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INTRODUCTION TO THE
DI:VANAGARI SCRIPTFOR STUDENTS OF
SANSKRIT AND HINDI
BY
H. M. LAMBERT, M.A.Cantab.Senior Lecturer in .l[arathi (il1.aharaja Gaekwad's Lectureship)
in the School of Oriental and African Studies, Unioersity of London
WITH A FOREWORD BYPROFESSOR ]. R. FIRTH, O.B.E., M.A.
Professor of General Linguistics in the Un;f:ersity of London
GEOFFREY CUMBERLEGE
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Oxford [.~niversityPress, _471'JenHouse, London E.C. 4
CL.....sCOv.· NEVI, YORK TORO~"'TO !'wS:ELBOt.""R...."E "Wl3:LLINGTON
lB01'dBAY CALCt.-rTA MADRAS KARACHl: CAPE TOVIIN IBADA-"_"
Geoffrey CU7nberlege. Publisher to the University
First:published 1953
PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN
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FOREWORD
t T is a cO~"uPlace of linguistics to acknowledgethe debt we owe to the ancient Indian
grammarians and to couple with it the name of Sir William Jones. It was he who firstset a proper value on the Devanagari and Arabic scripts in his dissertation as President
of the Asiatic Society of Bengal on the Orthography ofAsiatic Words in RomanLetters.
His chart of suggested symbols for the transliteration of the Devanagari,with the addi-
tion of}etters for Arabic and Persian, is the first presentation of what may be called a
phonetic alphabet on such a scale. He finds the Arabic alphabet almost perfect for
Arabic itself:-'Not a letter could be added or taken away without manifest inconvenience, The same may
indubitably be said of the Devanagarl system, which, as it is more naturally arranged than any other.
shall here be the standard of my particular observations on Asiatic letters. Our English alphabet
and orthography are disgracefully and almost ridiculously imperfect.'
He aims at using diacritics com mon in E urope rather than new letters-and symbols from
'fluxions' ormathematics-so as to equal the Devanagari itself inprecisionand clearness.A system of writing and spelling is the foundation of a system of grammar. Meillet
went so far as to say that the foundations of the science of grammar were laid by the
Indians. For all languages employing forms ofthe Devanagari script, the writing system
and the spelling carry implications of phonological analysis and statement. They are at
once practice and theory and deserve the first attentions of all students. This is well
illustrated in Miss Lambert's work on the Devanagari script, and it will be agreed thatthe presentation of the phonological patterns, such as 'junctions' occurring in words or
arising out of 'sandhi' in Sanskrit, and other characteristic patterns in the modern
languages, is clear, systematic, and original, and particularly interesting in Bengali,
which, with Marathi and Gujarati, is included in the larger volume. The treatment of
conjunct characters in the third chapter of each section is new, and apart from its
intrinsic interest may be taken as an indication ofwhat is lost when the structure of theDevanagari system is superseded by the usual roman transliterations. In addition
to this,study of the writing system, attention is rightly given here to calligraphy, for
the practice of the hand is an obligation no less compelling than that of the tongue
and both are expressions not only of courteous relations but of disciplined knowledge.
Miss Lambert has consistently applied the All-India Roman Alphabet to these lan-
guages in order to make comparison possible whether the languages are known to the
student or not. This treatment could be extended to the Dravidian languages. By this
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vr FORE\VORD
means it has been found possible to make a systematic statement of the various conven-
tions !,r0n:r-ning the use of the Sanskritic writing system for the modern languages.
The Sanskrit and Hindi sections are published separately in one volume since they.
employ one script and will presumably be more generally required, but t:Se appeal of
the entire work is to those whose interests range from India through Furttter India to the
Indonesian Islands following the Sanskritic system of writing.
I have been acquainted \x ith-Miss Lambert's work in Indian studies since 1937, first
in Western India and later as a colleague in London. It gave me great pleasure to be
asked to write this brief foreword to her work on a subject which I have always held to be
of high importance and the results of which are now offered to students of Sanslerit and
the four principal Sanskritic languages of India.
J. R. FIRTH
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PREFACE
tiOOD writil1g, the understanding of the writing system and the formation of a good
hand, is as important a part of the study of the written language as good pronunciationis of the study of the spoken language. Yet too little time is usually given to the teaching of
writing to students of Sanskrit and of the modern Indian languages; writing is generally
left for the student to teach himself as best he can. The result is that many students
neither. have an adequate understanding of the writing system and the difference between
a syllabic and an alphabetic method of representation, nor know how the characters of
the script are written and what features are important for the formation of a culturedliterate hand. It is hoped that this book will provide not only a guide to students learn-
ing to write the scripts which are described in each section, but will also give them a
fuller understanding of the special nature of the scripts and the adjustments which are
made in the Sanskrit system in order to use it for writing the modern languages of
northern India.
The notation used for the transcription of the scripts in this work is the All-India
Roman Alphabet devised by Professor J . R. Firth of the School of Oriental and African
Stlldies, University of London, and used already in several publications-A.H. Harley,
C o llo q u ia l H i n du sta n i, T. Grahame Bailey, T eac h Y ou rse lf H in du stan i, and my own
M ar ath i L an gu age C ou rse . The use of this transcription necessitates the use of certain
conventions, particularly that of the representation of the 'inherent vowel', in final
characters when listing the contents of each section of the work. The transcription of
the Sanskrit terms in the Sanskrit section is entirely systematic; but owing to the vary-
ing realization of the characters of the script in certain positions in words in the modem
languages, it has been necessary to use in the Contents of the Hindi section certain
conventions which are discussed in the text. An example of such conventions occurs in
the writing of such Sanskrit terms, used by grammarians in the modern languages, as';mt;:)sth' and 'uugm', in which the realization of the 'inherent vowel' of the final character
varies from a short glide-vowel to a full syllable. As it is beyond the scope of this work
to IIfake a fine analysis of the varying realization of such final characters, it is necessary
to establish certain conventions with regard to the transcription of them. These con-
ventions are of necessity anticipated in the Contents.
Some degree of repetition has been inevitable in order to preserve the basic unity ofthe description of the Devanagari system of writing while allowing for specialization in .
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Vlll PREFACE
each of the languages. While this repetition may at times seem irksome to the reader, it
has the advantage of facilitating comparison of one section with another.
The words given in each section to illustrate the writing and reading of the various.
scripts have been selected in order to provide examples of every character or combine-
tion of characters which occurs in the language under consideration. SOme characters
occur only in colloquial forms or inloanwords from other languages, including English.
In order to illustrate the use of all the characters, examples are drawn, therefore, from
the whole range of vocabulary, from colloquial forms occurring in modern speech to
learned Sanskrit loanwords occurring only in literary texts. Any word which occurs in
a standard dictionary is a word which the student may have to read and illustrates -the
use of the characters of the script.
This study of the Devanagari script owes its inspiration to the suggestion and en-
couragement of Professor Firth, to whom my thanks are first due. But a work of this
nature could not have been accomplished without reference to experts in the languages
discussed, and I am greatly indebted to my colleagues of both the Department of India,
Pakistan and Ceylon, and the Department of Phonetics and Linguistics, of the School,
for their co-operation and guidance. The two scribes who have written the script
portions of the book, Miss W. Westover and Mr. P. Pritchard, must also be given •recognition for their careful and accurate work.
Finally I wish to express my appreciation of the great generosity of the School-of
Oriental and African Studies for their subvention towards the publication of this book;
and of the help and advice given by the Oxford University Press on all matters concern-
ing its production.H.M. L.
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CONTENTS
F'tlrewordPreface
pagev
vii
Introduction:The Devanagari ScriptNotationCalligraphy
12
5
S ANS KR IT SE CTI ON
Chapte~ 1. Arrangement of the Syllabary 11
Sanskrit syllabary in roman notation 12Sanskrit phonetic terms 13
Chapter 2. Characters of the Syllabary 15
1. Consonant Characters 15i. Characters of the vargiiye group 16
ii. Characters of the ~ntahstha group 18iii. Characters of the uu~man group, and Vedic le 19
2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs 21i. Vowel characters 21
i1. Vowel signs 233. Modifiers 26
i. enusvarah 26i1. visargeh 30
4 . The Complete Syllabary 315. Numerals 32
6. Punctuation 32
Chapter 3. Conjunct Characters 33
1. Construction of Copjunct Characters 332. Co nt ext s o f Co nju nc t Ch ar act er s 353. Classification of Conjunct Characters 37
Class·1. Two similar characters joined 38·Class2. TWo vargiiye characters joined 39Class 3. Characte~s joined with entehsthe characters43
·i.wi tn following s» 43ii. with following va 44
iii. with preceding or following ra 45iv. with preceding or following Ie and la 47
Class 4 . vergiiye characters joined with precedingor following uu~men characters 48i. with fe ,~g and sa 48
i1. with he 50
Transcription of reading examples 51 .
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x CONTENTS
HINDI SEOTION
Chapter 1. Arrangement of the SyllabaryH indi syllabary in roman notation
Chapter 2. Oharacters of the Syllabary
1. Consonant CharactersRealisation of ekar consonant charactersi. Characters of the vargiiy group
ii. Characters of the entasth groupiii. Characters of the uu~m group
2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs1. Vowel Oharactersii. Vowel SignsRealisation of characters in special contexts
3 . Modifiersi. enusvar and cendr- bindu
i1. viserg4 . The Oomplete Syllabary5 . Numerals6. Punctuation
Chapter 3 . Conjunct Characters
1. Contexts of Conjunct Characters in Hindi2. Realisation of Conjunct Characters in Hindi3 . Classes of Oonjunct Characters
Class 1. Two similar characters joinedClasB 2. Two vergiiy characters joinedClass 3. Characters joined with entesth characters
i. with following y9
ii. with following veiii. with preceding or following reiv. with preceding or following Ie
Olsss 4 . vergiiy characters joined with precedingor following uu~m charactersi. with fa ,~e and S9
ii. with he
Hindi prose passage
Transcription of reading examples
pa,ie5 7
59
61
61626364656767676970707 3
7 3
7474.
7 5
7 5
76767 7
78797 9
808081
82828 3
84
85
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INTRODUCTION
The Devanagari Script
The script traditionally referred to as the Devanagari Script
is used in writing Sanskrit and, of the modern languages of northern
India, Hindi, Marathi and Nepali. The script used in writing GUjarati
is a slightly modified form of the Devanagari script, and the scripts
used in writing Bengali and Panjabi are related to the Devanagari
script, though this relation is apparent in only some of the Charact-
ers. The writing system, based on the char-acter- representing the syll-
able, is the same for all these languages. However, in order to use
this system for writing the modern languages, which have each develop-•
ed in their own particular way from the original Sanskrit, a number
of conventions have become necessary in reading from the script, con-
ventions Which vary with the special features of each language. The
realisation of the characters as they are used for writing Hindi,
Bengali, Marathi and GUjarati, and the conventions which have become
established in each language, are described in an enlarged volume
of this workl. Though the Bengali script differs considerably from
the Devanagari script in the form of most of the characters, the
••study of it is included in that work because the writing system is
the same as the Sanskrit writing system, and the conventions by which
1. In~duction to the Devanagari Script, for students of Sanskrit,Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati and Bengali, Oxford University Press.
1 3
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I::\TRO D 1 .: CT lOX
t?".is s::;-st-:::::is s:is:;:te:i ~or'....i~ir.g 3engsli heve much in common with
t:::~ cenventtcr,s".;.seir..the ott:.ercder-n languages. An examination
of t~ese conventior.s ~akes :;:ossibleaL inte~esting comparison both
betwee!1 tl:ewritir..gof these four languages and that of'Sanskrit,
sr.:!etween the writing o~ the modern. languages therr:slves.
The origir..of'the name 'Devanagari' is obscure. The shcrter
form of the name is 'Nagari'(nagarii), which has been variously inter-
preted. It is thought by some to be the name given to the writing of
'the people of the city'(nagaram, 'a city'); by others it is said to
derive its name from the Nagar Brahmans of'Gujarat.
Xotation
The system of roman notation used in this text for transcribing
the Devanagari characters is the All-India Roman Notationl• Three
minor rr.odificationshave been introduced in this text in order to
adapt the notation for transcribing both Sanskrit and the modern
languages.
These modifications are :-
i. The use of the vowels i ('short' i) and ii ('long' ii) instead
of the vowels y and i ; and of the vowels u (,she,rt'u )
and uu ('long' uu ) for the vowels wand u
ii. The use of the letter ~ instead of ~ for representing the
mark of nasalisation known as the anusvar.
iii.The placing of a micron above the letter y in the diphthong ay ,
and above the letter v in the diphthong av, thus: ~y , ~V
1. See Pref'ace.
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I?-;"TROD"CCTION
This mark distinguishes the transcription of the diphthongs from
th~ transcription of ccmbinaticnB o~ characters which are real-
ised in ~rtain contexts as g-y and g-V, not distinguishable
in ordinary speech, in the nodern languages, from the diphthongs.
Besides these modifications, it is necessary to make certain
additions to the notation in order to represent characters used in
writing the modern languages but not used in Sanskrit, and certain
modified characters used in Hindi and Bengali. The complete notation
used in the Sanskrit syllabary is this:
Vowels: 9 a i 11 u uu e ey- 0 ev
and r rr 1 11 , for the syllabic consonants.
Modifiersl: 1 1 ) (reIlresenting the enusvare) and
h (representing the vf s ar-g a)
Consonants: k kh g gh IJ
c ch j jh P .
t th q qh ll,
t th d dh n
p ph b bh m
y r 1 v ; J ~ s h
1 used in transcribing Vedic Sanskrit
The additional letters used in the syllabaries of the modern
languages are these:
rand rh for transcribing the modified forms of the characters
representing q and qh , in Hindi and Ber.gaLt , and for
1. For the use of this term, see Sanskrit section, Chapter 1.
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4 IXTRODCCTIOX
injicat1ng the intervocallic realisation, in certain words, of
the G~ja~ati character representing qr
q , X , ¥ ,z and f , for transcribing certain modifie~ Devanagari
characters used in Hindi in writing Persian and Arabic loanwords.
~ ,z and zh, for transcribing characters of the 'palatal' class
in Marathl, when they are realised with alveolar articulation.
In modern spoken Gujarati and modern spoken Bengali, certa1n
vowel sounds occur which are not separately represented in the script.
For indicating the contexts in which such vowel so~nds occur, the
three symbols c ,0 and e are used.
The sign of nasalisation,~, is used in transcribing the modifier
representing nasa1isationl when it is realised, in the modern 1ang-
uages, as the nasaliaation of a vowel and not as a nasal consonant.
This roman notation is used for writing all the Sanskrit grammat-
ical terms referring to the syllabaries of Sanskrit and of the modern
languages, the classification of the characters and the phonetic de-
scription of their rea1isation~ The names of the languages, the
scripts, and grammatical terms, such as 'sandhi'(sandhi), which are
in regular use in English, are written in their cQnventional English
form.
The Sanskrit syllabary, as arranged by the Sanskrit grammarians,is given in the ro~an notation in the Sanskrit section2, and serves
as a standard with which the syllabaries of the modern languages can
be compared.
1. See Sanskrit Section, Chapter 2,3.i.a. anusvara.2. ibid., Chapter 1.
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I~TRODCCTIO~ 5
Calligraphy
The writing of the Devanagari characters should be practised at£irst with a reed or bamboo pen. Such pens sre still in use in many
•parts of India, and in many schools Indian children are taught first
to write on a large scale with a broadly cut bamboo pen. Writing in
this way will train the eye to recognise easily details of difference
anQ wi~l train the hand to write a standard form of the characters
with the broad and thin strokes in the right place and proportion.
These pens are cut in the same way as a quill pen, except that the
point is cut to slant in the opposite direction frcm that of the
quill used for English writing with the tilted axis. The English pen,
when cut for the tilted axis, looks like this from the back:
writing thus: ~S(~_~O_-_-~Th~ pen cut for the Devanagari script looks like this from the back:
writing thus: - ~ - v - - o - - - , . - ; /'---~-------- -.-~
The pen should be held in such a way that the thin line, made by the
cut edge, falls from left to right at an angle of 45 degrees from a
line drawn horizontally across the page. The broad stroke then forms
a right-angle with the thin stroke and crosses the horizontal line of
the page at an angle of 45 degrees. Care must be taken not to change
the angle of the pen during the writing of curved or rounded strokes,
as ~his will change the sha~e and balance of the character.
Some of the typical strokes of the script should be practised
until good control of the pen, held at the right angle, is establ~sh-
ed.before the characters themselves are written. For example:
-Y-::-4----7'\.-- ----..-.----1-------,- ----~---.-.----- ""------e----~---__~ "- ~ , J-.. ~------.., y ~ ~~__
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6 I~TRODUCTIOK
Th~ use of the broad pe~ should be continued until a good style
of hand,.ritir- gis formed; the introduction of writing with an
orjir- ary pen, ar.dwithout sufficient attention to the details of line
and form, often ir-terferes with the formation of a good hand.
In the illustrations given below, which may be used as writing
exercises, the characters are grcuped so as to show different combin-
ations of strokes, and to draw attention to ,similarities and to.sm~ll
but important differences. It will be seen that some of the ch~racters
have an upright stroke, others are curved or rounded, without an up-
right stroke; but all have the head-stroke, though it is not always
written right across the top of the character. The alignment of the
characters is made by this head-stroke, that is, by the top of the
character, though there is an invisible alignment also by the bottom
of the character. For this reason, it is well to practice writing at
first between two lines; if one line is used, the characters should
be written from the line downwards, not on the line.
The general method of writing the characters is this: first,
the characteristic part of the character, usually on the left side of
the upright stroke; then the upright stroke, if there is one; and
finally the head- stroke. The head~Etrcke binds the whole character
together, as will be seen when vowel signs and other marks are added.
The general airection of making the strokes is from the top downwards,
and from left to right. But the order of the strokes in some charact-
ers, and their direction, differ from this general rule, and where
this is so, the calligraphy of particular characters is illustrated
when these are introduced in the chapters which follow.
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INTROD'L'CTIOX 7
Examples of Devanagari characters, showing the crder in which the
strokes are written:
Examples of similarity and difference between characters:
" ' f . : ' J ' - - ;;n---aT"-~ ~-~- --~
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S..A._~S:K:R.I-r SECTIC>l:'1
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C HAP T E R 1
ARRANGEMENT OF TH E SYLLAB ARY
When the characters of the Devanagari Script, &q;rr~ , are
arranged in the traditional order, they constitute a series of syll-
abIes which may be regarded as the basis of the Sanskrit phonological
system. Each character represents a syllable, and is called~~~i1,
(akparam). The series of characters in the syllabary is called
~11Tc: r r (var!(amala), and consists of:-
Fourteer. vowel characters,
Two modifiers and
Thi rtythree consonant characters.
The syllabary used in writing Vedic Sanskrit includes one more con-
sonant character.
In reading aloud from the script, a vowel character is realised
as a syllable conSisting of a vowel, ~~: (svereh), and a consonant
character is realised as a syllable conSisting of an initial conson-
ant, (vyapjanam) followed by the vowel a • This vowel,
when realised with a consonant, is generally referred to in English
textbooks as the 'inherent' vowel. The term 'modifier' is used here
to refer to the two signs which indicate some modification in the
realisation of the character with which they are written. These two
signs are usually referred to individually, as the 'enusvarah' and
the ~visargah', as there is no Sanskrit term which is used to refer
to them .tegether.
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:.i1. Tte manriez-of':;:rod.ucticnf'the scuada by which the characters
of' ;loaive ccnacr.ar.tsthe
are realised is ~esc~ibed in the following te~s, and in each class
voiceless, unas;irated
characters are arranged in th~s order:
?;f~ (af'"ho~8) r "iIII}i'~VTlU' ( alpapral1a2)
~~ (egho~a),oiceless, aspirated
voiced, unaspirated (gh0@l9vet4),
(gho!i>evet)oiced, aspirated
= s : r ~ ; ; r f ~ r C f 5 (enunas1ke 5),asal
(mahapral1e3)
(elpepral1e)
(meh~prait.e)
1. 'without sound', or 'voiceless'.2. 'with little breath', or 'unaspirated'.3! 'with big breath', or 'aspirated'.4. 'with sound' or 'voiced'.
5. 'nasal'.
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C HAP T E R 2
CH ARACTERS OF TH E SYLLABARY
The characters of the script are described in this chapter in the
same order as that in which the syllables are placed in the roman
syllabary: Consonant Characters, Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs,
and Modifiers.
The general style of the characters varies ~rom period to period
and from region to region. In the older editions of Sanskrit works
some characters are found that are now supplanted by newer and more
widely used forms; and there is sometimes a marked difference in the
style used in printing books in B ombay, Calcutta and other parts of
India. The most commonly used of the alternative forms of some of
the characters are given below, among the characters of each group.
The calligraphy of any cheracters which are not written according to
the general order of strokes given in the Introduction is illustrat-
ed when the characters are introduced.
1. Consonant Characters.
The consonant characters of the syllabary represent syllables
cons~ting of an initial consonant followed by the vowel ~ Conson-
ant characters realised with the vowel e are described as ~~
(ekare) If a character is to be realised as the consonant element
only of the syllable, this is shown by writing the mark known as
fci~~: (viramgh) at the foot of the character. The writing of this
mark with a character is illustrated below, after the first table.
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SA:-'SKRIT SECTIO~
Characters written with the vf.r-amahare described as ~C:;;~ (h..ant..).
'ending in a consonant'.
1. Characters of the vargiiye group ( a r r l t : t : r ) .
The twentyfiYs characters of this group are arranged, as in the
roman table given above, in five cJ.asses~cr~,\ (vergah), representing
the five positions of 'contact',~~:(sperfah), used in the articul-
ation of the plosive consonants. Each class consists of five charact-
ers, arranged in order according to the manner of production of the
consonant of the syllable which they represent.
ke khe ge ghs
oe che je jhe
c = r - c p f :te-vergeh
te the de dhe ne
-q-(!f~:
pe-vergehpe phe be bhe me
The Bombay form of the character for jhe is ~ ~ and ~he forms•
~ and ~ are found in older books printed in Calcutta. The Bombay
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CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY
f'ormof the character for Ita is ur . The Bombay forms of'these
characters are use~ in Hindi writing, but the Hindi f'ormsare not
used i~ Marathi writing, or in Sanskrit books printed in Bombay.
Calligraphy.
All the characters in the above table are written in the way
following three characters:
described in the introductory notes on calligraphy, except the
~ Ija
jha ta I
The writing of the viramah to indicate the realisation of a con-
sonant character as a consonant without the vowel a is illustrated
by these characters:
~k-
~"-
c-
~,t-
"q",p-
When writing words, which may be of one or more characters, each
character is written and completed with the head-stroke before the
next character is written. In the reading examples which are givenbelow, words which are usually written with the modifier known as
~~Ti: (visargah)2 are written in the form in which they occur in
various contexts without this modifier. The visargah is written with
reading examples af'terthe modifiers have been discussed. Verbal
rootB~ in the form in which they are given in grammars and diction-
aries, are included in the examples in order to illustrate the writing
of'characters with the viramah.
1. The f'irst stroke in these characters is written from right to left.2. See below, under 3. Modifiers, ii.
c
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IS
Readir.g examples1
SA~SKRIT SECTIO~
1. One character words
2. Two character words
3. Three character words
4 . Four and five character words
Qf; ~;:rJ1\ ~;::r , 'Jf~
~' llT~1l:! '1;f", ~'O"f~,
ii. Characters of the antehsthe2 group ( ~~:~ )
Bombay form
ya
Calligraphy
Ie : Hindi form e 3 ~ ~ ~
ra Ie va la
Bombay form ~ 3 {"J ~ C ;S
These four characters are associated with four of the vergah, as
indicated in the roman syllabary, and with four of the vowels, thus:if , ya, associated with the ca-vargah, and the vowels i and- ii
, ra, associated with the ta-vargah, and the syllabic
, la, associated with the ta-vargah, and the syllabic
r and.rr4
and 114
, va, associated with the pa-vargah, and the vowels u and ..u
1. Transcription of examples is given on ~.5l.2. 'standing between.' 3. This stroke is written from right €o left.4. See below, under 2. Vowel Characters.
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CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 19
These characters are all described as alpe~ra~e and gho~evet.
~ ,V8, though associated with the labial class, is.realised with
la""Oio-dentalarticulation, and described as cp=ffr~ (dante'lflthye).
Reading examplesl
1. One character words
2. Two character words
~ ~ ~ ~, ~"{" ~ ~ ';(t{!" Cio ,
('1~ If!!f ~:H ~ qt~ ~, ~ 'tfi~ 'Hr\,
3. Three character words
('f~C;; 'M'Sfl!! ~~~ ~ O f C " 5 vro~ ~U( ~1:f~\,
'9'~ ~~ ~ ~ ;:;tp; Cf~ C;;C~\,
4. Words o t : t:ouror more characters
~:p:rq(; ~~l:f n~~;:r, 1: f~ tf i1:f<"f q;;qcCi4€1.-.t{\, , ,
iii. Characters o t : the uu~men2 group
~ 1 S f ~and
~fe f3e sa he
Callifgraphy
fa : Hindi t:orm ~ ~l ~ Bombay t : o l " m ~ ~I ~l If
he •i. ~ @ fi or ii. ~ ~ ~
An older t:orm a t : ~ is ~ , a t:ormstill used in joining this
character to cel"tainother characters.
later-under Conjunct Characters3•
This t : o r m is illustrated
1. Transcriptio~ o t : examples is given on p.5l.2. 'heat' 3. See Chapter 3.
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20 SA~SKRIT SECTION
Tr.efirst three characters o~ this group represent syllables
consisting o~ a ~ricative consonant with the vowel a, and are
desc~ibed as egho~e and rnehapra~e. The fourth character is realis~d. .as an ss~irate ~ollowed by the vowel e , and is described as gho~evet
and mehapra~e. The uu~man characters are assOCiated with the classes
thus: ~ , f a , with the ce-vargeh; ~ , pa , with the te-vargah;
~ ,sa, with the ta-vergeh; and fI , he , with the ke-vifrgeh.
The character ~ is the last consonant character in the syllab-
ary used in writing classical Sanskrit. In writing Vedic Sanskrit
one more character is used, 00 ,1e, realised as a retro~lex lateral
consonant ~ollowed by the vowel e.
Calligraphy o~C X 5 :
Reading examples1
1. One character words
00
2. Two character words
~ ~ ~" q~ ~, ~ " 1 S f n1 C i f " E 1 ~"~, ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
3. Three character words
B~<? f q:;~'U ~, ~, ~~ "Bl:f~ ~~ ~c.;l~
~~ ~~ B't f i"C?~ ~ 'R~
~l1~
.~-
4. Four, :f"ive and six character words
1. Transcription o~ examples is given on p.51.
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CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 21
2. Vowel Characters, with corresponding Vowel Signs.
A vowel which coriatItutes a syllable is written '1':1 th a vowel.
c~racter; a vowel which is part of a syllable with an initial con-
sonant is written with a vowel sign added to a consonant character.
i. Vowel Characters.
There are fourteen vowel characters in the var~emal.a:
~ ~ & t~ ~
a a i 11 u uu
~1f( ~ ~
Sy-llabic r rr 1 11
1 1 ~ = J ; ( f ~e ey- 0 av
The character = s ; r , and the other characters based on the same
form, : ; r ; r r • 1 ! O i T and ~ , and the characters 'if! ~ • c;r and
C ' ( , have these
~~
alternative forms:
~~a o r rr 1 11
Both forms of these vowel characters are used in Hindi writing;
only the BoIl1'bay'ormsare used in Marathi writing. AIl. older form of
~ •0 • is s- 1. The order of'writing the strokes in vowel
charactlitrsis illustrated by these examples:• •a ? ~ ?A ';J;f a ~ -s - '3-i 'a1a ? ~ ~I :;;n 11 ~ ~ ~
r ?
' * " * L ~ 1 ~ ~ < : i c;(
ay
4~
it0 ~ ~I
~l;;it
1. See below, under 3.Modif'iers,i.note c.
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SAXSKRIT SECTION
The vowel characters are referred to as ~bH r~ • e- kara,~~ ,
a-kare, ~0hT~ i- kare, and so on. They are related to the rive posit-
ions or articulation as shown in the table of the roman syllabary. '
The vowel 11 does not occur in Sanskrit words, but the character is
traditionally included in the syllabary ror the sake or symmetry.
The rirst ten vowel characters repreeent rive pairs of 'simple'
vowels, each pair consisting or a character realised as a ts~rtt
vowel, ~'f<ir, (hr- aeva) and a character realised as a 'long' vowel,
~~ ,(diirghe). The remaining rour characters represent vowels
Which are described as 'compound' or 'conjunct', ~~~ , (se~yuktel).
In the system of modification and combination of vowels known as
'sandhi', 'B"~: , (sendhih), as in the formation of compound words,
derived words, and the joining of final and initial vowels in con-
secutive words in a phrase or sentence, the vowels are grouped thus:
Simple v owels a a i ii u uu r rr 1
W ! f : (gllI],eh)a a e 0 er al
~: (vrddhih) a ey ev ar al
Examples2: "ilRt:r, negerem ; : : n n f t o n nagerike
~1 ! f dive ~ deve ~&f deme
~ bhuuti ~ bhav>tiJca
~ kr Of)~ ker 0fiT~ karye"
~'q""kIp Ofi~ kelp:;ma ~f.1OF; kalpanike
1. See above, Ch.l., and below,3.i. for the modifier represented by~.2. See below, ii, for the vowel signs used in these examples,
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CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 23
Reading examples of words r.lthvowel characters:l
l. One character words
1 J ~ - : s ?;I' " J t i t ~ m it ~ '3;lT ~ ~
2. Words of more than one char9cter
;;r~ ~, 3'(;', ' q ' ' C f ) ~;:; :;r;fto ~ : q - ; U~~,
"¢;~, "q"~ t - u " 3 " U " ~l:f ? f r O T '3)0 ~e; :3"~
"~ - 3 1 T ~ " 3~~~ ?fPl !" l=f ,~" -src;, ~~ 1 T O T\
" "t~~, ~~;:Pi, ~~ ~'Cl:q ' i t " ' 4 1 4 + t '311Cf)~~l:f'
. . . ."
,
ii. Vowel Signs
Each of the vowel characters, except ~ a has a corres~ond-
ing vowel sign which may be added to a consonant character to re-
present a syllable consisting of an initial consonant followed by one
or the vowels a - a'll. As the vowel a is realised with every con-
sonant character unless it is either marked with the viramah or has
one of the vowel signs added to it, there is no sign for this vowel.
The vowel signs, added to the consonant character Qh, are:
~ 0fiT ft6 ~ ~ ~(ka) ka kj kii ku kuu
~ W ~ ~kr krr kl kl12
~ ~ ~ ~ke kay ko kay
1. Tra~scription of examples is given on po5l.2. See note on the vowel 11 under Vowel Characters, above.
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SAXSKR[T SECTIOX
::,-=.ll!.gra?!:y
':he order o~ 7iriti:'lghe strokes when a vowel sign is added to a
C C l : s c ! ' : . s . Y l t character is illustrated in the following examples:
c n r G hr
1" ' " ~ chi ku~ ~~
ki l e t > ~ ~ kii oh chi ~ c f r r
c.hi I l~ ~ - R t bhi 1 \ . 1 f i : I P 4 "ke c t > ~ S F i ko e n chi o h l ~
~nen the vowel signs are added to consonant characters which
have an upright stroke, the superscribed signs are placed above the
upright stroke, ar.dthe subscribed signs are written at the foot of
that stroke. Vfuen vowel signs are subscribed to rounded characters,
they are "\~'riten below the mid-point of the lowest curve, thus:
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~chu tuu q_u q_huu du huu
Special f'orms~ ~ ~ ~ ~
ru ruu dr fr hr
An older f'ormof' ~ is ~1 and of :f is ~
The vowel sign of'?If is not written with ~, The character
representing ~, with ''It[ is written with the superscribed stroke
used to represent ~, when it is to be realised bef'ore another con-
sonant character without an intervening vowel. This stroke is pla~ed
over the vowel character ::iii, as in f . 1 ? J i f c t , nirrti2.
Mark of''separation'.
When an initial ~ or ;J;ff occurs Flf'tercertain f'inal vowels 1n~
the preceding word, the mark S , known as "R"Qf~: (evegreheh)3 is~
1. See Ch.2,1.ii1. 2. See Ch.3.3.Clas6 3.i1i.a. 3. 'separation'.
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CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 25
wri tt-en after the vowel in wr.ich the final and initial vowels are co-
alesced,to indicate the presence of two words in the piece. The mark
~ written once when the initial vowel of' the second word is ~. and
•twice when the initial vowel is ? J ; I T • as in these examples:
yo - elyem yo-yem te - epi te-pi
~ ~~ ~GTSS~,
selda - atmen seda--tmen1
Reading examples2
l. One character words
; : f T ~ ~ ~ C I T fir m ~ ir ~
~ fa" ~ l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
2. Two character words
~~ ~ U1:f ~~ T R S : ~ ~ ~(= f ~
1 R 'l5~, ~ ~'q, ~'G ~~ i n l ! ! : .n~ ?{i~
~ -it~ ~ ~ & f t t ~ ~~ ~ ~~
~ ~ - q f f i - ~ ~ ~~ ~ 1 F ! f t t:~
3. Three character words
~~ ~ ~~(if f t tct ."
~ ~~
~M
4. Four, five and six character words
~Offi~." ~~ ~~~ ~~B~ " f e 1 ~ O f f i ~ ~ I T V I O f )
'%l~"9'rf~{~ $p:rm~ '3qJ1P o l C f 5 T ~ ~ ~ P li Of)
~q-=!I~ c f f i s T i t ~f fSf t r ~S't:£~
1. '?i • , tme , the characters 0, and 1 :t combined. See Chapter 3,Class 2. iii. 2. Transcription of examples is given on p.5l.
SA:;";SKRIT SECTIO:;";
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z o
3. l'lodi:'i ers
The two rr:od.ifiers, known as ~~~~: (enusvareh) and ~~:
(vis~rg&h), are signs w~ich may be added to a character to indicate
a ~odificatic~ i~ the realisation of the character. They are placed
ir. the syllabary after the vowel characters, and, as they cannot be
written alone, they are written with the character ~
r.owever, be written with any character.
They may,
i, enusvareh. ""Ii~~I(: 1
This modifier is written as a dot above the character of which
it modifies the realisation, thus:
. . . ! . .~ it ~ ~';!;IT ~ ~ ~ 1:[
ellJ 8 I I J i!!J iillJ UllJ uUllJ el1J. eYn.i oIIJ eVnj
. .f t . f i c f 5 t
. •~ ~ < it o m -Cf)f'
~ ~kaIIJ kaIIJ killJ kiiIIJ kUIIJ kUUIIJ keIIJ keYIIJ kOIIJ k9Vnj
Calligraphy
The enusvarah is generally added to the character after the vowel
sign has been written and before the headstroke is written to complete
the character. It is placed above the middle of the character, or
o,ver the last upright stroke :if there is one, and to the right side of
any superscribed 'lowel Sign, for example;
.cf;
. . . .kellJ o n ch deIIJ q ~ ~ hellJ ~ ~ ~.
7 f t ~ ffl .it ~ itarg ~Il ~II gillJ I~ gellJ
dhillJ I~ ~ ~ bhillJ l~ f i : i i1t rOIlJ ~I ~ " U
1- t after-sound'.
CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 2'
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The enusvareh is written with a character in various contexts,
and is realised in various ways according to the context.
a. When a word of which the final character represents the form-
•ative particle I1 occurs in any position except at the end of a line
"of verse or a sentence, the character I1 is omitted before an initial,consonant character of a following word and the formative particle is
repres~nted by the anusvareh. This formative particle is usually writ·
ten as 1 1 , only at the end of a line or a sentence. For example:
i ; t ( ' f f " L 1
"yetarn
ft{ t t_~"r{ ,vibhuutimet~ vibhuuti~ yoge~ ce •••
b. The anusvareh may be written with an initial or medial
character followed by a vergiiya character. In this context it is
realised as ~he nasal consonant of the class to which the following
character belongs. Examples:
~ ~~ ~"lTl1J- IJ
al1Jka(eIJke) pU!1Jkha(puIJkha) lil1Jga(liIJga)
" q ' ' ' e f 6f'TU ~l1J- Jl " "pel1Jce(paJlce) val1JCh(vejich) sil1Jj(Sipj)
~c ~ fflsl1J- 11.
kUllJthe(kU11.the) al1Jclaa11.Qa) pirr.lctaPill.cta)
~ t~ ~~11J- n
f 8 1 1 Jti (Santi) il1Jdu(indu) ba11Jdhu(bandhu)
Q f ) " q " ~~ ~~l1J- m
ka~pa (kampa) aRJbu (ambu) lrutrjbhakumbha)
Another, more usual, method of representing a homorganic nasal
1s that of combining the appropriate nasal consonant character with
SANSKRIT SECTION
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~e vargiiya character that follows it, that is, ~ with characters
of the ke-vergeh, ~~ with characters of the ca-vergeh, and so on.
This method is used also when the formative pRrticle ~ occurs before.,•
an initial vergiiye character in a sentence, where consecutive words
are joined in sandhi. The calligraphy of such combined characters is
illustrated laterl• Formative particles, such as ~ , -enti, and
~~ ,-ante, are usually written by this method and not witu the
enusvarah.
The anusvareh is sometimes written to represent -n or -m , in
compounds formed from the prefix ~~" sam-, and words beginning
with "1 or 1 : ( ' sennate, and ' i r l : Jm semmat t,
c. When the enusvareh is written with a character preceding acharacter of the entehsthe or the uu~men group, the realisation of it
varies according to the position of articulation of the character
which follows it, and also with the custom of speakers in different
parts of India. The enusvareh preceding an entahsthe character is
realised as follows:
Before < : r , ya ,as ! . J , m , n or y ; e.g.
~ < : i T . , . se1Jyoge, SemYOge' senyoga or seyyoge
Before ~ , ra ,aa IJ , m , n or v ; e.g.
~ salJrage, semrage, senrage or sevrage
Before ~, Ie ,as IJ , m , n or i ; e.g.
~ selJ1eye, semleye, sanleye or selleye
Before cr, ve ,as lJ , m , or v ; e.g.
~~ selJvade, semvada or seVvada
1. See Chapter 3. Conjunct Characters, Class 2.b.
CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY
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The cmusvarah preceding an uu~man character is realised thus:
Before IT, Ia , as IJ
~"U•
Before 1>(", ~a , as IJ
~
Before ~, se , as IJ
~~
, m , n , or V; e.g.
a!Jia, emIe, ~nfe or eVfe
, m , nasalisation of the vowel, or V; e.g.
, m , n , or V; e.g.
saIJssra, samsare, sensare or savsare,
or as nasslisstion of'the vowel, as in
~m hi!Jsa, himsa, hivea or hrsa
1ffr pUl:Jsi,pumat, pilsi
Bef'ore ~, he , as IJ ,m ,n , or V; e.g.
fm!siIJha, simhe, sinha or sivha
or as nasalis ation of the vowel in ~~ , sey-he
The Sign ~ is sometimes written above a character preceding an
antahsthe or an uu~man character to indicate realisation by nasal-
ising the vowel of the syllable instead of by a nasal consonant
f'ollowing the vowel. This sign is called ~~~~~ (enunasikal),
and it is usually written, in preference to the anusvarah, in the
'sacred syllable' ~ , (0~)2
Reading eX~les3
a. fcf;
b. ~if
' * l t S i l l l J i
c h f d Z lC. U'TTTT:::r- -6= ~
~ .... .,~ ~""I\I, ., I~
(Il~ ~ ~ffi14A~
• ~ cP lS~p :H rTii ('11? l~
1. '~s~l'. 2. See above, under 2.i.
?For transcription of
examples, see p.52. • The lines a, band c correspond to the notgiven above under 3.1. 4. G~tagovindakavyam, sarga 3,v.6o
30 S:\:\SKRIT SECTIO~
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ii. visergeh • ~. r : 1
The visergeh is written as two dots, placed vertically, after a
character.
~:
e-
; r ; J t! ?;IT: ~: \3': ~: ?ft: "if: t: m :eh ah ih iih uh uuh rrh eh 3yh oh evh
q;): ( 3 f m ~! c f i r :~ ~ ~ ~ ~ cit: ~:
keh kah kih kiih kuh kuuh krh keh keyh koh bvh
Calligraphy
The visergeh is usually added to a character af'terevery other
stroke has been made, including the head-stroke.
e.g. c : h
The realisation of'the visergeh varies in different parts of India
a. It may be realised as strong aspiration following the realisation
of the character with which it is written, for example
deveh malah kevih
~(5:
guruh keveh gul1.eYh bhanoh
It is realised in this way when it occurs medially, as in
~:~, , duhkhem; or as the doubling of the following consonant,
as in (i'q":tJ • te:pehsu,tepessu.
b. It may be reali,sed in final position as h following the vowel of
the character with which it is written, and a very short repetition
or the same vowel after h, as illustrated by this transcription of
the examples given above:
devehe
1. 'emission of breath'
CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 31
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Reading examplesl
l1;:r~~
~J:f~:~~:
Gficn~~~m:
' :3 f~&ort r fgCicn~:
't~~~~ ~
~W ~ : t < : r ~S~
~ C G f i t fct~?\~~ ~M ~
6'I~~~-q
it:ifT~: m :
~fit:~ ~fit:~:m~ ~nTf&nT:
~11l1Tm~l:fT¥ : ir1JTa t7T~~mC f5~~cr~
~m;fr ~~s-q~m ~ ~: I
ii ~ir c r - c r : I2
~ ~ ~ ~ , , 3~;:f ~ W * e!c=t~Rt~Rl~Gldt(lj ; :rr~,
Vf~ ': if1 l~ ~ 114
' I : IT~Qff i1 f f i~<>r f~(1 ' ";{cfl:ffi::rR1~~~ I
! !~t j ...~11:Jftr ~~ -wr df>lUt&lI~:ctlir~ II 5
~:
4. The Complete Syllabary
The complete syllabary, arranged in the traditional order, is
given on the following page. The characters are further arranged ina .table in which the vowel characters, and the two modifiers added tc
the character ~ , are placed in order at the head of a series of
columns consisting of every consonant character in the ekare fo~,
each consonant character with each of the vowel signs and each or the
modifiers.6 These two tables together show the order in which the
characters are placed as initial characters of words in dictionaries.
Characters with the enusvareh are, however, placed before characters
without the enusvarah but followed by another consonant character.
1.·For transcription, se~ p.52. 2. Bhagavadg!ta,ch.lO,v.loa.
3. ibid., ch.10,v.4.b. 4. Grtagovindakavyam, sarga l,v.8.5. ib~~., sarga l.3,v.7. 6. Cf. the series of characters withvowel signs given above under 2.i1.
32 S.\XSKRIT SECTIO'X
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?if ; ; ; r r & t ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~" ' ~ ~1 'Q '.;;r ; r ; £ :
e n ~ T f ~ ~
~ ~ '3 f ~ \5 f
C (5 E; G t lJ
(f ~ ~ ~ ; : r
q 'tfi G f tr : q -
~ ~ ~ q~ ~ ~ ~
00
5. The Devanagari Numerals
Hindi f'O:""IIlS: ~ ~ a ~ ~ S t \. 9 'C : e . ~l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO
Bombay f'orms: , ~ a ~ ~ '& \3 c : ; ~ ~o
l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 lO
6. Punctuation
.In ~rose writing, the end of'a sentence is marked with a vert-
ical stroke of'the same height as the characters. In verse, the f'irst
line of'a stanza or cou~let is closed with one vertical stroke, and
the com~lete stanza or cou~let is closed with two vertical strokes.
and numbered as illustrated in the verse example~ given at thl!~nd of
the next cha~ter.
C HAP T E R 3
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CONJUNCT CHARACTERS
Consonant characters may be combined to represent two or more
consonants realised without any intervening vowel. A character
forme&by combining other characters is called a conjunct character,
ti~ihl'~W:((sa!lJY1lktak~aram).
1. Construction of Conjunct Characters.
Characters may be combined in various ways, according to the
form of the characters to be jOined.
i. The second character may be subscribed to the first:
c r , C fd- ve
~dva
ii. If the first character has an upright stroke, this stroke may be
omitted, and the first part of the first character is joined to the
second character by the head- stroke, thus:
gge
~"tft- pe
?1tpa
~qn- de nde
~, 'ifg- ga n- me nma
The characters ' C i f i " ~
cha~acters in the forms
and ~ are usually joined with following,
q: , $f and " ' C f .
Some conjunct characters may be formed by either of these two
methods, for example:~,~c- ce
~or:;;;;rcce
' 3 f ' \ 3 fj-'ja
~or \Nfjje
D
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Some conjunct characters are formed by a combination of methods
i. and ii.; for example: q _ ~d-bhe ~dbhe
iii. I~ the first character is a rounded character, with no upright
stroke, it is usually written in full, and the second character is
joined with it in a modified form, for example:
? i t [d- ye
'i,~h- ye
~hye
~'If,h- me
.~bme
iv. Some characters are written in a special form when joined with
other characters, for example:
Jva
~\ ~r-the rtha
' T f , ~
g- re J- ra Jre
The characters ~ (H indi form) and ~ (B ombay form), represent-
ing k- ~a , and the character ~ , representing j- pe, have been in-
cluded in the syllabic series from a very early date, though no con-
junct characters are included in the syllabary. Calligraphically
these three characters are not formed by jOining two distinct charact-
ers, but they are considered in this work under the appropriate
classes of conjunct characters because they represent syllables con-
sisting of two consonants and the vowel a
If any characters are not modifiable, and therefore cannot b~
combined, by any of these methods, the realisation of them without an
intervening vowel is indicated by writing the first character with
the virameh, thus
~q<l- da
q ~,d- bra <1bre
COXJUXCT CHARACTERS 3S
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Characters combined ~ith other characters in this way do not ~orrn
conjunct c~aracters in calligraphy, but they are included in this
. . .chapter beca~se they complete certain series in the classes of con-
junct characters.
Three, four or ~ive characters may be combined to form a conjunct
character, for example:
ct 11' 'tf ? = < = r,t - m - ye tmye
~ ~ qb - dh - ve
s~qbdhve
~\ 'q, ~ ~
r - ~- t - ye
The general rules already given ~or the order of strokes in writ-
ing a character apply also to the conjunct characters. The vowel
Examples: ktyu q.signs are added to the character before the headstroke is written.
stvi
q.., ~<.j
It- I~("cf
'-1''1I \;'~'
2. Contexts o~ Conjunct Characters.
i. In words, such as
Conjunct characters occur in the following contexts:
~~ ;;ITq: ~: ~ ~ ; r , _ ~: ~iccha agnih k@ipreh brehmen Jlokeh strii
. .ii. In junctions arising from grammatical processes:
a. In words formed by the addition of su~fixes to verbal roots,
such as
~-ct ~=tt) 'lllt-'tf l'f~ c::1~-(qT ~&~qr ,, \
bhej-te bhekte gem-ye gemy? lebh-tva lebdhv8
SA::-<SKRIT SECTIO~
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b. In derivatives of various kinds, such as
diva
~Juura
~n4B"avryarn
c. In words formed by the addition of prefixes or suffixes to
other words, as in
: :3f f-( i11 ~ \3'f(-1'fl1: ~'lf: :;;rfiT-~: ';Ij:f~:,"ut-tama uttama ut-gameh udgamah abhi-asah abhyasah
~-~ rll lf ~-~: ~: ~-~ cna·'tftf, -,
dur-SUI1.e durgtllle vi-adhih vyadhih vac-maye valJmeya
iii. In compound words, in which the final character of one part of
the compound word, if it is a halan~a character, is joined with the
initial character of the following part, as in
~~ - l1Tff: l i l' Q " ' f I t ' i : ~-~: ?1i~:,
~at - masah ~aI'(lllasah rc - vedah rgvedeh
~~" m a r ~l1 .$PTcr1fTmJri!mat - giita Jriimadbhagevadgiita
iv. In pieces consisting of two or more words, in which a conjunct
character is written joining the final character of one word, if it is
a helanta character, with the in!tia1 character of the following word'.
For example:
~tfT ft ~"1:f rt:tT fil Gtf I., I~&'Q 0 1 f4~IIA:4~Jreyo hi jpanamabhyasajjpanaddhyanem viJi~yete,
"~1i11(Cfi'.t~?=fT'1T~('ql'all-e.alF-ft~;;~ 11 ~~ II
dhyanatkerma~heletyagastyagaCChantiranenter~m.12.1
•1. Bhagavadgita, Ch.12.v.12.
CO~JU~CT CHARACTERS 37
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The process o~ joining characters illustrated in ii. to v. above
is known as 'sandhi' or consonantsl• The examples in ii.a. and ii.b.
~lluBtrate the process o~ 'internal' sandhi, and those in i1.c., i11.
and iv. illustrate that or 'external' sandhi.
3. Classi~ication o~ Conjunct Characters.
Tqe conjunct characters are arranged in this work in classes
according to the combination or consonants which occurs when the con-
junct character is realised in reading. The conjunct characters,
when arranged in this way, fall into ~our classes.
Class 1. Two similar characters joined.
Class 2. Two vergiiye characters joined.
Class 3. Characters joined with entehsthe characters in various
combinations:
1. Characters joined with '[
ii. Characters joined with o r
iii. Characters joined with
a. preceding ~,; or b. following "'
iv. Oharacters joined with
a. preceding ~ 2; or b. following ~
Class 4. vergiiye characters joined with uu~men characters:
i. Characters joined with
a. preceding ~,1Sf or ~" ,
i1. Oharacters joined with
a. preceding ~; or b. following ~,
or b. following ~, ' l iT or~
1. Co~;re reference to 'sandhi' of vowels, in Chapter 2, 2.i.2. The Vedic character 00, 1.e, is included in this class.
38 SA~SKRIT SECTION
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Glass 1. Two similar characters joined •
-kka
-tta
-ppa
-kkhe -gga
'CCf) ~
-:pphe -bbe
Alternative forms
-yye
-cce: c : : - a ; " S f ~l:f)
-cche -jje· jjhe
~,G 1ij"
- tq ha -T.l'1.e
(=~ ~
-tt~ -dde
; s J if
-ddhe -nnette
-bbhe -mIne
-sse
-cce -j je -lIejjhe
The characters \51, T and '& do not occur in this series. The
second and fourth characters in each vergeh are formed by combining
the alpapraTJ.echaracters with the corresponding mehapraTJ.echaracters.
Reading examples4•
oCf~:
~
\3:r;q
?;I'&~!
f 4 ' S fOU(
~_ ~~;V~ ~
~fu: ~!
[~:Wc:rJ " '1 HH1"*
1. Conjunct characters which do not occur-initially are indicated byprefixing a hyphen in the roman transcription.
2. This character occurs only in the grammatical term given in the
reading examples.3. This character occurs only in combination with preceding4. Transcription of examples is given .on p.52.
CO~JeNCT CHARACTERS
l
39
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Class 2. Two vargiiya characters j01ned.
vargeh
i. eghot'leand gho~evet characters, excluding enunasike char-ac t.er-e s
gho!?evet
C f5 - , C ! "
ke - te
'6fS-nke - te
~-1:f
ka - pe
~--e;ce - te
ce - pe
c-Ffte - te
-kce -kche
C fC C;~ CfO C~
-kte -tke -kthe -tkhe
-kte -tke -kthe -tkhe
-kpe -pke -kphe -pkhe
-tche
-pche
c~ (=C
-tthe -tthe
-tphe -pthe
-gje
-gde
-gjhe
W 7G ~
-~ge -g~he -qghe
-dge -gdhe -dghe
-gbe -bge -gbhe -bghe
-dbe
-bje -bjhe
~
-tee
-pee
zy ~2
-tte -tta
-tpe -pte
&({ ~ 'i~
-bde -dbhe -bdhe
1. M~y~of these conjunct characters occur only in external sandhi.2. This combination occurs in the character combining~, ([ and ~
. . . . . .
SAXSKRIT SECTIO~
ii. Ohsracters of each v~rg9h joined with a preceding or following
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a. enunasika character preceding.
enunasike character of the same vargah.
i ii W f-lJk~ -IJkha -1Jge -IJghe
~ ~ 'llS "{fG
-rlte -rLtha -llqa -rLqhe
~ P:f) " J : i S f l = . l : f
-rnp s - mphe - mbe -mbha
Alternative forms~ " C T G
-pjhe -llte
- = r r-nta
~
-pche
r~
-ntha -ndhe
~
-pjhe
~
-nda
These characters, representing a preceding homorganiC nasal
consonant, are usually written in preference to the enusvareh placed
on the preceding character, of which examples have been given abovel•
The following examples illustrate the contexts in which the anusvareh
may be written, and in which it is not written:
vin9~tih or vinentlh~
b. enunasike character following.
-c)1e -tne
aI !J teo r e nt e3
-thne -pme
):l:f
-bhme
The character if is not calligraphically a conjunct character,
and is found, from an early date, included in the syllabic series of
characters5• In realisation, however, it belongs to this class of
1. See above, Ch.2,3.i.b. 2. Verba1 forms. 3. Non- verbal forms.4. T he c om bi nat io n c r - ;:r more usually becomes 'iK in sandhi. •5. See above, Ch.2.l.'iii.
CO~JUNCT CHARACTERS
conjunct char~cters. In the order o~ words in dictionaries, words
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beginning with ~ are placed between words beginning with ~ and
th'osebeginning with ~ •
iii. Characters joined with a preceding or ~o11owing enunasike
character of a di~~erent vergeh:
a. enunasike character preceding.
~ ;S'lf - : : r , =cf) ~ ; : : c r ~ ;:q:; ; : "lJ- -, n--IJbhe -nke -nge -ncel -nje1 -nphe -nbhe
lEostcharacters may occur joined.with preceding ';f, , on account
o~ the ~requent occurrence of formative particles ending in ~.,
~, IJe, also may occur with many characters in external sandhi•. . . .
b. enunas~ke character following.
-~ ~ 1t! f ~-Ite
-kl1e -~e -bhI"Le
-;;~ W - r , : r V ~ W ;r
-ne
kne -khne gne ghne -pne -bne -bhne
-~ cp:r ~ n : r e;r ~ ~ ~-me ,
-kIne -khme -groe -ghme =cme -jme -qme
'?1 G J ~'1:f
-tme -dIne -dhme
iv. ~o enunasike characters o~ different vergeh.
-rune mna
Alternative ~orms of the conjunct characters in iii. and iv. are
formed with -or. e.g. ' lOT
"1. It 1s more usual to wr1 te \5[ before characters of'the ce-vergeh.
"
SA~8KRIT SECTIO~
n _ - 1
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xea aarig examp.i es"
oCf~B, ~~ff &~rr ~~~ ~7~ \3"~: qrCf"q"~
errq: ." t f i~, -Clfi~C~c,,~- "t[~p~: q)~~~: ~~~"U "'fC~:
~ ~ ~ : ~ : - ~ S , = = n - fu f f f - ;;jC'e!~: Cf)~~fct: ~G \1 f -Cf)~&lf)~~-
~$,~crr: "qg,E ff ~~ ~cnr ~~~1J!" - q s : ~ ~~ "CC~ :
~l:.xr "q"S,~ Cfi~~~ \3(q"- i f " "R(tO~: W ¢ ' W E : l o r ; 3.JCI':
~: c;rGe;f l17fQWffi ~ :m ~~ff ~m ~~m +i-.:..a~:
i:l..a.~: lll~ fc;rW ·1 l",~~: ~: Cf f~ ?IjJ~: t n \ " > t f i J "
w : r e ; : Cf)UC: "tf~: ~: ~: -q-~ ~ ~~:
~ ~R t ~q: ~li: " t T f t : ~
iii.a. ~C\;gfi?r : rr~ fc r: ~ : ~;:'{=
b. ~ ";7llf "2!~ ~R t ~ : ~ : ~ ~
~'S,"l IR\ ? l l t I W R t ~tr: f i F c f J : l U f l CU~ , crti4: ;;r~! ~i~
; J ; I T ( l = R " , " t f G l T t . " " J : f f i f ~ ~ ~ , ~ ~
1. For transcription of examples, see p.52. Examples illustratingcharacters which could occur in sandhi arising from the sequence of
words in a sentence are placed between hyphens.2. The first character represents dvi. See Class 3.1i.
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 43
Class 3. Characters joined with entehsthe characters.
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i. Characters joined with following ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~."t["-,
kye khye .gye ghye -l]ye
o:r c s : r ~ ~ ~
-tye-thye -qye -qhye we
" tZf ~ &f ~ ~
pye -phye bye bhye mye
~ ~ ~ ~
(yye)l -rye2
lye vye
cye -chye jye -jhye
tye thye dye <frye nye
sye hye
Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. and 2. with 3.i.
~ ~ ~ " C ? 1 l~ &~ ~. . . .
-nnye -ttye -tmye -ptye -gdhye -dbhye -bjye
Reading examples. 3
Cl"fCft:p:;.... '(0:(4 Ict ~~;::r, ~4 \3'~.<:r~: ~ C fT~ ~~-,
o;;: :~ Ofilqe:~:P:r, ~ i lO " i lJ,\ GlI'5ifl:f, '3;[qr~ ~<t:tP::;, ("41\l'Li
' t { t .<::(" ~ Q . < = r r ~ Ofi~ ~ ~a- ~f.t: ;.;r~~-,
.~~~ a~~~(?:1 ~ ~~ ~: ~l?{ ~, ~~,fivtjl~: ~~: ~-cA ~ r t w 4 1 f c : t ~ ( ~~~, 11TiT~l1,
"4Cf("41 csht&\l"44, ~~p:;r: ~",o4Rh: -- ~n~~SS("~--
--~~""'l:(Tf'lfifltcl"l~- I ~ ~~11"m~<{: ti\CH'Htf11l"~ fc i~ t ' i f&j: ,5
1. See under Class 1. 2. The superscribed stroke in this character'represents r preceding another consonant. 3. For transcriptionsee p.'3. 4. The first character represents Jla. See belowund~ iv.b. 5. Nrtisatakam, verse 3.a.
SA:-.;'SKRIT SECTIOX
1i. Characters w ith following C f
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Q 1 ~ T c f ~ ~ "!'.va khva gve ghva -IJva
-tva - thva -q_ve -qhve -n=
12f & C f Pf 'Pf
-pv:;) -bye - bhve - mve
< : E f c t ~1 2
yva -rva Ive (- VV'e)
~ V- cva - chva
tva - thva
jva jhva
dva dhva nve
eva hve
\S f and 'tf) do not occur in this series. - q - preced ing another
character occurs in ~ , - vrte, ~ , - vna , S f , vra4 and ~,vla5 •
Examples o~ conjunct characters of Classes 1. and 2. with 3.i. and ii.
- ttve - rvva - cchve
Reading examples.6
- ktve - dvye
~; ~~ \3-.;.!rI~:
'l~" ~ ~~:cfr
~:
-bdhva -gdhya
~~~: ~ ~liM fif~: ~: (f~,
r~~~crr ~~ C{T'M ' r<1<t~CJT ~;n~ w 0 1 J ! i 7 ma~~:7
?fCRCITSS~~~~ I ---'!i44<timfitq:;l~rq("q1 ;m~: ~11l: 18
1. POl' the superscribed stroke in this character, see below, in iii.a.2. See - vve in Class 1. 3. For this f,orm of fe see Ch.2,1.iii.4. See below, under iii.b. 5. See below, under iv.b. •6. For transcription of examples, see p.53. 7. The initial characters
in these words represen~ gre ana pre.8. Prom B hagav adglta, Ch.6.v .4 1.a.
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 45
11 i. Characters joined wi th preceding ~ or following ~ •,
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a. 1: preceding another character.-,
To represent ~,preceding another character a stroke is super-
scribed on the character before which l' is to be realised. This
stroke is called ~:, r-ephah , the name given to the character " t
repheh in this form may be written with any character, but it does
1
not occu.r with ~ or ~ .c f i ~ ~ ff . q ~ ~ ~
- rka - rca -rte -rta -rpa -rye -rJa -rh9
Some of t he c ha ra ct er s, particularly 7 1 " . ~ , "V i , 'ff , q.
q ~ 1:(", ~ and G f, aLoe frequently doubled when written with
rephah. This practice is found in H indi writing. but is not usual
in Marathi writing. Examples:
nf ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ oi-rgge -rjja - rtta - rddhe -rmma - ryy9 - rvve
Characters written with vowel signs and repheh:
-rka -rki -rkii$
-rku -rke -rkay - rko - rkev
and with rephah and e.nusvarah:
0 F i T ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
-rkBlIJ - rkiIIJ - rkiiIIJ - rkUIlJ - rkeIIJ - rkaYn.J - rkeVIIJ
•The rephah is placed above the upright stroke of a character, or
above the mid- point. It is always written to the right side of any
other superscribed stroke, as shown in the examples given below. It is
written also with the vowel character ~. as in the word ~~~:.
1. re~a, 'rough'; rephah, 'a rough sound'.
46 S:\XSKRIT SECTIOX
Charac"':ersw1th repnel: are written as shown in these examples:
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rki I t : h f ; . h R t fc t rkii ch i t : h ) e h f c f i rrke < = h ~ ;t ~ rko chi ~ q - . I c : n TrkiIlJc + , r e b I e h % rkevr!Jch) c t ; 1 ' c h I W
In Bo:nbaywriting the cha~acter representing -rhe is sometimes
written as ~~, though the use of this stroke for repheh 1s more rare-
ly used in writing Sanskrit than in writing Marathi.
following another character.
To represent ~ f'ollowing another character, a diagonal stroke
is placed against the upright stroke of'those characters that have
one, or beneath the mid-point of the lower part of a rounded
character.
if) V 'W \S . W ~. . . .kre gre -ghre -IJre -chre2 jre
~ ~ ;r ~ ~ W " ~
-tre3 -q_re tre thre dre dhre -nre
> r ir ~ ;r 9 f ~ -q ~or~
pre bre bhre mre vre Jre4 sre hre
Examples of'conjunct characters of'Classes l. to 3.ii. with 3. iii.op;f ~ ?f ~ ~~ ~ 9 " ? t f ~~.
-ktre -tpre -rtye -drye -rdhve -rdre -ntrye ·-rdhnye
1. See above, Oh.2,2.ii. Vowel signs.
2. This combination occurs in the character joining ~and ~3. c: and ~ are combined in the character representing ' 1 S f ,·candr4 . Fo~ this form of' lrr , see Oh.2,1.ii1. ' "
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 47
Re ading examplesl
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a.~: ~ C f l T : ~ ~ ~ .
~ ~ , C f l # : ~ &j~ ~, ; q q l i ' 1 ~ l + 1
~f iT: ChJ:~, ~ li~ ~ ~: ~11
~~ ~, ~ ~gf.t:tl:q,~, q~ ~ 1l~:;:~1S1IZ1k"1rt:
~~~~~ I' ~~~.ffi I i!4&:q~1~'l14~4 ~ ~ u_
b.~: ~: ~ ~~ ~~ ~, ~~ ~:
~ ~ : 1 P : o n ~ t .m I ;m ~:
~~ ~ ~ ~
~:
~qqli, ~
;r~
Lv, Characters combined with preceding C W f , or following ~ •2
a. ,~, preceding another character.3
c ;oF) ?T c = t f ~ c;Gf C;~ ~
-lke -lge -lpe - lphe - lbe -lbhe -lme
~ ~ ~ Vedic C O ' !-lIe -ls9 -lhe -l.,he
b. c;r following another character.
ii ~ ~ ~c;r ~,
~kle gle - chle -<tIe ple ble bhle
~ ~ ~or ~ ~mle vle Ile hle•
• Most of these characters may be written either by method i. or
by method ii., described earlier in this chapter.4
1. For transcription, see p.53.2. Fcfr c ; : r joined with entehsthe characters, see 1. to i ii . abov e.
30 Vedic ~ is included in this class.4. See abeve , 1. Construction of Conjunct Characters,.
SA~SKRIT SEC"TIOX
Examples of conjunct characters of Classes 1. to 3.iii. with 3.iv.
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~ r w ~ ~(")
-tpla - tkla - cch1a -lbhya
Reading exanrples.1
~P6T -q;~ ~ ; ; r < : , , 4 1 0 1 1 t t l ~f? :mr \3"~ ~4fC;:~'.
~~~ lf~: q~ ~7f~1.~ ;:;;003 ~ir" "- ~
~"U~ ~
W i"~: $I ( ' Q ; % J I
~~1:f: ~~:fl"ilkl
~: m: ~: ~ a - ~ - , ; .a~G f ~~: ~:')
" t i m ~ff irn ~q f P 4HJ ~<1 ~ m
~H1T~ ~ ~ ~mff '(({~ W~ICh~~"
~~ (=q~~: ~~~~;oaIJO i f f l !~~
~tri: 11t(iX{: ~ ~ O f a "'~1I2
Class 4. vargiiya characters joined with preceding or following
uu~man characters.
i. Oharacters joined with l r r 1 S f or 'B .
a. ~" 1 0 f or " B ' preceding another character.-,
"The following characters occur in this series, some occurring
only in external sandhi.
~3~ -!q m - \T . C f q ' ~
S~-Jka -Sea - Scha Jna -fpa Sma
~ ~ -g -g ~ ~ ~ 1:tf~~
-~ks - ~ta ~tha -~Ila -~pa -@phe -s=
~, ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ B ~ ~ ttl's-
ske skhe - sje ste stha sne epa sphe ema
1. For transcription, see p.54. 2. Vairagyasa~akamL- v.62.3. These characters may be written with either ~ or ~
" ,
CONJV;:';:CT CHARACTERS 49
b. ~ , ~ or ~ f'ollowing ar.other character.
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The following characters occur ir. this series, some occurring
only in external sandhi.
"U ~ 6·~ ~ C~ ~ qrI<il -, -,
-kIe -:!JIe -pI<il -tie -nIe - pI a
~ ~ ~1 g. lS[ 2 c l S f ~ ~r
~<il " "k~a -IJ~e -t~9 -n~e - P @ l 9
'B CH1 ~l=f ~ R = f =s 1:;ffS<il
-kS<il -tse -Ilse -tse -nse - ps a
The character ~ has been included in the syllabic series f'rom
an early date, and is not calligraphically a conjunct character.3 In
the order of' words in dictionaries, words beginning with ~ are
placed after words beginning wi th ~ .
Conjunct characters of Classes 1. - 3. with Class 4.
'R ~~
~ & - 1 1 ~ ~ t=R. . . . .stra -~tra -g-tV9 k~Ile -kg-me -stva -tsthe -tsna
~ ("'fl:~ ~ ( ' " ~ - 4strye -tsmye -rg-tya -rtsnye
Calligraphy: ki;ia, Bombay f'OJ"'IIJ ~ ~ ~ \1Reading exam:ples4
a. - ; ;w~ 'R-'lT:
"~~ ~(>f t6q')l4, ~: ~
(5)CUj9'j ~ ~" H6(G !~ 's;{~ ~!f,,"'~ "
~ "fIl!~: ~ i)g{q1f, ~ q:r ~ cn~
~ f 4 1 S q : ; ( , {
~~ fflpq
b. SOII~IH'1 , ~~ftrn:r, ctl~'W 'h1 [m~) " E f c _ : m ~ l.~ ~'\ -91~ , \
~~ ~c,t:llra; ~ ~l:f ~ G,~ ?;fffi: ,!';]Vl~ (~ ~IOG \ f{ '{ ra ] ~
1. BoIll'Oayf'orm. 2. This combination usually becomes 6-~ •3. Cf'.note on ~ ,Cl.2.1i.b. 4. For transcription, see p.54. 'E
50 SA~SKRIT SECTION
~~ ::3~~ ,;r~ ~: B~~~ "G;a(f ~ttrr Cfik&4Xi,
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'fcr;rn:~ q;-.:t'tf)F')~ C~~'l": ;;l1:~l:f, ~, ~~,
ii. anunasika characters joined with preceding ~ or following ~,
a. ~ preceding ~ , ;:;and 11 •~ i ~
-hI).a hne -hrna
b. ~ following G " 'and ., :g.~ ~,
" -,
-IJha -nhe
Readi ng examples.l
1l~ ~: ~~ ~~ ~~~: C ~ l f 1 = O : J ~w-:~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ J t r R t \3 i : l : 1 , I ~ (M~tr, II~II2
~ : - r { i h 1 1 ~ ~ 1 l € > ~ ~~~('1 I ~ ~ ~ ~~ lI.:tll3
'ff'it'Ttf~~:r~~ffi;:qr~: ~~ ftfffil1{r-i, I
ii;f1'6fI:ql~ttQ i " ' l I . . ;rr~~;:qhll"'8 f ? c i t " f O ~ l I o te r l ! 4
~ : ( ) f ;4Ul l f 6 1 ( 1 H I ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I
~4tl ~[i BitnStrmi14~~<'fiCfi~~, "~~,, 5
~ fc i : i ~ c q : ) " ( l i : fT fu ~ l1~ff ('1~q fcfR , I
q~"~ltT<5f-~' l .uf.=~r~:r~~~~;:~;r "c1l6,
-31lttlct1rff: ~ § t1~O llo;j- ~ ~ f t rm~ :q I
~ ;:m ~ ~ ~ : c : f f i~ :R t t i f i ~ ~ n g . : : n7
l. For transcription, see p.54.4 . B hagavadgfta, ch.l,v.26.6. ibid., ch.5,v.8.
2. Rigveda, l. 3. ibid~, ~.5. i bi d., ch.3,v.25.7 . Nrtisatakam, v . 4 8 .
TRA~SCRIPTIOX
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Transcriptior.,o~ Readi~g Examples
Chapter 2.
1.t, da dha ta pha ma pe ne ce qa gaka bh8 ja be ghe cha the khe jhe Jl8
bhate pede dhena kaqe matha pharLa ghane khac dadh damechad jhaga jeqa phete patha bata chage pe<th ghata gal1e
gamaka
dhatake
chadanamgamanam
1.11. va
jegat
kapste
cal1.aka
bhajaka
patheka
khejake
damatha
padeka
methane
gSl1eke
ghetake
ketharn
netenern kethenem bhal1enem jenepedadha,narnada jhal1.ejhal1am jhel1.ejhel1.ern
ya re 1e ba the khe te
jhere bela vare 1'61119 vathjhere ret ral1a pha1 rethe
dhavale jathara ceral1e qernerabhevet neyena vecara latabha
lava jelalabh yeve
khara veddhara leye
tarala l.aval1enekhare lage<te
bheyamcepala
yernavat vayanern garalarn pedakarnala kapatavac~mam
1.iii. ~a he sa fa pa <ta re kha
fare sahe t>at vaJa has jhet>a resa ve~ Javasat fatha kafa ka~a fas haya hare jhe~9 bhe~a
serele ka1eIa jahet 'Veyes Jepatha samaya bahela Jalabhayafes Iereta saphela sarase hereka parefe rebhese h8teka
deferath8jelaceres
2.i. e
atheuuh •ed1i~9t
2.11.
.duurageYra
pitrotu
IeketernnevedeIakam
seveyes ke1.aharn fasanernsahagemenarn kemelavedene
JetaJesdeJeIetam
i u 8 I' 11
i~ ut ekaedha iife uehElal eiim okhuuhanam r~abha
av 1'1'u a
ad ayIeuuqha iheudal) rl1am8~~amas upakere118m
ine oteVIn ruarc eYll8
av~edham
rdhut>
nii bhuu gay ar da ji gav pey me duukr chi Ilev hey bhii Jrr fii dr hi hI'
bhiita r-ama cora tiIJ do~e frta dhrta ruuq_ha~f pavIa k1.p
driha pure phel1e' mevIe krrt
meru dUU~i bhiiti hri guru vrtha JiJu setuuti eta rtu iti uuru r~i el111 ute
52 SAXSKRIT SECTIO~
bh1.:.uEliteku.'narii
vi~ese upaye veybheve pitrrn peVru~e rucirejhetiti thalinii ruu~ite ev~edhi keykeyii
bhaVmikajhirika
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vid.hatru eyhike qhalin surebhi kheqika helate
ekakin hr~ikeJe itihase kevJeleyadevenagerii enunasike aVpeni~edeupenivefike eVpenayike ko-pi
vi~uucika FaVra~ikeupejiivika eVpadeJike
rte-pi yefo-peyeje
tamehe~ hrdi se~getameniJe~ bhrJa~
ki~ vene-nuserami tamihe ki~ vrtha
remeyami
vilepami3.ii. keh cheh theh jheh eYh oh uuh rh nevh ~eh~ah dhrtih bahuh niteh nrpeyh viduh Jr~ih puruElehmenehsu hivih~u dhenubhih viJefeteh e~Jeteh e~tehkere~emsemeduhkhesukheh JunehJepeh jegetohitah meto-dhikeb tejo~-Jehbehevo~-buvegah yogemayasemavrteh ge~gatere~gehimeJiikereJiitelanijeyedevepe~qitekeveh pe~qitan~ semaje-pe~qita meVne~ bhejeyuh
bhuye eve mehabaho fr~u me pereme~ v&ceh
sukhe~ duhkhe~ bhevo-bhavo bheye~ cabheyemeve ce
vehesi vepu~i viJede vesene~ jeledabhe~ helehetibhiitimiliteyemunabhemkeJeve dhrteheledhereruupe Jeye jegediiJe here
madhevikaperimelelelite nevemaletijatisuge~dhevmunimenesamepi mohenekari~ii ter~iikari~ebe~dhev
Chapter 3.
Class1.
thekkureh kekkhete drggocereh vagghi ti~~eti~ ucceyh iccharejjuh ujjheti pettika letthe uqqine Eleqqha vi~e~~e vi~e~~eutteme utthite uddeJeh buddhih bhinne pippeleh phupphuuseh ebbuhabbhogeh semrnetlh sa~oheh Jeyya ullekheh tecchr~u senneddhedUJJiile (duhJiile) JetaYU~fu (JetayuhJu) jesserajeh Jubh~llokan
Class 2.
i. vakce1e vakchelem prthegjeneh vagjhetiti vaktiika ~etko~e
~etkhetekem vagqembereh kheqgeh vagqhevkete dviqghora bhektih utketeukthem utkhate hrdgete sedgu~e degdhe udghateke vakp~tu
vakphelem kekupkhalu prthegbhaveh kekubguruh kekubghora ~etcereIJ.eQ,
~etchevih ~eqjeh ~eqjhetiti epcereh kekupchevih kubje kekubjhetiti
~eqdevah ~eqdha ~etpeti tuptiika ~etpheIJ.e ~eqbahu kekupthekkureh
ebqimbhe ~eqbhage kekubqhevkete utpenne setpheleh gupte udbodhekeudbneveh
Jebdeh lebdhe bhegevedgiita se~yukte edbhute medbhekte buddhi-yukte ~ecchebdeh
TRANSCRIPTION 5 : . t
ii.a. e~keh fe~kheh 2i~gem se~gheh se~ceyeh va~cha epjiireh jhe~jhagh~teh ke~theh pe~~iteh ~h~~hih enteh pentheke Bundere 1ndhehkempene gumphet1 sembendheh arembheh pe~ktih erunddha
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b. yac~a j~anem heth~ati heqh~ati ratnem rnethnabudhnati papmentej~eye se~j~a sa~j~a v1!ep9j~s jij~asu
11i.a. udalJbhih mshankevih drunphuh drunbhuh
b. rkrJ.erug:qs grbhrLati jaknoti cak.hnutuh agnih vighnemrqnati apnoti sbnabheh rukmi~ii vagmin vecmih sjrneh kuqrne2eatrnan padma dhmate drbhmss dadhmav
1v. d1lJnageh v8lJmaya dvi:qna2ah ~e~masah jerJmsn re~ati mnatsC2ass 3.
i. vekyam khyate veYragyem Jlaghya udalJya!eh cyute va~chys jyotis
ujjhyati kapstyem jathyam ja~yem evaqhye p~em tyajyepethye vidya dhyanem kenya apye rlphyete ebyonih sbhyaseh
sSVmyem dheyryem emuu2ye vyuuqhs drfye msnupyeh rehesye hyesseynyesys
ssnnyaseh se~nyaseh cintye buddhya tejjyotis veydegdhysm mahatmyembhsktya kevbjyem sshrdbhyah bhsgavenvyektih evemetedyetha--tthe
guhyemadhyatmsss~j~item ej~ah sukhemaradhyeh sukhstsremaradhyetevife~sj~sh
11. kvsc1t pskkvannem akhvoh rgvedeh leghv11 ucchvassh ujjve2s ujjhva
2stveh yaanatva ~eqv1dhe drqhvsm Jr~vsn tvsrite prthvii udvignadhvenih
envits apva ebvahsnem ribhvsn cemvoh yvagu2ii serve servve nelveh
iifvereh viIve ~vekkete enuBvareh hve vihve2e vidhve~ssh dvsndveh
tsttvsmdugdhva labdhva uktv8 davna eteddhva vlinati gra~a pr8lJvefeh
tysktva--tmsIuddhye p~ekrt~2lokanu~itva jajvstiih semah
•h9r~ah arhat kiirtih ehsrnifam uurdhvsm verjye
i1i.a. terkeh muurkhe vergeb vergiiye aiirghe farlJgecar~a muurchitearjuneh nil'jhsreh
dar~hysm ver~eh kertr vysrths durdaYvsm ardhs menurnams erpe~em dur-bele gsrbhite
uurmih ksrmmsn dharmiks perysnta perye~ts suuryah dur2sbhs puurvs
sarvvs derjensmmuurdhni muurdhnya-dhayatmsnsh neyrrtii '
vedeyej~adhyayan9yrnadansyrne cs
b. vikrsmsh agrsheh jiighrs pr8lJratrii krcchre vsjrsm pa~qrehJstruh drsvysm I
bruve bhratr nsmrs vrsjsh fuIruu~a srsjvahrssva hresvs
ardrs ardre daridryem daridryem ss~hrii~aetecchrutva
durbuddhsYryuddha IvetsYrhaysyryukte
.dhruvs prsystnsh pre~a
u •hray )ti~srs fraddhs
digvretsm ~ettri~fs yatprsma~sm jsmbvamrsle
54 SAXSKRIT SECTIO~
1v. u2ka ph&lgu svelpa elpapra~e gulphite ulbe pregalbhe
he2Jebdeh helsendhih valh pragelbhyem jelhu milhu~e
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kleJeh glav pleva pipluh ebli~ge kekubhlabheh mleccheh vlinati
Slokeh Sle~ah sihlah hladete ucchlekha utkleSeh utplave
presenne
cet~s1 prat1divasamaradhya bahu ha
prasade~ ki~ net~ viSasi hrdayatvayyentah svayemuditacintama~i~e
vimukteh se~kalpeh kimabhile~ite~
kleSakalilam
pu~yati na te
Class 4.
i.a. afcaryam prefnah jmojr-u pu~kela ble~kem sr~tih kr~~a
jye~the ~thyuutapu~pem ni~phale uUpIDan Sle~ma se~skrta skhalita bhrasj stabdha
I sthitih striiantehsthe snigdhe spr~ta sphuurtih bhesma fre~thatvam Scyuta drptva
da~~tra var~~eye nemoste-stu
b. prakSires pretye~Iiras tapSuka tanIuka ~etSastra repSate ek~aramtirya~pu ~8t~apt1h k~etrajpe diksama litsu vatsah suga~sareti
suga~tsareti k~maSlak~~e utk~ipte bhak~ye metsyeh tetsthela k~vete epkrtsna kartsnyam
vibhre~taSchenna kerIDepheleprepsurlebdhah nabhahsprSam dhar~tyeIDetetktletram
11. grh~at1 vehnih hnute brahm8~8 pr~hesteh pra~ghasteh itltanbhanhi
agn1miile puroh1ta~ yajpesya devamrtv1ja~Ihotare~ ratnedhatamamagn1h puurvobherr~ibh1rii~Yo nuutenayruta Isa dev~ eha vek~ati
tetrapaSyetsthitanparthehpitrrnethe pitamahanacaryanmatulanbhrantrrputranpevtransekhi~statha
sektah kerme~ev1dv~so yetha kurventi bharetekuryadv1dv~stetha-saktaSciki1rtlurlokesa~grehem
neyva ki~e~tkeromiiti yukto menyete tettvevitpeSyenJr~vensprSanjighrenneSnangacc~ansvep8nSvesan
ajpaki1rt1h palene~ brahma~~ dane~ bhogo mitr8SQ~rak~a~em eeyetlamete~a~~a ne pravrttah korthgste~~ parthivopaSreye~a
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C HAP T E R 1
A RRA NG EM ENT O F TH E SYLLA B A RY
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The Devanagari Script is used in writing Hindi (~~ ) and the
arrangement of the characters in the syllabary is the same as the
Sanskrit arrangement. 1 Some of the characters are used only in writing
Sanskrit loanwords, but most of them may be found in literary texts.
Some of the characters are modified for representing sounds occurring
in Persian and Arabic loanwords.
The script is usually referred to as ~~~ (bal~bodh), 'that
can be understood by a child'. Each character is called ~~l
(ek~~r), and the syllabic series is called ~~ (verl'l.emala,
'character-series'). The terms used by Hindi grammarians to refer to
the script are similar to those used in Sanskrit, but as the realisat-
ion of the characters in Hindi differs somewhat from the Sanskrit
system in respect of consonant characters realised with the vowel e
these terms are used in thls section in the Hindi form, and are tran-
scribed in accordance with the realisation of the characters in Hindi.
The following examples illustrate the difference between the terms
used in the Sanskrit section and the corresponding terms used in this
section: Sanskrit ~:q;~I1, (ek~arem), Rindi ~"{ (ek~er)
~~P::r: (virameh), ~~fl:r (viram)
~r:n:W (ent~hsthe), ; ;r; :m;q" (ent~sth)
, The table given below in this chapter shows the arrangement of
the Rindt syllabary in roman notation. The sounds occurring in Arabic
1. See Sanskrit, Ch.l.
58 HINDI SECTION
and Persian loanwords, and the intervocalic realisation of the
cnaracters realised initially as q~ and qh~ , are represented in
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the roman notation as follows:
q , for the voiceless uvular plosive, 9 f5
x , for the voiceless velar fricative, W
r ,for the vOiced v elar fri cativ e, rrz , for the voiced dental fricative, ~
t: , f'or the voiceless labial f'ricative, 't;fi
r , rh , f'or the retrof'lex f'lapped consonants 9 and ~
Nasalisation of'vowels is shown by the superscript
As the Devanagari system of writing is syllabic, and the charact-
ers in the syllabary represent syllables consisting either of a vowel
or of a consonant f'ollowed by the vowel a, the roman table shows
each consonant with this vowel. This vowel, when realised with a
consonant character, is usually referred to in English texts as the
'inherent' vowell.
The series of vowels includes 'short' i and 'long' ii , 'short'
u and 'IQng' uu. These pairs of vowels occur in H indi words, some
words being always written with the 'short' vowel and others with the
'long' vowel. There are certain pairs of words which are distinguish-
ed in meaning by the writing of the 'short' or the 'long' vowel, and
other words in which the 'short~ or the 'long' vowel is written, put
no distinction is made in speech. In transcribing examples, these
vowels are written as 'short' or 'long' in accordance with Hindi
orthography, and not in relation to 'length' of s~oken vowel sound~.
•
1. See Sanskrit, Ch.l.
ARRA:-l"GE:\IENT OF THE SYLLABARY 59
H indi Syllabary in Roman Notation
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1 2 3 4 5CONSONANTS with e Velar Palatal Retro- Der.tal Labial
flex
mka 1Unaspirated ca te te pe
m II)
r-III) ([)
C)
Aspirated'" khe che tha the phe
~'"mq,e2
0 rdUnaspirated ge je de be
Q)
.-I C)
.,..{
qha2.. 0 Aspirated ghe jhe dha bhe: : : -
Nasal (lJa)3 (Jl:;' l) 3 :na4 na meL
Semivowels. ye re la va5
Voiceless xa6 fe ~a4 se ra6
Fricatives
Voiced - ra6 ze6
Aspirate hfl
VOWELS a a i i i t u uu e ey- 0 ev r7
MODIFIERS Nasal - l l J and -
JAspirated - h .
.Notes on the syllables marked I - 7 in the above table:
1. ~e character represen~ing the syllable ka is modified to repre-.sent the uvular plosive, qe.
2. ~e characters representing these two syllables are modiried to
repre~ent the medial and final realisat"ion of these characters
60 HI~DI SECTIO~
as flapped souLds, written as rand rh in the transcription.
3. The characters representing ~e and pe are not written as
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single characters in Hindi, but only in combination with other
characters, illustrated below in Chapter 3.
4. The two characters represent1ng ~e and ~e occur only in
Sanskrit loanwords, and do not occur initially.
5. The character represented by ve is usually realised with'labio-
dental articulation; or, initially, as a bilabial plosive.6. These syllables are written by modifying other characters which
represent sounds somewhat similar in articulation:
xe with the character for khe; fe with the character ror phe;
¥e with the character for ge; ze with the character for je
7. This vowel, syllabic r. occurs only in a few Sanskrit loanwords.
CH APTER 2
C HA RA C TER S O F TH E SYLLA BA RY
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The characters of the Devanagari Script used in writing H indi
are those given in the Sanskrit section, with the terms which are used
by Hindi grammarians in referring to them and to the sOl~ds which theyrepresent. The method of writing the characters is that described ln
the Introduction, and in the notes on the calligraphy of special
characters as they are given in the tables.
The characters, and the realisation of them in reading H indi, are
discussed in this chapter under the same headings as in the Sanskrit
section: Consonant Characters, Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs,
and Modi:fiersl•
1. Consonant Characters.
The consonant characters are arranged in three groups: 'vergiiy'
characters, 'entesth' characters, and 'uu~m' characters~ The conson-
ant characters, as they are given in the syllabary, are realised as
syllables consisting of an initial consonant, or semi- vowel, followed
. . . .by the vowel e. Characters realised in this way are described as
~~ (ekar). The realisation of a consonant character without this
vowel, that is, as the consonant element of the syllable only, is
indicated in the script by writing a diagonal stroke, known as the
1. See Sahskrit, Ch.l. :for the use o:f this term.2. See Sanskrit, Ch.2. References are given throughout this chapter
to the divisions and sub- divisions with the corresponding numbersin Chapter 2. of the Sanskrit section.
HI~DI SECTION
~l:f (viram)l at the f'ooto=-the character thus, l 5 f J ' k- • C;" t-
The realisation of'ekar consonant characters in reading Hindi
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diff'ers in some respects f'romthe realisation of'these characters inSanskrit. The f'ollowing notes may be regarded as genel'al guiding
principles to which ref'erencemay be made later, when the characters
are discussed in detsil.
a. A final ekar consonant character i6 usually realised with zero-
vowel~ except in a f'ewSanskrit loanwords.2
b. A final ekar character f'ormedby combining two or more consonant
characters3, or a f'inalekar consonant character preceded by a
character written with the enusvar representing a nasal conson-
ant4, is usually realised with an a-glide.
c. A medial ekar consonant character is realised with zero-vowel, or
with an e-glide, in certain contexts, as, for instance, when such
a character occurs as the second character of'a word of'three or
more characters and the following character is written with one of'
the vowel signs5. Other contexts are given later, when the
characters are discussed in detail.
d. When an akar consonant character is the final character of'a
verbal base, it 1s usually realised with zero-vowel, or with an
a-glide, before the addition of'f'ormative particles conSisting of'
a consonant character with a vowel sign.
In the transcription of examples-of' Hindi words, final akar
consonant characters realised with zero-vowel, or with an e-glide,
1. See Sanskrjt, Ch.2~1. 2. ekar consonant characters realised withzero-vowel, as deecribed below in notes a. - d., are, how~ver, notwritten with the viram, Which is used mainly in writing cert~n
Sanskrit loanwords. 3. See below, Ch.3.4. See below, 3.i.enusvar. 5. See below, 2.1i.
CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY
are transcribed without a, and medial akar characters realised in
this way are written thua, k' , t' , p' , for guidance in reading.
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Characters which do not occur in an initial position are indicated by
a hyphen prefixed to the syllable in the roman transcription.
i. Characters of the vargiiy group.
The first group of consonant characters consists of twentyfive
characters realised as syllables with an initial plosive consonantfollowed by the vowel e. These characters are placed in five class-
es, or ~ (verg), according to the position of articulation of the
consonant in the syllable they represent. The characters are given in
the Sanskrit section.1 Of these characters, S· ,~a and ~ , pe ,
do not occur in Hindi words, and occur in Sanskrit loanwords only in
combination with other characters.2 The character ~ ,~e, occurs
only in Sanskrit loanwords in literary Hindi. The characters given as
'Bombay' forms are also used in Hindi writing, but less frequently
than those given in the tables. Some of the characters are modified
to represent certain sounds in Persian and Arabic loanwords and the
intervocalic realisation of s and G
~ ~ 'IT \I f 1fi ~ ~•qa xa 1 1 " 9 za fa -r= -rhe
The characters g and G occur only initia11.y; ~ and ~ are
neve~ initial, but may be medial or fina]
Rea~ng examp1es.3
1. One character words, realised as a consonant with the vowel a
1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2~1.i. 2. See below, Ch.3.3. For transcription, see page 85.
6.. HI~DI SECTION
2. Two character words, the final character realised with zero- vowel.
'Sfiif -q-., ~e; ~q; '$ ~~ U'ff ~ ~C " C : f c
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'to'lt!' ~;; \31'~ ~ 'if~ !1tr ~~ ~~ ~ ;:rc
3. Three character words
l : f7T=r t :Fi~ i:fi6Ff ~ ffl~ C C T + : f c n TI'R"~ ~
~'iFf ~ ~ " f C : f C C F i Cf )~ ; ; U'1Cfi ~(fz:t' ~~q
4. Four character words, second characters realised with zero-vowel
or with an <I-glide, final characters with zero- vowel.
~ ~;:'f tfOtfi~ ~~C 1 : f \ " C ; q : : ; o : [ l:Ficqc
ii. Characters of the <lntasth group.
There are four characters in this group, representing syllables
consisting of an initial semi- vowel with the vowel a. The charact-
ers are given in the Sanskrit sectionl•
When the characters tf , ya and ~ , ve , occur ini tia·lly, or
with one of the vowel signs, they are realised as consonants followed
by a vowel. When they occur medially in a position in which they are
realised with a following vowel, they are realised as consonants. When
they occur medially in positions in which an akar consonant character
is realised with zero- vowel, or finally, they are realised as semi-•vowels, forming a diphthong with the vowel of the preceding syllable.
Examples:
yaman vak bhey lav
The character 6(' is often realised ini tially or medially as - be
1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,l.ii.
CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY
Reading examples.1
1. One character word.2 C f
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2. Two character words, the final character realised with zero-vowel.
~ ~ c : r r ' tfii5r ~ ~ q;:r ~ ~ ~
~ 0;0; \3R ~ c r ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
3. Three character words, the final character realised with zero-vowel.
~ c ; : : r ~ l "RGr ~~ cr~ ~~ ~ ~
TI~ t = m : fi ~ ~;; ~;:r ~ ~ ~c;r
4. Four and five character words; second characters in four character
words and third character in five character wor-ds, realised with
zero-vowel or with an ~-glide, final characters with zero-vowel.
iii. Characters of the uu~m group.
This group consists of three characters which are realised as
fricative consonants followed by the vowel ~, and one which is
realised as an aspirate followed by ~. These characters are given
in the Sanskrit section3. The character ~ • ~~ • occurs only in
some Sanskrit loanwords used in literary Hindi. It is often realised
in ordinary speech as J~ . The last character in the Hindi syllabary
is ~ , he
1. For transcription, see p.85.2. T.his1s the only ent~sth character which occurs as a word.3. See Sanskrit. Ch.2.l.iii.
F
66 HINDI SECTION
In words consisting of akar consonan~ characters only, the real-
isation of ~ , h9 , varies acccrding to its position in the word.
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a. When ~ occurs medially preceded by an akar character, and is
followed by another consonant character, it is often realised in
combination with the vowel a of the preceding character as
aspiration accompanying the vowel (~), as 1n
~~;:;
lahasan(lehsan)
b. When ~ occurs as a final character following an akar consonant
character it is generally realised in combination with the vowel
of the preceding character as (a). Examples:
~'{~
tarah(tara)
Reading examples.l
Exceptions:
jagah(jaga),
l. None of the uU€lmcharacters occurs as a word.
2. Two character words. the final character realised with zero-vowel.
~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ c o : U ~ ~ ~
~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ 1ifC ~ TI~ m
3. Three character words, the final character realised with zero-vowel.
~ ~ ml!J ~ ~ ~~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ c : n : n ~ ~ ~
4. Four character words, final characters realised with zero-vowe,,1.,second characters with zero-vowel or with an 9-g11de.
fI~Cfi : tr
;:HH9i
1. For transcription .•see p.85.
CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY
2. Vowel Characters and Vowel Signs.
i. Vowel Characters.
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The vowel characters used in writing Hindi are the same as those
given in the Sanskrit section1, omitting the characters representing
syllabic 1'1' and syllabic 1 and 11. The character ? f a occurs in
Sanskrit loanwords used in literary Hindi. The vowel characters ~re
usually placed first in the syllabary, and they are referred to as
ekar, akaI',ikar and so on. The Bombay forms of the characters are
sometimes written in Hindi, but the forms given in the table are more
usual.
The general rules concerning the realisation of ekar consonant
characters should be applied in reading all examples given below,
unless special notes are added.
Reading examp1es.2
1. Words consisting of vowel characters only.
~ ~ ~ "m1r -3lf,*
2. Words consisting of'vowel characters and ekar consonant characters.
~ 1 fCh 3)0' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ tG ~"U ~ ~ 1'f'q' ~
~~ ~ ~ ~1il~ ~ ~ ~ ~
Ii. Vowel Signs.
The vowel signs used in writing Hindi, corresponding with the
vowel characters and wri tten with the ekar form of the character ' < S f ) p
are·given in the Sanskrit section.3 Each character represents a
1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,2.i.3. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,2.ii.
2. For transcription, see p.85.
68 HI~DI SECTION
syllable consisting of a consonant followed by one of the vowels a
to ~V The vowel signs are referred to as l:fT~ (matra), as in
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tr ~ l : f T -: : r r ( e kii matra , Ithe sign of e I).
Reading examples.l
1. One character words.
2. Two character words.
3. Three character words.
4 . Words of four or more characters. Numbers in brackets indicate the
realisation of ~kar consonant characters with zero-vowel, or with
an a-glide, if the words are not to be read according to the rules
given above. Most words of more than four characters are compounds
in which the final character of the first part, if akar, is realis-
ed with zero-vowel.
~'\~ Q f ; 1 : { V t l ' t " ~Cf) ~ l l T < > r'kIfll ~ C i ~ c r r : n rit"~;;T.qr ~~fc;:r"q ~t!"U~ ~~ m?irrr~ ~1l't~
iI....CleJ C) J ~ ft(31 :q 1 " ' 1 (,J ~WH&I~ (51 ru c f ! 4 ('!'1lR [2/"']
1. For transcription of examples, see p.S5.2. A Sanskrit loanword, with final ~h9 •
CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY
The fcllcwing rules ccr.cerning the realisation of ekar consonant
characters in words which have vowel characters and signs provide
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some guidance for reading from the script, though the only reliable
guide is a knowledge of the spoken language.
a. When a medial ~kar consonant character, in a three character word,
is followed by a final character with a vowel sign, it is usually
realised with zero-vowel, o~ with an e-glide, e.g.
reI'mii ap'na par'da sed'rii
b. i. When a verbal base ends in an akar consonant character, this
character is realised with zero-vowel. or with an a-glide, before
formative particles which consist of a consonant character with
a vowel Sign e.g.
G I l < " ' l ( 1 1
bol-taak- sak-na sak-tii bol bol-te
ii. When a verbal base consists of three or more characters, the
final and pre-final characters being ekar consonant characters,
the realisation of these characters varies according to the form
of the formative particles which are added. This variation is
illustrated in the following examples:
Bli~ ~J:f~ ~:q1fim ~~Cif)~ ~1ltfi1;;r
semajh sam' jha samajh-ta samajh-ker semI jhana•
c. ..Medial ~ ,he ,~ , hi and! , hu are realised as follows:
. . .Medial ~ ~receded by a consonant character with a vowel sign.. ,
is realised as as~iration of the vowel of the preceding syllable.
e.g.= c t ltiiff
cahna
i i = r ~ r r f fmihnet
~1:{('f
tulunet behter sohbet
70 HINDI SECTION
ii. Medial ~ , preceded by an ekar character, may be realised in
coalescence with the vowel of a preceding ekar character as aYh.
e.g.
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pehila or payhla bahin or beyhnah ira or beyhra
iii. Medial ~ , preceded by an ekar character, may be realised in
coalescence with the vowel of a preceding ekar character as evh.
e.g.~
behut or bavht pehur-na or pavhr-na
Reading examples, illustrating the above notes, and notes a. and b.
under l.iii (uu~m characters).l
a.
b.
c.
~ ;;j1&4l q)"q"9T ~~
~OT 'q"(ifi9!CiT "' !1&f 'U'ff t
~~ ~~ 7T~"u" ~~;;
GlI~ffi
" q " a n~;:;r
3. Modifiers.
The modifiers, :;r;r~~ (anusvar) and ~~ (visarg) are both
used in writing Hindi.
i. anusvar.
These are given in the Sanskrit section.2
Both forms of this modifier are used in Hindi, the first form,
as in ~ , being called the enusvar, and the ae.cond form, as in ~ ,
the cendrebindu3• The enusvar is usually written, in preference to
the cendrebindu, with characters that have any superscribed stroke_
e I I J o I I J
1. For transcription of examples, see p.86.2. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,3.i. and ii. 3. 'moon and dot'.
CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY 71
The ~nusvar and c~ndr3bindu are realised in H indi as follows:
a. As the nasalisation of the vowel of the character with which it is
wri tten. The candr.~bindu is preferred for representing a nasalised
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vowel, except when the character has a superscribed stroke; e.g.
hi!
Reading examples.l
miih thii m e
b. As the nasal consonant of one of the verg. The enusvar written on
a character preceding a vergiiy character is realised as the nasal
consonant of the same class as the following character, or as n
when the following character is of the ce- verg. The candrabindu
is not usually written to represent a nasal consonant. When the
anusvar is realised as a nasal consonant before a final akar
character, the final character is realised with an a- glide2
~Qparantu
~~-hindU.
*~~sambandh
.Of i ~~
kenjuus
In writing Sanskrit loanwords~ there is an alternative and more
~requently used method of representing nasal consonants in this
context, by combining characters2• When the enusvar is r.ealised
as a nasal consonant before a final ekar character, the final
character is realised with an e- glide3•
1.For tuanscription, see p.86.3. See above, 1. note be. .
2. See Sanskrit, Ch~3,3.ClasB 2.i1.
HINDI SECTION
In some words, this modifier may be realised as in a. or as in b.
The realisation as in b. is more usual when the character with the
anusvar is ekar. e.g.
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aadLng Examples.1
-q~ ~~ 1:1 l fCf ' 5 6 ' ~ -q-~~ 1 f E ' F f ~"C1C
Qfi-q;:rr ~ ~ W ft.m ~ ~~ ~~
~ ~W - q ~ " 4 T ~~ ~ ~~ -q;fl~
When the anusvar is written on a character preceding one of the
entasth or uu~m characters, as in Sanskrit loanwords and learn-
ed words used in the literary language, it is realised in various
ways. Among the several ways of realising the anusvar in this con-
text used by speakers in different parts of India2, the usual
Hindi practice is illustrated by the following examples:
anusvar before ~ , ~ , ~ ,~ ,~ and ~, realised as n, or
as the nasalisation of the vowel of the syllable, e.g.
gerag
sanyog
or s~yog
sanrag sanJey
sGJey
ahinsa sinha
ahisa sihe
enusvar before q • realised as m, the character
crbeing.
usually realised as b in this context, e.g.
~~
samvad. (sembad) Y8remvar (barembar) but kiivarii
• For transcription, see p.86. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.2.3.i.note c.The last character in this word represents ~ combined with .,.~,
CHARACTERS OF THE SYLLABARY73
ii. vis erg.
This modifier is rarely used in writing H indi. It occurs in some
Sanskrit loanworos used mainly in the literary language, and in a few
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H indi words. When written with a medial character, it is usually
realised either as strong aspiration after the syllable represented
by the character with which it is written, as in reading learned
words from a literary text; or, in less formal reading, as the
doubling of the consonant of the following character; for example:
~:~, duhkhe or dukkh ~:Cf)\~, entehkererl or entekkerel1.
When the viserg is written with a final character, it is realised as
strong aspiration following the final syllable, for instance, in
learned words such as ~';f:, punoh , fcrmFr: , vife~'tah; or it
may be disregarded, as in ~: ,che.
4. The Complete Syllabary.
The arrangement of the characters of the H indi syllabary in the
traditional order is similar to that given in the Sanskrit section,
omi tting the vowel characters ~, a and (>[.1 The table in which
all the vowel characters, except " . i I i I and the modifiers added to the
character ~ are placed at the head of a series of columns consist-
ing of every consonant in the ekar form, with each of the vowel signs
and each of the modifiers, is called in H indi the ~~~ , bareh-
khefii, the 'twelve characters'. This table is often recited in
sc~ools by children learning to read.
1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,4.
74 HINDI SECTION
These two tables ehow the order in which the characters are
placed as the initial characters of words in dictionaries, which is
the same as the order in Sanskrit. Words beginning with the modified
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characters are placed in the series of words beginning with the
corresponding unmodified characters.
5 . Numerals.
The numerals used in Hindi are given in the Sanskrit section.l
Both the 'Hindi' forms and the 'Bombay' forms are used in modern
Hindi printing.
6. Punctuation.
In prose writing, the end of a sentence is marked with an up-
right stroke of the same height as the upright stroke of a characte~
Other punctuation marks are used as in English. This system is
illustrated in the Hindi prose passage at the end of th~s section2•
The system of punctuation used in verse is the same as that used
in Sanskr it3 •
1. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,5. 2. See end of Ch-'3.3. See Sanskrit, Ch.2,3.ii. Reading examples.
CHAPTER 3
CONJUNCT CH ARACTERS
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Two or more consonant characters may be combined in writing ~indi
to represent consonants which are realised without an intervening
vowel. Characters formed by combining other characters are called
~R'ffiI·ttH (senyuktak~H :;)rl)y H indi grammarians. The construction and
calligraphy of conjunct characters are described in the Sanskrit sect-
ion2. The conjunct characters used in writing Hindi are classified
in this chapter in the same way as the Sanskrit conjunct characters3.
1. Contexts of Conjunct Characters in Hindi.
Conjunct characters oCcur in H indi in these contexts:
i. In Hindi words, that is, words not borrowed from Sanskrit or from
other languages; e.g.
~becca C f ~ f e bkyoki liCf~41makkhii
ii. In Sanskrit loanWords, either words commonly used in H indi, or
learned loanwords used in the literary language; e.g.
~f(1Cfl ~ ~
pustek strii febd
iiiyI~ loanwords from other languages; e.g.
~ 'Wc i ~ ~;;darext hefta stefan
1. 'jOined character'. 2. See Sanskrit, Ch.3,1. 3. ibid. Ch.3,3.
;6 HI~DI SECTION
2. Reelisaticn c~ cc~junct characters in Hindi.
Conjunct cr.aracters are realised in reading as syllables consist-
ing o~ t~c or more consonants ~ollowed by a vowel. When an akar con-
junct character occurs as the ~ina1 character o~ a word, it is usually
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realised with an a-glide, as in ~~ • guIlt',~ , fastr'.l
The realisation in modern Hindi o~ ekar characters with zero-
vowel in certain positions in words2 gives rise to a problem o~ spe1l-
ir.g. For instance, when a ~ormative particle beginning with a conson-
ant character is added to a verbal base ending in a ~inal akar conson-
ant character, the ~inal character o~ the base is usually realised
with zer-o=voweL, This realisation of the consecutive characters is
similar to the realisation o~ a conjunct character. Similar problems
arise in other instances, where an ekar consonant character is realis-
ed with zero-vowel before a following consonant character, and in com-
pound words in which the first part ends in an ekar consonant charac-
ter, and the second part begins with a consonant character.3
3. Classes o~ Conjunct Oharacters in Hindi.4
All the classes or conjunct characters given in the Sanskritsection occur in Hindi, but in some o~ the classes only a few o~
the characters are used. Those used in writing Hindi are illustrated
by the examples given in each class, which include some Sanskrit loan-
words which are commonly used in Hindi. More rarely used loanwor~,
some o~ which may occur in literary Hindi, are included among theexamples given with each class in the Sanskrit section.
1. In the transcription o~ examples,words to which this rule applies.a. to d. 3. ~amples of suchclass of conjunct ch~racters.
this glide is not indicated tn2. See above, Ch.2,l. notes
words are given below, w~th each4. See Sanskrit, Ch.3,3.
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS 77
Class 1. Two similar characters joined.
The series of characters in this class occurring in Sanskrit is
given in that section
l
• Most of the consonant characters of the Hindi
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syllabary occur in this class, but some occur only in Sanskrit loan-
words used in the literary language. The character representing -rra
is'wr itten as ~ , the superscribed stroke representing ~,when pre-
ceding another consonant2• The modified characters.
~ and ~ do not
occur in this class, but ~, qqa , 1P:fi , ffa ,and '!"iI. zza are
written in Persian and Arabic loanwords.
A character representing an aspirated consonant is not written
in Sanskrit as the first part of a conjunct character in this class,
but in writing Hindi the characters ~,khkha and
are sometimes used. The combination -mme may be alternatively re-
presented by writing an anuavar with the character preceding ~,as
or ~C! \ , ummid •
The following examples illustrate Hindi words in which two con-
secutive consonant characters, the first being ekar, are realised in
ordinary speech in the same way as conjunct characters:
senn
Reading examples5 •
¥usse
' t f f J l ~ "ICf(6I'"c;;nfT
~ ~ ~:aw~ ~~ ~\j~ ~ ~ ~ ~,m ~•q('~ ~. ~ ~ ~'OR ~~ ~
~~ f S F ) X : L f ( l ~~ W f c f 5W ~ TtHil
1. See Sanskrit, Ch.3,C1ass.1.
3. Verbal form.5. For transcription, see p.86.
2. See below, Class 3.ii1.a.
4. Pronoun w1th suffix.
HI~DI SECTIO:N
Class 2. Two vergiiy characters joined.
The ccnju~ct cr-aracters in this class which occur in Sanskrit are
given in the Sanskrit section1• Some of the more common conjunct
characters of this class occurring in Hindi, mostly in Sanskrit loan-
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words, are given below, with the addition of some conj~ct characters
occurring in Persian and Arabic loanwords. Some of'the examples gi.ven
in the Sanskrit section may be found in Hindi texts, in learned loan-
words in the literary language.i.2 :m ~ ~ S f 11 c:q $C\ ~
-kta -tke -gde -dga -pte -tpe -bda -dbe
~ & \ 31 & ' ! f ~ ~ ~ ~ ~-xta -bje -bza -gta -qba -gf'e -f'ta -bte
ii. Most of'the characters given under iLa. in the Sanskrit section
are written in literary Hindi, this method of representing a
homorganic nasal consonant preceding one of'the vergiiy charact-
ers being generally pref'erred to the use of the enusvar, in
writing Sanskrit loanwords3. Among the characters given in the
Sanskrit section under ii.b., only l[, jpe and
occur in Hindi. The character ~ is not calligraphically a
conjunct character, and it is often included in the syllabic
series. It is usually realised as gya, with nasalisation of'the
following vowe14.In Hindi dictionaries, words beginning with this
character are placed af'terwords beginning with ~
iii. These characters occur in Sanskrit loanwords:
C i f l 1-kroe
T . i f-gna
ytf
-ghna?:r
-tme
. c q-dme -pne
t. See Sanskrit, Ch.3,Class 2. 2. The numbers i. - iv. correspopd
to the arrangement of'these characters in the Sanskrit section.5. See above, Ch.2,i.b. 4. or, gy'<l, in Class 3.i. below.
CONJU~CT CHARACTERS 79
iv. Of the characters in this group, only ~.11, - ~ma and ~ , -nme,occur in H indi, in Sanskrit loanwords.
The following examples illustrate H indi words in which consecut-
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ive consonant characters~ the first being akar, are realised in
ordinary speech in the same way as conjunct characters:
Jekti rebt deb-tal pedma
Readi ng examples.2
~1\Qf ~~
~f(ifJ:t 4 J l J~
\ 3 1 " ; : ; ; cr r~~
Class 3. Characters joined with entasth characters.
i. Characters joined with following ~
The series of characters in this class occurring in Sanskrit is
given in that section.3 Most of the consonant characters of the H indi
syllabary can be combined with following ~ , though some of these
conjunct characters occur only in Sanskrit loanwords in the literary
language. Some of the examples given in the Sanskrit section may occur
in a .H indi Ii terary text. Of the modified characters, ~ and ~
occ~r combined with following ~ .in Persian and Arabic loanwords •
•
1. Verbal form. 2. For transcription, see p.86.3. See Sanskrit, Ch.3.3.Class 3.iii.b.
S o HI~DI SECTION
Reading Examples.l
~ ~c: ; r ~ ~ ~ e = J J ~ ~
'Qt<:[ ' 3 m - : r "t : fUf ~ ~ ~GT ~~-q
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~~ o:Lj I( 041 " i 7jf01~ ~ ~ O<:f~
il. Characters joined with following c r
The series of characters in this class occurring in Sanskrit is
given in that section.2 Only a few of the characters of the H indi
syllabary occur combined with following q , and those that occur are
mainly in Sanskrit loanwords.
is combined with q
Readi ng examples.3
Of the modified characters, only ~
iii. Characters joined with preceding ~,or with following ~
a. ~ preceding.,Oharacters realised with preceding r , represented by the stroke
called ~ (ref), are illustrated, with notes on calligraphy, in the
Sanskrit section.4 These characters occur in H indi words, in Sanskrit
loanwords, and in loanwords from other languages. The examples given
below illustrate the characters of this class which occur in H indi.
The characters ~, \if, (i, ~ ~ d:::r are o....te.." . . . . , a : n . . . . , .L
doubled when written wi th ref
1. For transcription, see p.86. 2. See Sanskrit, Oh.3,Class 3.11.3. Fo~ transcription, see p.86. 4. See Sanskrit, Oh.3.Class 3.ii1.a.
CONJUNCT CHARACTERS Sr
The following examples illustrate Hindi words in which consecut-
ive consonant characters, the first being ~kar, are realised in
ordinary speech in the same way as conjunct characters:
( f ; m CfR"(if ~~ ~ c . r r ~ ~ ~1 : {T&J
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k~rta ksr-tal sarv der'vaza dh~rm der'mahaA few words may be written either with ~ followed by a consonant
character or with a character with superscribed ref; e.g.
~ ~ C iv ifd~r'bar derbar p~r'da p~rda d~r'jii d~rji1b. ~ follow~ng.
Characters realised With r following, represented by a short
stroke placed either against the upright stroke of the character or
beneath the character, are given in the Sanskrit section.2 The
examples given below illustrate the characters of this class which
occur in Hindi. The majority of such words are loanwords from
Sanskrit and English.
Reading examples.3
~Ci1~ ~~ ~ li!~ qnf ~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~t .m - ~ Jij"tl&ll ~ 3,;l~
'*~ ' 3 > : f ;
~ ~ 4T~ ~ ~ ~ a :~ ~ ~ ~fi"~ Sfil1 m"tf ~ ~ mt ~ 1U~ ~
fW : : r ~ ;:r;r~ ~J1 ~ ~
iv. ·Characters joined with preceding ~,or with following c ; : ra. ~, preced~ng.
The oharacters of this olass which occur in Sanskrit are given in
that sec~on.4 The characters occurring in Hindi are illustrated by
I ~erbal form 2. Bee Sanskrit, Ch.3,3.0l.3.iii.b.3: For transcription, see p.86.
4.See Sanskrit, Ch.3~3.CI.3.iv.a_
G
HINDI SECTION
the examples given below. Some words may be written either with ~
followed by a consonant character, or with a conjunct character of
this class; e.g. iif~~~ or ~c:=r , bHkul.
b. M following.
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The characters of'this class which occur in Sanskrit are given in
that section.~ The examples given below illustrate the characters
which occur in Hindi, in Sanskrit and English loanwords.
Reading examples. 2
Class 4 . vargiiy characters joined with preceding or following u~m
characters.
1. ~,1Sf or 'fr preceding or following vergiiy characters.
a. ~" 1if, or ~ preceding.
The conjunct characters in this class which occur in Sanskrit
are given in the Sanskrit section.3 Those which are written in Hindi,
including those occurring in Sanskrit and other loanwords, are indic-
ated by the examples given below. The following conjunct characters
which are not included in the Sanskrit section occur in Hindi, in
loanwords from other languages:
-Jqe -Ita - s t a -sba
Hindi words in which consecutive consonant characters, the first
character being akar~ are realised in ordinary speech in the same.way
1. See Sanskrit, Ch.4.3,CI.3.iv.b. 2. For transcription, see p.81.2. See Sanskrit, Ch.4.3,Cl.4.i.a.
CO~J17::-;CT CHARACTERS
as conjunct characters are illustrated by these examples:
restabes-ta 1
qisn:et
' : ' ; : : t i f
us-me 2b. 'U, 1S { or ~ f'ollowing.
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The conjunct characters of this class which occur in Sanskrit
a, given in the Sanskrit section 3. Onl~,ra few of these characters
occur in Hindi. The characters which occur are illustrated by th~
reading examples given below. Some additional characters of this
class,' not included in the Sanskrit series, occur in loanwords from
other languages: ~, XS9 ,~ ,xfe ,~, fsa.
Reading examples.4
~~c_;;r qS£rrffr-
a. ~~ : : : o ; j ( l i= & t t! ~ ~c;r
<f~"~ ~~ C f T ' R r ~ ~ - m = m f§:~"f~;; ~
~-g ~fff f"q ff:d ~~~ \3'~i9l 0 \ -m~ "Cf~"
~W ~~ f.f~ ~~ f"1J6i ~~;; .qr~
b. ~~ >S1~~
-qU '~ ~~~ ~r,?~ :;;j~HI~
ii. ~ preceding or following an enunasik character5•
Only three characters of'this class occur in Hindi, illustrated
by these examples:-
a, ~,preCeding 11 , as in ~ , br-ahmaq •
b. "& following 9' ,or 11 , as in ~, nhan ,~~, unh€! ," ,
~ unharii ;~, mharii ,~~~, kumhara •g~ , tumh€! •
1. Verbal form. 2. Pronoun with suffix.
3. See Sanskrit, Ch.3.3.Cl.4.i.b. 4. For transcription, see p.87.5. See S~nskrit, Ch.3.3.Cl~4.ii.a. and b.
HI~DI SECTIO:S-
EihCi pr~se passage1
f c 6 m ~ ~ ~ it 13B~ a m ~~m ~ Cf i l - 3 1 ? t 1 ~ -
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~ "fm;r ~ I ~~q;ffi C l~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ C f i T
~ ~ ~ C ftrr ~ , C 1 " a : q ~ ~ ~ if - q W r k - r ~ffi ~ ~ I
~ ~ m ' l 1 W ~ -&~ ~~;; ~~ WU fchm ~~ ~~
m ~ ~ C f ) T ~ f d ~ H 'f ~ fcn~ ~ ~ctr ~ I & t 1 T '*~ 1 : R "
~ ~ C hT ~ : : c f H c t J O i e : f i : r ~ ~ f c f l ' l I T 1T~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~T~m
~q ~ 'iff m ~ :~ ~" l1& s:Rt~I~ ~ f c n ~ VTIm ~ I rn
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ w:r~ if - 3 1 T ~ ~ 1 % ~ ~ ~ ~ c n r
~ f c h " # t l 1&~ q;r t I \ i f f(fr~ m f & ? 1 c @ W O - ~ (itrr ~B~ ~
c : i ' r ~ s m 11~ ~~ ~ ~m ~ f c t t I T ~ c f r r t1M4i1f f i ' l 1 T ~G({-
~ C f iT ~ ~ ~ \ T r i I T ~ fil r t ? 1 q;r -31~ ~ q r c _ ; f f (.f)f tfif ~
~ ~~q:) tfr ~ {I~~ ~ JfT \'iIT -~ ~ fctqti 'r~ E 5 ~ ~ if
- n r C I i T ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ I ~ l1if m<U ~ ~-~ f i 5 n m ~~ ~ ~ c f u ~ ~ , ~ ~ ~ ~ t n ~sn q:;r tfif ~ 5f~ f . ! r -
~ i f f i r l- I
1. H indi Shabdasagar, p.l, ed. Shamsundard~s, pub. 1916, by K§shi-Nagari-Sabha. •
TRANSCRIPTION 85
Transcription of Reading Examples
Chapter 2.
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1.i. che 'the ta the ne
k~ dhen bhat carh ghen 'theb chet cekh :jhat ghatphell then j"f xam gez ¥em q"d 'tag kef' mat-h
magen jhagaf phaban khafak qadam dhamak ¥ezab :parhatbhajen cerLek peker ghatek "keth"n chemak xetem zaxem
•dham'kat bec':pan pat'jhet' jam'ghat phat'kan jhat'J?at
1. i1. va
kar jal verdhar nay jar
badal calan garej¥araz terat' yama1
mat'labcem'rax
lam'charkhar'vat
pha1 lar ghar van tar khal chaychal vay bel lav jay yam bhar
ca:pa1 vazen qabar layen Yarer.vecan yeven xabar- yemek yezel
cerh'kar kar'vet da1'kan kat'phelperaj'vat :paker'ker mecel'pan
har fathdhas yef
farallsamay
1.iii. desheq
fepathsemajh
hazam segarh
mas'nad kas'rathet'kan har'ket
2.1. a ai
ab ek uuthojh I'll rllioha" uupar eyzan
2.d.. bhii sav• ke pii
duudhhoylie •
bhatnayfuruu
•meydan huzuurprt~?vii ru:peyYe
ha:r'rathel'cal
ao
avr unis iid
avt'ladh ager
ka dedho ja
ciizdinpeysa
baythgaycihobii
qitabkeuur
besras
aobyaS
hethser
halhar
kef1'at
hamhed
hasadhalef'safartares
sarasfakel fallarkalaf
sar'kafmas 'ret'
xes'letsar'de1
ae ai aeo
in orh uukh agayf or ga~~ gee
ojhar avret ayPen
iikhseii
pay jii le ya jo kha ve
nev cio juu hey se so thii
khul mavj ched drq_h jhiil.jhuut u~a rtu huii dhoexana bhiiti kr:pa barii jae
karaI1. f'eqiir teyYar diijiesuaI' dekhao sunaii bahudha
56 HINDI SECTION
,az'duurleinareii
lanav't11
kam'zorisiiljye
musel'man
e~'soB mez'dik der'vazaceturaii beyl'gaqii sevdagerxeber'dar xid'met'gar
ghetiyalroz'garii
).13.khir'kii duus'ra it'ns ad'mii
iekh-na beyth-tii likh-ta pek'rana~ereh cevdah subeh ba¥erah geh1ra
kep'ra lom'tii bav'lii phay'da
gheb'ratii pekar-na qhalek-napehecan theher-na keceharii
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~.i.a. mey jo hu meh nahii gae uut pgc g§.v gaii
is i i t Jauu kue done veh§. akhe ghuus bheys;dh bhek bhevk-na deSe d3vrii poch-na bhaiie equalUUg~ ~aege soh lehaga mehega has-na pahuc-na
b. pe~qit arambh se~get the~q enjiir pesend bendhen sa~ghet
:emp-na penjab je~gel berLqii si~g qimb ender a~gul'a~kh Ba~gh penc'mii khembha ent kutumb menoranj~k
Chapter 3.
)lass1.
lekka.e;]jalettherlhabbhar
hugqa mekkhen leggli ghugghuu beccii iccha
izzet jhejjher petta citthii eqqa buqqha pettabeddel Juddh enn chepper phupphuus qibbiikimmat reyyet harra killii navve hissa
nass 2.
bhekti vegt setkar darext sedgu~ veqf ekbiiskubj sebz gupt utpenn herta Sebd le~z letr
t t, li~g selJgh paJlcemii meJljha ghenta theIlq Janti lampetarembh perantu uperant jpan (gyan) jijpasu ratn sambendh
lii.rukmi~i1 hugm atma xatm legn umdalv. jenm valJmey
nass 3.i.
cy5t;y6
caryy
mukhypethyemuuly
xyal gyareh jy5udyog medhy nyayvyakhyan eveJy
zyadapyarii
menu1?Y
qyevqhii pu~byetha sebhy
syal vyetha
JIass3. i1.
Jakvannsvamf L
xvabaery
gvarsarvv
jvar tatty11Sver kvara
dvarakvacit
dhvani
Ivas
vtjv-.
svepn,"
Jlass 3.iii.
a. terk ~erg muurkh surx vergg diirgh mur¥iierz erj kort garq varrlema1a kiirti erth urduuerpe~ erb gerbh dhermm aryy sarvv derIen var~
xercerddhkuraii
muurchituur-r',
arhit
o , krem krem grampriy rrak nemr
elJgre~ tram ratriiebru Srem tiivr
patrmantr
chidr samudr
TRANSCRIPTION
Class 3.iv.
balki mulk
8ql (eqel)
Class 4.
phal~~ iltiza il~ii kulhara
fesl I: f'esal) LxLas vasl jukl
ilza"TI ultha
k I ae ulmukh
i.a.
raetr
:nujkil
pustak
preS!].
vastepeIeat aleary cerma pUpkel krp~
vestr strii rasta ~in~usthan snan
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speetkj-,{ti
sphuurti
iStiha
svesti
nisbet
svesth ustad Sastr pe;cim
iSq skuul ste;an ~ost
b.
box j'akg;ar ak~er
Iaxs afsas
pariikg;a lakpmii V8ts
Hindi prose passage
kisii jati ke jiv8n me us'ke dvara preyukt febdc ka atyent
mahattvapuur~ sthan hay. avaSyak'ta tetha sthiti ke anusar in prayukt
Jabdo ka agem eth'va lop tetha vacy, lekpy evem dyoty bhavQ me peri-
vartan hota reh-ta hey. et'eve evr samegril ke ebhev ma in Jebdo ke
dvara kisii jati ke jilven kii bhlnn bhinn sthitiyo ka itlhas upeethlt
kiya ja sek-ta hey. isii adhar par ary jati ka praeiin'tem itihas pre-
etut kiya gaya hey avr jyo jyo samegrii upelebdh hotii ja rehii hey,
tyo tyo yah itihas thiik klya ja reha hey. is evestha me yeh bat epeg;t
eamejh me a sek-tii hay ki jatiiy jiiven me Iebdo ka sthan kit'ne
mehettv ka hey. jatiiy sahity ko rek~it ker-ne tetha us-ke bhevig;y ko
sucaru evr semujval benane ke atirikt yah kisii bhapa kii aampanr,"ta
ya fabd'bahul'ta ka suueak avr us bhapa ke sahlty ka adhyeyan kar-ne-
vale ka sab se bara sehayak bhii hata hay. viJe~'teh any bhapa-
bhapiyo evr vldeIiyo ke liye to us-ka avr bhii edhik upayog hota hey.
in sab drptiYo se Iebd-koI kisii bhapa ke sahity kii muulyavan
saIDP.attlevr us bhapa ke bha~qar ka sab se bara nlderJak hota hay.
PRISTED IN
GRE..~TBRITAIN
AT THE
L-SIVERSITY PRESS
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OXFORD
BY
CHARLES BATEY
PRINTER
TO THE
UNIVERSITY