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Defining ‘Ottoman’:Legacy of a Dream
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Mehmet & Constantinople
Issues to address 14th - 15th c:
- Succession- Borders- Administrative infrastructure
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Mehmet & Constantinople
Succession:- Traditional Mongol-Turk practices saw
succession contested between ‘most able’- Death of leader invited challenges from
‘vassals’, lesser families- Osman passed power to Orhan during his
lifetime to asure acceptance, avoid conflict- Orhan inherited territories without contest
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Mehmet & Constantinople
Mehmet I:- Battled three brothers appointed ‘rulers’ by
Mongols (after capture, death of Bayzid)- Used Byzantine assistance to gain back
Anatolia- Empire nearly destroyed
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Murat II :- also battled several claimants- Some supported by Byzantium, others by
rival Turkish (Anatolian principalities)- Attempted not to provoke further resistance- Growing autonomy (eg Karaman)
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
• Mehmet II ruled twice, once as child• Returns to throne on death of Murat II
(1451)• Authority in question, cannot afford
challenges• Had surviving brother(s?) killed
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Mehmet II & ConstantinopleBegins ‘Ottoman’ practice of fratricide:
“And to whomsoever of my sons the Sultanate shall pass, it is fitting that for the order of the world he shall kill his brothers. Most of the ulema allow it. So let them act on this.”
- Practice rapidly normalized- Critiqued in Mongol sources for betraying
‘traditional’ society – seen as ‘Ottoman’
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Borders:- Frontiers, with associated difficulties- West: Serbia; Byzantine, Venetian, Genoan
‘colonies’- Anatolia: local principalities (eg Karaman)- East: Usman Hasman- South East: Mamluk Sultanate
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Serbia – Hungary:- In spite of vassalage since 1398, constantly
negotiated- Story of family connections, opposing factions:
‘options’ to appeal to either Hungary or Ottomans- Murad II captured Serbian King: he ‘became
Ottoman’- Leader pro-Ottoman faction brother grand vizier
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Underpinnings of Vassalage:- Tribute payments: often refused (eg Bosnia,
Herzegovina), provoking interventions- ‘Defense’ against Hungary as important as
value of tribute- Flexibility: vassals can play ‘patrons’ off
against each other- Marriage used to stabilize relations
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
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Mehmet II & ConstantinopleExamples:Herzegovina- Lord of realm converted, served as Grand Vizier
under Mehmet’s son (Bayzid II), married Mehmet’s daughter
Byzantine Eastern Colony (following submission):- Daughter of ruler entered Sultan’s Harem- Treasurer who negotiated surrender was cousin of
Ottoman Grand Vizier, entered administration
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
“Eastern Strategies”- Broadly defined: Mamluks, Karaman
States, Usman Hasan- Eastern states offered alliances to Venice to
capture position on Black Sea (Trebizond)- Mamluk’s backing claimant to Karaman,
Ottomans backing rival
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
- Mehmet planned attack into Syria, counting on Karaman support
- Karamanids ‘abstained’, counting on Mamluks
- Ottomans defeated Karamanids
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
- Major challenge remained in Usman Hasan- Intervening in eastern region as successor to
Timurids: direct competitor to Ottomans- Drew on ‘traditional’ symbols of legitimacy
- Turkish lineage as ‘ancient’ as Ottomans- Respect for Islamic law (Ottomans illegally
taxing Muslims)- Respect for nomadic rights (Ottomans forcing
sedentarization
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Crimea:- Region connected directly to former rule
Ghengis Khan- Annexation but special status ‘client’ (rather
than vassal)- Tatar horsemen valued; stipend paid to state
to assure cavalry’s role in Ottoman campaigns
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Context in which ‘conquest’ (fall?) of Constantinople took place, 1453
- Following on history of attempts – 13 since 650
- grandfather Bayzid carried out 8 year siege- Key change in Ottoman strategy: Rumelo
Hisari & cannon technology
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Constantinople:- Repeated requests for help from ‘Europe’
(Genoa and Venice, commercial interests; Pope, state leaders, political/religious interests)
- ‘tied aid’ offered: closer connection to Roman Christianity - refused
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
‘Story of the Conquest’
- Nicolo Barbaro (Venetian)- Kritovoulos (Greek)- Georges Sphrantzes (courtier Byzantine court)
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
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MehmetenteringConstantinopleafter hisVictory.
[painting late19th-early 20th C.]
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Questions and Issues:- what are the ‘biases’ we need to take into account and how do we see them reflected?- what aspects of society do we see reflected in these accounts?- how does understanding the ‘conquest’help us understand the process of ‘becoming Ottoman’?
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Compare with an Ottoman view, Historian & Philosopher Tursun Beg, writing some years after the battle.
[see ‘Additional Readings’]
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
The Views from Europe:- varied (compare Wheatcroft’s interpretation
of ‘the darkest day’ with contemporary response of Venetian)
- [see ‘Additional Readings’]
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Video Excerpt“Islam: empire of faith
(The Ottomans – Part 3/3)
[on Youtube – 10:50-21:40]
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
European Responses:- outrage followed by negotiation: Venice
recovering investments, Genoa protecting position in Galata
- no European state willing to engage in ‘re-conquest’: Pope called for Holy War, proposal of new crusade collapsed for lack of support
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Ottoman Responses:- Repopulation city first priority- Greek, Genoese traders enticed back- policies of ‘colonization’ also pursued- Policy of building new institutions’- Topkapi Palace
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Topkapi Palace
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Topkapi Palace(above)Map ‘Istanbul’(Right – noteGenoese Galataquarter)
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Religious authorities placated by milletsystem: - each permitted own constituency- enjoyed same privileges as Muslim clerics- church property tax free- Jewish, Christian, Orthodox laws respected- ‘colonization’ helped to maintain balance
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Costs of Empire:- Campaigns in West and East, conquest of
Constantinople costly- Demanded efficient, permanent army- Infrastructure of empire also costly- How to maintain loyalty, economic
contributions new territories, peoples?
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Economy:- Impact of Conquest: Black Sea became
Ottoman Lake- Trade in ‘basics’ grains, fruits, forest
products, skins, hides, cotton- Luxury goods: silks, woolens, minerals,
metals, spices, sugars, honey, dyes, alum, furs
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Economy:- Slave trade also flourishing- Fed from Caucuses, raids in new European
territories- Across Black Sea
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Economy:- Role of Capitulations- Used to build commercial relations with
Europe (especially Italian states)- Political ‘tool’ for Ottomans? two-edged
sword
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Economy:- Government revenue derived from:
- Customs on trade- Taxing and exacting tribute from slave trade- ‘gifts’ (military, state officials)- Poll tax paid by non-Muslims- Taxes on agriculture, livestock raising: still
largest segment of economy
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Military and Administration:- demands soon exceeded traditional role
ghazi- Three principal ‘systems’ supported new
empire: janissaries, timar, devshirme- Each had economic, administrative and
social impact, short and long term
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Janissaries:- Reportedly some 12,000 in
1473- Paid salaries (every three
months)- Who were they?
[observed by Barbaro, see additional rdgs;also du Busbeq, additional rdgs ’16th C.’]]
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
- Began under Murad I, late 14th c - response to warriors seeking autonomy in
region of Thrace - Fear of dependency on troops with local
loyalties- tax levied on war ‘booty’ – 1/5th of slaves
became property of Sultan- first members of janissary young slaves
totally dependent on court
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Turkish term yeniçeri means ‘new’ troops:- Original ‘source’ from war captives soon
supplemented with ‘devshirme’ conscripts- Highly trained, disciplined force, called ‘the
scourge of Europe’- Considered ‘elite’: class set apart- During 14th-15th centuries: forced celibacy
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Devshirme:- Levy ‘one in forty’ applied to Christian boys
mostly in Balkan states- Became members not only of military but of
administration- Bosnian recruits ‘favoured’ for palace duties- Origins late 14th century; important source of
state personnel
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Devshirme:- Few barriers to social mobility - Created ‘class’ defined by, dependent upon
the state- Also served function of integrating newly
acquired Christian territories- Consistent with Christian-Muslim relations
of Frontier, now ‘urban’
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Devshirme
[observed by Barbaros, see additional rdgs]
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Timar:- Complicated system by which ‘soldiers’
rewarded, ongoing cavalry assured, local territories administered
- Sipahis (cavalry), janissaries received rights to land and peasants on it (in lieu of salary)
- Rights continued as long as participation in military campaigns continued
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Timar:- Grants both small (managed by provincial
governor) and large (directly from Sultan)- Sometimes held by high-placed women as
well- Careful records kept- In early years, timariots often moved so that
none became too ‘rooted’ in local region
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
Impact of Military and Administrative Changes:
- Establishing of janissaries ‘betrayal’ to traditional powers:
- Creating tax on ghazi - creating competition (ultimately,
replacement) for ghazi military power
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
‘Betrayal’ epitomized in two new offices:- kadi ‘asker: judge specifically for the
military administrator (askeri) class, demarcated clear boundary around ‘ruling’class as distinct from ‘people’
- uc Beyleri: lords of the frontier, reflecting right of sultan to name (and remove) beys in the frontier regions
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
- Mehmed II’s symbolic act: refused to stand at sound of martial ghazi music
- Custom-honored power of the ghazi,‘vassalage’ of the state to the ghazi --clearly no longer pertained
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Mehmet II & Constantinople
- Frontier of pastoralists, independent raiding clans became one of agriculturalists, dependent on central state, tied to ‘fiefs’ultimately ‘owned’ by the sultan.
- Conquest of Constantinople, making it into capital: crucial moment
- Crystallized ‘Ottoman’ political vision marginalizing ghazi, favouring new ‘classes’: janissaries, devshirme, timariots