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• Developmental systems theorists argue
– Genetic and environmental factors are fused in development
– There are bidirectional influences between genetic/biological factors within the individual and all levels of the environment
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Developmental Systems Theories
• Process of development involves bidirectional relations occurring over time across multiple levels of organization
– Levels of organization include those within the individual (e.g., biological) and outside the individual (e.g., societal, cultural)
– Levels are “fused” or integrated in development
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• General Characteristics:
– Relative Plasticity of Development
• Potential for systematic change exists across the lifespan
• Change can be effected by entering the developmental system at any of its levels
• Change is constrained by past development and current contextual conditions (therefore relative)
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– Integration or fusion of multiple levels of organization involved in development
• The appropriate unit of analysis is “relational”—relations between variables at different levels of organization, rather than variables at a single level
• Contrasts with “unilevel” models of development (e.g., nature OR nurture)
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– Development within a historical/temporal context
• History = Change over time
• History is a level of organization that is fused/integrated with all other levels
– Thus, variables from all levels of organization undergo change over time
• Requires measures and designs that are “change-sensitive”– Longitudinal designs
– Multiple cohorts
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– Focus on diversity in development
• Changes that are seen within one historical period (or time of measurement) and with one set of variables may not be seen at other points in time
• Research should utilize diverse samples, diverse methodologies, and multiple measurements over time
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Bronfenbrenner’s Bioecological Theory
• Development of an individual occurs within a set of nested contexts or levels
• The individual and his/her characteristics is at the center of these levels– Individual characteristics include gender,
temperament, and other biologically based characteristics
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Figure 9.4 The bioecological modelSiegler, DeLoache and Eisenberg: How Children Develop, Second EditionCopyright © 2006 by Worth Publishers
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• Microsystem: The immediate environments that a child directly experiences and participates in
– Exs: family, child care, school, peer group
• Mesosystem: The interconnections among the environments in the child’s microsystem
– Ex: relations between family and peers
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• Exosystem: Environments which the child does not directly experience but which affect his/her development indirectly
– Ex: parents’ workplace
• Macrosystem: Level involving culture, societal institutions, and public policy
– Ex: laws/policies concerning parental leave from work
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• Chronosystem: Time
– Includes time over days, weeks, months, and years
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Process-Person-Contexts-Time
(PPCT Model)
Proximal Processes
• Development occurs through processes of “progressively more complex reciprocal interaction between an active . . . [individual] and the persons, objects, and symbols in its immediate external environment” (Bronfenbrenner, 2006)
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• Such interactions must occur on a fairly regular basis over extended periods of time to be effective in promoting development
– Exs: comforting an infant, playing with a young child, child-child activities, group or solitary play, reading, learning new skills, athletic activities, problem-solving
• For children, participation in such interactions over time leads to the knowledge/skills and motivation to engage in such activities with others and independently
• Proximal processes are bidirectional
• Proximal processes (within the microsystem) are the “engines of development”
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• Proximal processes vary systematically due to
– Person (individual characteristics)
– Contexts (immediate and more remote environments—micro-, meso-, exo-, and macrosystems)
– Time (stability of proximal processes over time as well as societal changes during the life course and the historical period in which an individual lives)
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• Interdependencies among the four components of the model
– “In ecological research, the principal main effects are likely to be interactions”
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