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Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology
Lifelong Development
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Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology
Basic question: What shapes the way we change over time?
Focus on psychological changes across the entire life span Every area of psychology can be looked at from this
perspectivebiological developmentsocial developmentcognitive / perceptual developmentpersonality developmentmoral development
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Fundamental Issues: Nature vs. NurtureFundamental Issues: Nature vs. Nurture What is role of heredity vs. environment in
determining psychological makeup?Is your IQ inherited or determined by nutrition and early environment?Is there a ‘criminal’ gene or does poverty lead to criminal behavior?Is sexual orientation a choice or genetically determined?
These are some of our greatest societal debates Mistake to pose as ‘either / or’ questions
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Developmental Research MethodsDevelopmental Research MethodsCross-sectional - performance of people of
different age groups is compared Longitudinal - performance of one group of
people is assessed repeatedly over time Sequential - combines cross-sectional and
longitudinal approaches in a single study
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Physical and Psychological Development RelatedPhysical and Psychological Development RelatedPhysical development begins at conceptionPhysical maturity sets limits on psychological
abilityvisual system not fully functional at birthlanguage system not functional until much later
Prenatal environment can have lifetime influence on health and intellectual ability
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Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development Conception - when a sperm penetrates the ovum Zygote - a fertilized egg Germinal period - first two weeks after conception Embryonic period - weeks three through eight after
conception Fetal period - two months after conception until birth
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Promoting Optimum Fetal Development
Promoting Optimum Fetal Development
Professional prenatal care Good nutrition Rest Moderate weight gain – 20-30 pounds Moderate exercise Positive emotional state (support from father) Age of the mother
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Negative Prenatal Influences on DevelopmentNegative Prenatal Influences on Development Congenital Defects
Defects that occur during pregnancy caused by teratogens that could possibly be prevented
Teratogen - any agent that causes a birth defect (e.g., drugs, radiation, viruses)
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) cluster of defects occurring in infants born to mothers that drink heavily during pregnancyleading cause of mental retardationcan be totally prevented by abstaining from alcohol during pregnancy
Illness German measles and mumps
Hazardous chemicals and infections
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Genetic DefectsGenetic Defects Down’s Syndrome
The most common cause of Down syndrome occurs when an infant is born with three, rather than two, copies of the 21st chromosome 47 chromosomes instead of 46Older mothers have an increased risk 45 yr. Old 1 in 30 chance
Huntington’s DiseaseHuntington's disease (Huntington's chorea) is a progressive, degenerative disease that causes certain nerve cells in your brain to waste away.
Tay-SachsFatal genetic disorder that results in progressive destruction of the nervous system. Caused by the absence of a vital enzyme called hexosaminidase-A (Hex-A). Without Hex-A, a fatty substance, or lipid, called GM2 ganglioside accumulates abnormally in cells, especially in the nerve cells of the brain.
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Birthing PracticesBirthing Practices Ferdinand Lamaze
Formulated to help ease mothers concern and fear during the birth of her childFathers should take an active role for the same reasons as the mother but also to be supportive and reduce her stressThe breathing exercises and stretching reduce the mother’s anxiety and have been shown to speed recovery
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InfluencesInfluences Maternal
Tends to be the caregiverOften the smaller issue disciplinarian
PaternalTends to be the playmateOften the larger issue disciplinarian
For a healthy child both parents should play both roles and have a united front on decisions.
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Infant Abilities and PerceptionsInfant Abilities and Perceptions
NeonatesNewborns to the first few weeksThey can smell and taste but have very poor vision and only see grayCan recognize mothers voice
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Infant AbilitiesInfant AbilitiesInfants are born with immature visual system
can detect movement and large objects
Other senses function well on day 1will orient to soundsturn away from unpleasant odorsprefer sweet to sour tastes
Born with a number of reflex behaviors
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Infant ReflexesInfant ReflexesRooting - turning the head and opening the
mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheekSucking - sucking rhythmically in response to
oral stimulationBabinski - fanning and curling toes when foot
is stroked
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Infant ReflexesInfant ReflexesMoro - throwing the arms out, arching the
back and bringing the arms together as if to hold onto something (in response to loud noise or sudden change in position of the head)
Grasping - curling the fingers around an object
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Methods for Studying InfantsMethods for Studying InfantsInfant reflexes provide insight into their
mental lifegaze duration related to visual perceptionhead turning related to auditory attentionsucking, reaching, kicking can be used to measure interest
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Infant PerceptionInfant Perception Not just a blur or a
buzz In first week
will recognize their mother’s smellwill show preference for novel stimuligaze at face-like pattern rather than similar non face-like pattern
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MaturationMaturation Physical growth and development of body All infants follow an orderly sequence Rate varies from child to child Readiness
Child will not mature to next stage until structure is ready no matter how much practice
Head to toe muscular control – Cephalocaudal Extremities muscular control – Proximodistal
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Language DevelopmentLanguage DevelopmentPreview
Universal Characteristics of Human LanguageCourse of DevelopmentSupports for Language DevelopmentLanguage Learning among Nonhuman Apes
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Universal Characteristics of Human Language
Universal Characteristics of Human Language
Psycholinguists study language in connection with human behavior
Language development similar across cultures. What are the common elements?
Morphemes - smallest meaningful units of language content morphemes (e.g., nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) grammatical morphemes (e.g., articles, conjunctions, some prefixes and suffixes)
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Universal Characteristics of Human LanguageUniversal Characteristics of Human Language Phonemes - elementary vowel and consonant
sounds Grammar - rules of language
phonology - how phonemes can be combined to make morphemes morphology -how morphemes can be combined to make words syntax - how words can be combined to make phrases and sentences
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Language DevelopmentLanguage Development Infant preference for human speech over other sounds
before 6 months can hear differences used in all languagesafter 6 months begin to hear only differences used in native language
Cooing - vowel sounds produced 2-4 months Babbling - consonant/vowel sounds between 4 to 6
months Even deaf infants coo and babble
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Language DevelopmentLanguage Development
MONTH Speech Characteristic
2 Cooing vowel sounds 4 Babbling consonant/vowel 10 Babbling native language sounds12 One-word stage 24 Two-word stage24 + Sentences
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Language Development
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Supports for Language Development
Supports for Language Development
Chomsky’s language-acquisition device (LAD) - innate foundations for grammar and learning the unique rules of a culture’s language
Language-acquisition support system - aspects of the social world that help infants acquire language (e.g., parentese)
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Animal communicationAnimal communication
Can animals learn language? Depends on definition of language.
primate studies--because of articulatory difficulties, many were taught sign language
– can acquire vocabulary with much effort, similar to a child’s learning of first words
– cannot acquire grammar– do not understand turn-taking in conversation– answer questions with words contained in the questions
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Cognitive DevelopmentCognitive Development
Learning, Reasoning and Language Development over the Life Span
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Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentPiaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Swiss psychologist who
became leading theorist in 1930’s Piaget believed that “children are active thinkers,
constantly trying to construct more advanced understandings of the world”
These “understandings” are in the form of structures he called schemas
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Development of SchemasDevelopment of Schemas
Schemas are frameworks that develop to help organize knowledge
Assimilation - process of taking new information or a new experience and fitting it into an already existing schema
Accommodation - process by which existing schemas are changed or new schemas are created in order to fit new information
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Piaget’s approachPiaget’s approach
Primary method was to ask children to solve problems and to question them about the reasoning behind their solutions
Discovered that children think in radically different ways than adults
Proposed that development occurs as a series of ‘stages’ differing in how the world is understood
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Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2)Sensorimotor Stage (birth - 2)Information is gained through the senses and
motor actionsIn this stage child perceives and manipulates
but does not reasonSymbols become internalized through
language developmentObject permanence is acquired
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Object PermanenceObject PermanenceThe understanding that objects exist
independent of one’s actions or perceptions of them
Before 6 months infants act as if objects removed from sight cease to exist
Can be surprised by disappearance / reappearance of a face (peek-a-boo)
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Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
Lack the concept of conservationCentrationIrreversibilityEgocentrismAnimismArtificialism
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Concept of ConservationConcept of Conservation
Recognition that certain properties of substances remain constant even though their appearance may change
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ConservationConservationNumber
In conservation of number tests, two equivalent rows of coins are placed side by side and the child says that there is the same number in each row. Then one row is spread apart and the child is again asked if there is the same number in each.
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ConservationConservationLength
In conservation of length tests, two same-length sticks are placed side by side and the child says that they are the same length. Then one is moved and the child is again asked if they are the same length.
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ConservationConservation
Substance
In conservation of substance tests, two identical amounts of clay are rolled into similar-appearing balls and the child says that they both have the same amount of clay. Then one ball is rolled out and the child is again asked if they have the same amount.
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CentrationCentration Focus on only one part of a problem while
neglecting other important aspects Conservation issues they will focus on the height
of water in a glass and not think about the width of the glass
Children often build towersWhat do they usually focus on?Height and don’t think about width
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IrreversibilityIrreversibility
The inability to envision reversing an action. 1 + 2 = 3 Can’t reverse 2 + 1 = 3 How many siblings do you have?
2 How many siblings does your brother have?
1
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EgocentrismEgocentrism
Sees the world only through their eyes If they can’t see you; you cannot see them If they can see it; you can see it. Will stand in front of you and the TV If they are hungry, you must be hungry Why is the grass green?
Green is my favorite color
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AnimismAnimism
All things are alive Attribute life and consciousness to physical objects Nothing can die and should come back to life Why do trees have leaves?
To keep them warm Where do boats go at night
To sleep silly
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ArtificialismArtificialism
Assume that environmental events are human inventions
What makes the rain?Someone emptying a water can
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Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)
Understanding of mental operations leading to increasingly logical thought
Have conquered conservationClassification and categorizationLess egocentricInability to reason abstractly or hypothetically
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Formal Operational Stage (age 12 - adulthood)Formal Operational Stage (age 12 - adulthood)
Hypothetico-deductive reasoningAdolescent egocentrism illustrated by
the phenomenon of personal fable and imaginary audience
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Monopoly play according to PiagetMonopoly play according to Piaget
Sensorimotor stagePuts pieces in mouth and plays with “Chance” cards
Preoperational stagePlays game but makes up own rules and does not understand instructions
Concrete Operational stageFollows rules but is incapable of hypothetical transactions dealing with mortgages, loans and special pacts
Formal Operations stageCan play all aspects of the game
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Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentKohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Morality in part depends on the appearance of empathy (early signs at 1), shame (age 2), and guilt (around age 3-4)
Assessed moral reasoning by posing hypothetical moral dilemmas and examining the reasoning behind people’s answers
Proposed three stages, each sub-divided into two for a total of six levels
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Levels of Moral ReasoningLevels of Moral ReasoningPreconventional - moral reasoning is based
on external rewards and punishmentsConventional - laws and rules are upheld
simply because they are laws and rulesPostconventional - reasoning based on
personal moral standards
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Level 1 and 2: (1) Obedience and Punishment Orientation and (2) Reward
Level 1 and 2: (1) Obedience and Punishment Orientation and (2) Reward
Preconventional MoralityA focus on direct consequencesNegative actions will result in
punishmentsPositive actions will result in rewards
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Stage 3: Interpersonal Accord and ConformityStage 3: Interpersonal Accord and Conformity
Conventional MoralityGood boy/Good girl
Concerned about how people see youAn attempt to live up to the expectations of
important othersPositive actions will improve relations with
significant othersNegative actions will harm those relationships
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Stage 4: Law-and-Order MoralityStage 4: Law-and-Order Morality
Social stability – rule of lawLaw and social order is more important than individual rightsDoing one’s duty by following social norms
To maintain social order, people must resist personal pressures and follow the laws of the larger society
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Stage 5: Human-Rights and Social-Welfare Morality
Stage 5: Human-Rights and Social-Welfare Morality
PostconventionalA balance is struck between respect for laws
and ethical principles that transcend specific laws
Laws that fail to promote general welfare or that violate ethical principles can be changed, reinterpreted, or abandoned
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Stage 6Stage 6
Behavior is directed by self-chosen ethical principles that tend to be general and universal
High value is placed on justice, dignity and equality
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Criticism of Kolberg’s TheoryCriticism of Kolberg’s Theory Carol Gilligan questioned the idea of justice as be the
major force behind morality She felt that women do not place as much importance
on justice as men She suggested that women rely on the importance of
compassion, relationships and commitment She completed more research and was unable to
replicate her earlier research
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Social DevelopmentSocial Development
The changing nature of relationships with others over
the life span
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Self-awarenessSelf-awareness 9-15 months Red Rouge Test
Red dot on check and realize it in a mirror that the dot is on their face
Social Referencing12 months Child looks to parents in unfamiliar situations
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Windows of OpportunityWindows of Opportunity Critical Period
Is there a point at which a child must learn or the opportunity is lostLanguage and attachment
– Mastering a language before puberty– Imprinting
ImprintingRapid and early learning of a permanent behavior patternKonrad Lorenz
– Within 30 hours after hatching must have a parent imprint on the hatchling
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Infant AttachmentInfant Attachment
Intense emotional bond between infant and caregiver
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Harlow’s Study of AttachmentHarlow’s Study of Attachment
Infant rhesus monkeys were placed with two surrogate mothers, one made of wire and one covered with soft cloth
Milk-producing nipple was attached to either the wire or the cloth mother
Attachment was based on “contact comfort” rather than feeding
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Forms of AttachmentForms of AttachmentSecurely attached - explores the room when
mother is present, becomes upset and explores less when mother is not present, shows pleasure when mother returns
Avoidantly attached - a form of insecure attachment in which child avoids mother and act coldly to her
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Forms of AttachmentForms of AttachmentAnxious resistant attachment - a form of
insecure attachment where the child remains close to mother and remains distressed despite her attempts to comfort
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Ainsworth’s Strange SituationAinsworth’s Strange Situation
Mother-child dyads were observed in a playroom under four conditions:
initial mother-child interactionmother leaves infant alone in playroomfriendly stranger enters playroommother returns and greets child
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Baumrind’s Parenting StylesBaumrind’s Parenting Styles
Authoritarian - value obedience and use a high degree of power assertion
Authoritative - less concerned with obedience, greater use of induction
Permissive - most tolerant, least likely to use discipline
Neglectful - completely uninvolved
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Erikson’s TheoryErikson’s Theory Biological in belief that there are innate drives to
develop social relationships and that these promote survival (Darwinism)
Divided life span into eight psychosocial stages, each associated with a different drive and a problem or crisis to resolve
Outcome of each stage varies along a continuum from positive to negative
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Stage 1 (birth - 1)Trust vs. Mistrust Stage 1 (birth - 1)Trust vs. Mistrust
Infants must rely on others for careConsistent and dependable caregiving and
meeting infant needs leads to a sense of trust
Infants who are not well cared for will develop mistrust
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Stage 2 (1-3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Stage 2 (1-3 years) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Children are discovering their own independence Those given the opportunity to experience
independence will gain a sense of autonomy Children that are overly restrained or punished
harshly will develop shame and doubt
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Stage 3 (3-5 years)Initiative vs. GuiltStage 3 (3-5 years)Initiative vs. Guilt
Children are exposed to the wider social world and given greater responsibility
Sense of accomplishment leads to initiative, whereas feelings of guilt can emerge if the child is made to feel too anxious or irresponsible
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Stage 4 (5-12 years) Industry vs. InferiorityStage 4 (5-12 years) Industry vs. Inferiority
Stage of life surrounding mastery of knowledge and intellectual skills
Sense of competence and achievement leads to industry
Feeling incompetent and unproductive leads to inferiority
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Stage 5 (adolescence)Identity vs. ConfusionStage 5 (adolescence)Identity vs. Confusion
Developing a sense of who one is and where s/he is going in life
Successful resolution leads to positive identityUnsuccessful resolution leads to identity
confusion or a negative identity
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Stage 6 (young adulthood)Intimacy vs. IsolationStage 6 (young adulthood)Intimacy vs. Isolation
Time for sharing oneself with another person
Capacity to hold commitments with others leads to intimacy
Failure to establish commitments leads to feelings of isolation
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Stage 7 (middle adulthood)Generativity vs. Stagnation
Stage 7 (middle adulthood)Generativity vs. Stagnation
Caring for others in family, friends and work leads to sense of contribution to later generations
Stagnation comes from a sense of boredom and meaninglessness
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Stage 8 (late adulthood to death)Integrity vs. Despair Stage 8 (late adulthood to death)Integrity vs. Despair
Successful resolutions of all previous crises leads to integrity and the ability to see broad truths and advise those in earlier stages
Despair arises from feelings of helplessness and the bitter sense that life has been incomplete
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Adolescent DevelopmentAdolescent Development Gender differences
Early maturation of boys tend to be helpful early on a boy’s life Early maturation of girls tend to speed up the maturity possibly not for their own good
David Elkind’s Social Pressure TheorySociety has pushed adolescents to mature fasterMedia has pushed sexualityBrittany Spears attitude
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Other Later DevelopmentOther Later Development
Roger Gould’s Adult Development Theory Daniel Levinson’s Midlife Crisis
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Midlife CrisisMidlife Crisis
Menopause
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Late AdulthoodLate Adulthood
GerontologyStudy of aging and the elderly
Fluid vs. Crystallized abilitiesFluidCrystallized
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Elderly TheoriesElderly Theories Disengagement Theory
Elderly feel as though they have played their part in societyIsolate themselves from world in elderly communitiesSee families only at holidays
Activity TheoryElderly wants to have fun and stay connected to worldThey move close to family and help raise grandchildren
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Death and DyingDeath and Dying Elizabeth Kubla-Ross
Theory on the terminally illFive stages of death and dying– Denial
Refuse to except death– Anger
Why me? I am a good person– Bargaining
If I can have just one more month I will– Depression
Realization that there is no escape– Acceptance
Come to the realization that you are about to die and you are ready
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Bronfenbrenner’s Social Ecology TheoryBronfenbrenner’s Social Ecology Theory
Network of interactions and interdependencies among people, institutions and cultural context