Download - Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 1 Chapter 7 Groups and Teams
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 1
Chapter 7
Groups and Teams
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 2
Groups Groups are two or more people interacting
with each other to accomplish certain goals Groups form because of mutual attraction
or because managers assign people to groups (within an organization)
Group size (usually between 2 and 20) influences communication and group dynamics (more then 2 people offers complexer interaction, e.g. coalitions)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 3
Group Size and Task Interdependence
Group size is affected by the kind of task interdependence the group is to perform– Pooled task interdependence
Overall group performance is sum of performances of individual group members (group of sales people in a department store)
Group size determined from the amount of work to be accomplished
Group members can be rewarded on individual performance
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 4
– Sequential task interdependence Group members have to perform specific tasks
in a predetermined order (assembly lines, mass production processes)
Group size is dictated by needs of the production process (e.g. no. of steps necessary to produce a CD player)
Group members are to be rewarded on group performance (Individual performance difficult to identify because it‘s dependence on other‘s performance [slow worker at start of assembly line causes all others further down to work slowly])
Group Size and Task Interdependence
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 5
– Reciprocal task interdependence Each group members performance is dependent
on other group members work (sharing of information, interacting with others necessary to achieve goals [R &D teams, self managed work teams])
Relatively small size because of necessity to coordinate team members‘ acitivities (e.g. communication difficulties increase with group size)
Group members are usually to be rewarded on group performance (as far as individual performance is difficult to be measured)
Group Size and Task Interdependence
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 6
Groups have common goals and usually specific time frame (two week project) and limited resources (budget)
Many groups are ineffective due to time constraints, resource scarcity or underdeveloped social skills
Teams (as a type of group) achieve goals by using self-management techniques
National and corporate cultures affect groups and teams (e.g. group structure and processes)
Groups
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 7
Group structure is composed of rules, norms, roles and status (useful elements to understand groups in all cultures)
Examples: – all groups develop/ maintain social norms– Most groups differentiate member status
(few members occupy high-status positions)
Group Structure
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 87-5
Elements of Group Structure Rules
– Specify formal behavior– Can sanction disobedience
Norms– Are usually informal and unstated (taken for
granted by group members)
– Are often more effective to regulate group behavior (groups generate ist own norms e.g. punctuality, making formal rules appear irrelevant)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 9
Elements of Group Structure Roles
– Set of norms, defining expected behavior (in a position within the group)
Status and Social Power– Every role has a status (rank of the role in group
hierarchy)– Status is connected to social power (ability to
have others follow one‘s own opinions/ directives)– High status position combined with an
approved role behavior establishes power (at least one form of)
– Group members often occupy multiple roles (causing role conflicts, e.g. manager as friend/ colleague and supervisor)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 10
Leaders and Followers– Two types of leaders: task leaders and
socio-emotional leaders Task leaders (initiating leaders) focus on goal
achievement (clarify goal, present or ask for information, evaluate group‘s progress)
Socio-emotional leaders focus on constructing/ maintaining group cohesion (encourage/ praise others, resolve conflicts)
Elements of Group Structure
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 11
– Two leader roles are complimentary in effective groups („balance“ most effective way to manage a group)
Without task leader group risks to evolve into a social club (focus on group‘s sentiments and interpersonal relationship)
Overemphasizing task leadership (e.g. leader makes decisions without participation of others) people might get demotivated (lose their sense of purpose)
– Emphasis on leadership type varies with culture (e.g. autocratic leadership vs. group leaders as facilitators)
Elements of Group Structure
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 12
Leaders and Followers– Followers differ among cultures in
subordinate participation and leader support– Low power distance countries are least
supportive on following group leader– Task and socio-emotional leader roles can
shift in group (e.g. depending on one‘s expertise or the type of support)
– Again: culture influences leadership shift (e.g. less in autocratic leadership cultures vs. democratic leadership cultures)
Elements of Group Structure
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 13
Formal and informal groups– Formal groups in companies are assigned to
accomplish specific goals (management appointing a leader, mandatory membership, rule governed behavior)
– Formal groups reflect the idea: pooling resources is superior to individual effort
– Informal groups evolve naturally (based on friendship, common interests, similar experiences), even within formal groups
Elements of Group Structure
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 14
– Can contribute or undermine achievement of official goals (e.g. protect member interests against management demands)
– In any case exert significant social power (e.g. as supporting group members as „voting block“)
– Culture contributes to using either formal or informal groups (high power vs. low power countries)
Elements of Group Structure
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 157-6
Group Development The Five-Stage Model
– Forming: members get to know each other (e.g. personal characteristics, strength/ weaknesses) and reach common goals.
– Storming: members potentially disagree on goals, priorities and (leadership) roles to take (Managers need to be sure conflict stays focused)
– Norming: close ties and consensus (by a set of rules and roles) begin to develop between members to coordinate group‘s activities and goal achievement
– Performing: group understands ist goals/ roles and does its real work
– Adjourning: group is disbanded (after work is done) or tries to postpone disbandment (delaying decisions etc.)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 16
Orientationto Task
Testing of roles
IntragroupConflict
Emotional Responseto the Demands
of the Task
Emotional Responseto the Demands
of the Task
Open Exchangeof RelevantInformation
Emergence of a Solution
Development ofGroup Cohesion
Functional RolesEmerge
Dissolutionof Group
STAGE 1Forming (Orientation)
STAGE 5Adjourning (Termination)
STAGE 2Storming (Redefinition)
STAGE 3Norming (Coordination)
STAGE 4Performing (Formalization)
Five Stages of Group DevelopmentFive Stages of Group Development
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 17
Model no rigid process– Groups move back/ forth among stages as
a result of conflicts– Unexpected events (e.g. new members of
crisis) can return group to earlier stage
Group Development
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 18
The Punctuated Equilibrium Model – Two different modes of group functioning
1. A first meeting to set group climate and leadership is followed by a period of routine group functioning (equilibrium stage)
2. At midpoint of allotted time equilibrium is disrupted by recognition that task must be completed („revolutionary“ stage with orientation toward project completion)
– Fits our image ot people working toward a deadline (start less intensely, work harder when approaching dealine)
Group Development
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 19
PROJECTSTARTS TRANSITION
PROJECTDEADLINE
PerformOriginalBehaviors
Drop OldBehaviors
Perform New, MoreEffective Behaviors
0% 50% 100%
TIME EXPENDED
Group Development(Punctuated Equilibrium Model)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 20
Cultural influences on group development– Level of participation (less follower participation
in high power than low power cultures)
– Level of conflict and cooperation (more collaboration in collective oriented than individual oriented cultures)
– Level of time pressure (cultures less concerned with time might not set deadlines, could eliminate „midpoint change“)
Group Development
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 21
Group Processes Behavior in groups is affected by a
variety of social processes– Communication is central to groups (to
achieve their goals)
– Communication is affected by culture (e.g. group norms: who is how much permitted to talk, who can interrupt a conversation)
Informal communication structure (low power-
distance) vs. formal communication structure (hígh power-distance)
Rule guided communication in HC-cultures (affects group interaction)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 22
– Groups may have a common cultural identity with shared symbols, rituals and values (e.g. subgroups with ethnic/ religious background or common occupational experiences)
– Strong group culture Can produce a highly cohesive group that works
well together (to achieve company goals) Can result in conflict among groups over
organizational resources ( personnel, technology, finances, prestige)
Some conflict is „healthy“ for an organization (source of innovation)
Group Processes
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 23
Decision Making: Group decisions could be useful from a – Technical perspective (groups pool skills, talents,
experiences of many people)
– Organizational perspective (higher motivation, better decision implementation)
Group decisions are to find in cultures with individualistic/ democratic values (e.g. German co-determination with worker reps. hold decision making roles on corporate boards)
Group Processes
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 24
“Groupthink”: highly cohesive groups can be unable to critically evaluate each other inputs in decision making (prevalent primarily in Asia)
Social Loafing in groups– Self interested individuals put forth less
effort in a group than individually
Group Processes
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 25
MakMakinging individual individualcontributionscontributionsidentifiableidentifiable
MakMakinging individual individualcontributionscontributionsidentifiableidentifiable
EmphasizEmphasizing ing valuablevaluable individualindividual
contributionscontributions
EmphasizEmphasizing ing valuablevaluable individualindividual
contributionscontributions
KeepKeepinging group size group sizeat an appropriateat an appropriate
levellevel
KeepKeepinging group size group sizeat an appropriateat an appropriate
levellevel
REDUCEREDUCED BYD BYREDUCEREDUCED BYD BY
SocialSocialLoafingLoafingSocialSocial
LoafingLoafing
Group Processes Reducing social loafing
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 27
Team Teams are groups, whose members
intensively collaborate (not just interact) to achieve a specific common goal (e.g. a project)
All teams are groups, not all groups are teams
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 28
How Teams Differ from Groups
Shared Leadership roles (groups usually have one strong focused leader)
Individual and mutual accountability (groups are based mostly on individual accountability)
Specific purpose (group‘s purpose usually identical to organization‘s mission)
Collective work products (groups have individual work products)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 29
More open-ended communication/ active problem solving meetings
Performance measured by direct assessment of collective work products (not individual contribution to group)
Team‘s work style: discuss, decide and delegate but do work together (groups discuss, decide and delegate but do work individually)
How Teams Differ from Groups
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 30
Types of Groups/ Teams Groups/ Teams can be distinguished
according to the applied perspective– Internal organization of groups
Traditionally managed groups (have an official leader/ manager)
Self-managed teams (share responsibility for managing the work group)
– Time frame for group work Relatively permanent groups (work for longer
periods [more than a year] on a set of repetitive tasks) Temporary groups (project work on new, innovative
issues [task forces])
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 31
– Number of different disciplines Single discipline groups (members from one
department [quality circle]) Multiple discipline groups (members from different
departments [cross-functional work groups})
– Cultural diversity Homogeneous groups (members have same
background) Bi- or multicultural groups (members have two or
more ethnic backgrounds)
Types of Groups/ Teams
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 32
Permits Increased Creativity– Wide range of perspectives– More or better ideas– Less „group think“
Creativity can lead to– Better problem definition– More alternatives– Better solutions– Better decisions
Groups can become– More effective– More productive
Causes lack of cohesion– Mistrust – Stereotyping – More within-culture
conversation– Language problems
Lack of cohesion can lead to– Inability to validate ideas– Inability to gain consensus
of decisions– Inability to take concerted
action Groups can become
– Less effective– Less efficient
Advantages Disadvantages
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cultural Group Diversity
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 337-13
Convergence or Divergence?
Trend toward using group-oriented management techniques in individualistic societies
Introduction of market-based principles in collective societies leading to more individualism
Continuing tensions among cultures
Multiculturalism threatens dominant groups
Some societies remain homogeneous
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 347-14
Implications for Managers Managing diverse groups
– Give organizational objectives precedence over multicultural considerations (avoid replacing religion or ethnic identity with traits, skills, talents etc.)
– Emphasize clear vision/ superordinate goal (to prevent multiple goals with competing subgroups)
– Create equal power among group members (more power to one subgroup through cultural dominance can lead to nonparticipation by others and destructive conflict)
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 35
– Avoid ethnocentrism (viewing one‘s own culture as superior to other cultures)
– Recognize the limits one‘s own culture imposes for understanding the nature of groups in other cultures
Implications for Managers
Copyright 1998 Prentice-Hall Inc., adapted by Prof. Dr. vom Kolke 367-15
Implications for Managers (cont.)
New uses of groups and teams– Groups and teams may replace traditional
organizational structures– Use of teams may increase in cross-
cultural negotiations