban recharge– Urban groundwater pollution– Nitrate loads in Nottingham– Organic sources and risks– Summary
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Urban pathways for precipitation
Evapo-transpiration
Precipitation Evaporation
Surface runoff
Storm sewers
Directrecharge
Sewer leakage
Infiltrationsystems
Roofs
Roofsoakaways
Urb
an re
char
ge
Lerner, 2002, Hydrogeology Journal, 10, 143-152
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Consumptiveuse
Sewers
Mainsleakage
Sewer leakage
Septictanks
Irrigationexcess
Localgroundwater
Importedwater supply
Urban supply pathways
Urb
an re
char
ge
Lerner, 2002, Hydrogeology Journal, 10, 143-152
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Water supply and rainfall to selected cities
City Rainfall (mm/y)
Water supply (mm/y)
Leakage (%)
Nottingham 700 600 25 ↓
Lima, Peru (1979)
<10 1650 ~50
Hong Kong(1980)
2000 280+1250 <10
Urb
an re
char
ge
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Urban recharge, Nottingham
0
50
100
150
200
250
1850
-81
1882
-191
419
15-4
019
41-5
819
59-9
5
Rec
harg
e ra
te m
m/y
r
0
50
100
150
200
250
RuralUrbanPptnMainsSewers
Urb
an re
char
ge
Yang et al. 1999, Environmental Geology, 38, 183-198
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Chlorinated solvents in urban groundwater
Chlorinated hydrocarbon
%age of pumped boreholes over 1 µg/lCoventry Birmingham
Trichloroethene 72 74Tetrachloroethene 40
524331
40Trichloroethane 22Chloroform 17Carbon Tetrachloride 2
Urb
an g
roun
dwat
er p
ollu
tion
Rivett et al. 1990, Journal of Hydrology, 113, 307-323Burston et al. 1993, Journal of Hydrology, 149, 137-161
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Sewage in groundwater, Meadows, Nottingham
Borehole δ15N Microbiological1 limonene Sewage impact A- park ? ? ? ? x ? B - park ? ? x C - park ? ? ? x D - park ? ? E - 1970s ? x F - 1970s ? ? G - 1970s x H - 1970s x I - 1970s ? ? ? ? x J - 1970s ? ? ? ? K - C19th ? x
1 Total coliforms, E. Coli, F. Streptococci
Barrett et al. 1999. Water Research. 33(14), 3083-3097Urb
an g
roun
dwat
er p
ollu
tion
• Meadows, like all UK urban areas, is fully sewered
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Road salt in groundwater
Location Roads (103 km)
Salt (103
t in 86-87)
UK 347 2000
Germany 40 627
Urb
an g
roun
dwat
er p
ollu
tion
TorontoSalt applied >100x103 t/year
Cl in groundwater near Toronto highways 2000 – 13000 mg/l
Cl in springs on Toronto lakefront 400 mg/l
Howard & Haynes, 1993 Geoscience Canada, 20, 1-8Howard & Beck, 1993 JCH, 12, 245-268
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N in Nottingham groundwater
NO3-N NH4-N
Detects %
Mean mg/l
Detects %
Mean mg/l
Deep rural 100 12 75
100 27
45100
0.35
Deep urban 13 0.3
Shallow urban 10 0.2
Location of sampled boreholes
Urb
an g
roun
dwat
er p
ollu
tion
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Nottingham case study
Sheffield
Nottingham Meadows
Nitr
ate
load
s in
Not
tingh
am
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Hydrogeological map of Nottingham
10 0 10 20 Km
AlluviumGlacial driftL. Magnesian Lst.
Mercia MudstoneTriassic Sandstone
Groundwater levelRiver
30
4050
60
70
80
90
120
130 110
10 0
140
20
150
20
Multi-levelsampler
Nitr
ate
load
s in
Not
tingh
am
Nottingham
Meadows
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Recharge rates from solutes
Rain WaterMains
SewersCl:N:SO4 Cl:N:SO4 Cl:N:SO4
Cl:N:SO4
Nitr
ate
load
s in
Not
tingh
am
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Process for estimating recharge and loads
Conceptual aquifer model
Groundwater flow model
Calibratedheads?
YesNo
Transport models for Cl, SO4, N
Change flowmodel?
NoYes
Calibratedconcentrations?
No
Yes
STARTTOTAL
RECHARGE
De-convolute
RECHARGESLOADSN
itrat
e lo
ads
in N
ottin
gham
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Time and space division of 4 mass balance models
• 20 km N-S• 16 km W-E• standard spacing 500m• 1 layer• MODFLOW
&MT3Din Visual MODFLOW
1850 1900 1950 2000
Riv
er L
een
River Trent
Nitr
ate
load
s in
Not
tingh
am
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N loads to Nottingham groundwater
0
5
10
15
20
25
1850-1881
1882-1914
1915-1940
1941-1958
1958-1995
N loa
d kg
/ha/
yr
• 1990s urban load 21 kg/ha/y
• Comparable to intensive arable load
• Where from?
Nitr
ate
load
s in
Not
tingh
am
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Urban fertilisers
Location Loading (kg N/ha/y)
Perth, Australia 100
USA 1-55
Nitr
ate
load
s in
Not
tingh
am
Wakida & Lerner, 2005, Water Research, 29 3-16
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Leaking sewersN
itrat
e lo
ads
in N
ottin
gham
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Septic tank systemsN
itrat
e lo
ads
in N
ottin
gham
Location N load from septic tanks (kg N/ha/y)
Merida, Mexico 100New England 48Wakida & Lerner, 2005, Water Research, 29 3-16
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Housing and house buildingN
itrat
e lo
ads
in N
ottin
gham
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Industrial use and spillageN
itrat
e lo
ads
in N
ottin
gham
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Ammonium plume from Rexco
Field Well
Yard Well
Factory
Spoil Heap
Ponds
Farm Borehole
N
Former CollieryPit Head
T214T3
T4
Lagoon
Large Lagoon
Drain
FormerCokingPlant
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 18001000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
MonitoringBHAbstractionBHGroundwaterheadAmmonium concentration
1
10
50
100
150
mg/l
Nitr
ate
load
s in
Not
tingh
am
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Landfills
• NH4 in leachate up to 1500 mg/l
• >10 000 closed landfills in UK, mostly unlined
• Loads up to 4000 kg N/ha/y
Nitr
ate
load
s in
Not
tingh
am
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N loads in Nottingham
0
5
10
15
20
25
1850-1881
1882-1914
1915-1940
1941-1958
1958-1995
Recharge period
Tota
l N lo
ad (k
g/ha
/yr)
Con. LandHouse buildingSoil NSewersMains
Nitr
ate
load
s in
Not
tingh
am
Wakida & Lerner, 2005, Water Research, 29 3-16
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Organic sources and risks
• Density of sources– National– Nottingham
• Risks from urban sources– Nottingham
• Loads
Org
anic
sou
rces
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Chlorinated solvent industry database Tait et al. 2004
Industry Sector Sites• Transport • Mechanical• Machine Tools• Plant
Machinery• Precision• Aerospace• Defence
50,000
12,000
3,500
2,0007,000
Electronics• Electrical Eng.• Electronic
Eng.
Textile • Pretreatment• Dry Cleaning
• Paints• Varnishes• Inks• Pesticides• Adhesives /
Sealants• Rubber
• Finishing
Data Analysis
Engineering
Chemical
Metal
• 75,000 industries
• 60,000 manufacturing sites
• Postcodes give 100m resolution1
• Bartholomew digital map data2
• Geoplan digital postcode map3
1University of Essex, 2University of Manchester, 3University of Greenwich
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Density of chlorinated solvent users
Densityscale:
sites/km2
Org
anic
sou
rces
Sheffield
• 75 000 current sites
• London - 2,500 dry cleaning outlets
London
Nottingham
Tait et al. 2004, SOTTE 319, 77-98
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Nottingham: point or diffuse sources?
• Potential TCE sources in Nottingham– 1991– Unconfined aquifer
• How dense a pattern to become diffuse pollution?
Potential TCE sources
Org
anic
sou
rces
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Risk analysis for urban groundwater
Receptor
Sources
Pathways
Org
anic
sou
rces
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BOS: the model components
Catchment zone tool
Landuse analysis
Pollution risk model
Groundwaterflow model
Databases
Tait et al., 2004, Environmental Modelling and Software, 19, 1111-1124 Org
anic
sou
rces
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The catchment zone model
• Stochastic MODPATH• 1 particle per node• Monte Carlo simulations
– E.g., recharge, permeability
• Frequency of arrival givesprobability of node in capture zone
Org
anic
sou
rces
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Landuse GIS
1991 landuseResidentialRecreationalInstitutionalIndustryAgriculturalCommercialWasteTransportWater
0.9 0 0.9 1.8 Kilometers
S
N
EW
Org
anic
sou
rces
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Specific industry databasesO
rgan
ic s
ourc
es
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New unconfined catchment
Unconfined
Confined
Existing borehole
New borehole
Raw predicted catchment Probability contoured catchmentwith industries
Industries
Org
anic
sou
rces
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The pollution risk component
∑=
=n
i jfiss
jfiuujij RtQ
RtSRAC
1 ,,
,,
)exp()exp(
λλ
Org
anic
sou
rces
• Monte Carlo analysis
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Predicted concentrationsO
rgan
ic s
ourc
es
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Validation
• Risk models are rarely validated• Construct and believe• Attempted validation against field data
– 2 wells 14 (not independent)
– 7 contaminants measurements
• Also national MTBE observations (not shown)
Org
anic
sou
rces
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Validation
Borehole 1 Borehole 2Field(µg/l)
Model (µg/l)
Field (µg/l)
Model (µg/l)
100
5
320
bql
bql
bql
12
TCE 30 140 230 220
9 13
400
0
0
0.1
0.1
360
0.07
0.03
0.05
0.001
1,1,1 TCA 30 4
PCE 10 260
Benzene 1 bql
Toluene <10 bql
Ethylbenzene <10 bql
Xylene <10 bql
Parameter Drinking Water Std
(µg/l)
bql = below quantification limit• 13/14 predictions within a factor of 2O
rgan
ic s
ourc
es
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Predicted PCE concentrations
StudyArea
50%ile log(CPCE), 2005
Tait et al., submitted, Environmental Modelling and Software
BoreholeSimulationLocation
Org
anic
sou
rces
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Risks from leaking sewers
• Nottingham sewer network• Stochastic distribution of leaks
– Related to sewer age• Total leakage ≡ 10 mm/y• Amended pollution risk model
– Bacterial sorption and die-off
Org
anic
sou
rces
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Nottingham: Potential MTBE load
• Summing sources in Nottingham risk analysis
• Load ~10 kg/ha/yr• Probably too high
Potential MTBE sources
Org
anic
sou
rces
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Chlorinated solvent load in Birmingham aquifer
Unconfinedaquifer
0 4 km
Confinedaquifer
Tame Valley
Birming
ham F
ault
Aquiferboundary
Borehole and catchment
Industrial area
Year % recharge pumped
Mass removed (kg/yr)1
Load (kg/ha/
yr)1987 43
51811 0.4
1998 228 ~11 from Rivett et al. 2005 QJEGH 38, 337-250
Assume:– Steady state– Boreholes are pumping
representative concentrations of TCE, PCE, etc
Org
anic
sou
rces
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Reminder of the story
• Urban recharge – plenty in cities
• Urban groundwater pollution– N, organics, sewage, salt, etc
• Nitrate loads in Nottingham– 21 kg/ha/yr from contaminated land, sewers, mains
• Organic sources and risks– Many sources, significant risks
• The message:– Multiple urban sources ≡ diffuse pollution
Sum
mar
y
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Selected Nottingham references
M.H. Barrett, K.M. Hiscock, S. Pedley, D.N. Lerner, J.H. Tellam and M.J. French, 1999. Marker species for identifying urban groundwater recharge sources – a review and case study in Nottingham UK. Water Research. 33(14), 3083-3097.
Y. Yang, D.N. Lerner, M.H. Barrett, and J.H. Tellam, 1999. Quantification of groundwater recharge in the city of Nottingham, UK. Environmental Geology, 38(3), 183-198.
D.N. Lerner, 2002. Identifying and quantifying urban recharge: a review. Hydrogeology Journal, 10(1), 143-152.
D.N. Lerner, 2003. Estimating urban loads of nitrogen to groundwater. Journal of the Chartered Institution of Water and Environmental Management. 17(4), 239-244.
N. G. Tait, R. M. Davison, J. J. Whittaker, S.A. Leharne and D. N. Lerner, 2004. Borehole Optimisation System (BOS) - A GIS based risk analysis tool for optimising the use of urban groundwater. Environmental Modelling and Software, 19, 1111-1124.
F.T. Wakida & D.N. Lerner, 2005. Non-agricultural sources of groundwater nitrates: a review and case study. Water Research, 39, 3-16.
F.T. Wakida & D.N. Lerner, 2006. Potential nitrate leaching to groundwater from house building. Hydrological Processes, 20(9):2077-2081.
B.N. Chisala, N.G. Tait and D.N. Lerner,in press . Evaluating the risk of methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) to urban groundwater at city scale: Nottingham case study. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, December 2005.
N. G. Tait, R. M. Davison, S. A. Leharne and D. N. Lerner. Borehole Optimisation System (BOS) - Assessing the Potential Value of Urban Groundwater in Nottingham. Submitted, January 2006.
Also papers led by R Taylor, K Powell and S Trowsdale.
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y