10
CChhaapptteerr –– IIII
CONCEPTS AND REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This chapter is divided into two parts. The first part deals with different
concepts related to the study. Second part presents the review of past studies related to
the study. Reviews are categorized into aspects of health and environmental aspect and
cost and technology.
2.1 CONCEPTS
Types of Sewage: As per the record of the Tiruchirappalli Municipal Corporation the
following types of sewage are described.
Barn Sewage: The sewage from water closets, sinks and urinals and a mixture
of sewage with any other drainages of waste waters.
Combined Sewage: A combination of sanitary sewage and surface or storm
water with of without industrial wastes.
Dilute or weak sewage: Sewage contains less than 150ppm of suspended solids
and BOD.
Fresh sewage: sewage of recent origin containing dissolved oxygen at the point
of examination.
House Sewage: domestic sewage mainly derived from dwellings, business
centres, and institutions. It is also know as sanitary sewage.
Industrial sewage: sewage in which industrial wastes predcminate.
Municipal Sewage: Generally includes both domestic sewage and industrial
sewage or trade wastes.
Raw Sewage: Raw sewage is the name given to untreated sewage.
Sanitary sewage: sewage containing human excrements, domestic sewage with
strom and surface water excluded, sewage discharging from the sanitary
conveniences of dwellings, public buildings, Institutions etc. and waste of a
community.
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Septic sewage: sewage undergoing putrefaction under anaerobic conditions,
this given foul odour.
Sewage: The organic waste and wastewater that comes from homes, farms and
businesses.
Strom sewage: Strom water derived from run-off during and immediately
following rains.
Sullage: wastewater from bathroom, lavatory basins, Kitchen, sinks, street and
roof washing etc.
Type of Sewers
An Intercepting sewer: An intercepting sewer is one that cuts transversely a
number of other sewers to intercept DWT with or without a determined quantity
if storm water from a combined system.
Branch Sewer: Sewer which receives sewage from a relatively small area
usually a few laterals and discharge into a main sewer.
Combined Sewer: Sewer that receives storm water, surface run-off and sewage.
Common Sewer: A sewer in which all abutters have equal rights.
Depressed sewer: A section of sewer constructed lower that adjacent section to
pass beneath an obstacle or obstruction. This is synonymous with siphon or
inverted siphon.
Lateral or Lateral Sewer: Sewer discharging into another sewer having no
other common tributary to it.
Main or trunk sewer: a sewer that receives sewage from many tributary
branches and sewers, serving as an outlet for a large territory.
Outfall Sewer: Sewer which receives the discharge from the collecting system
and conduct the discharge to a treatment plant of to the point of final disposal.
Relieve Sewer: Relieve Sewer is one that has been built to relive an existing
sewer of inadequate capacity.
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Rider Sewer: Sewer running parallel to a main sewer and connected to the
main sewer at one or more points. It runs at a higher level that the main sewer. It
collects the sewage from the house and discharge into the main sewer.
Sanitary Sewer: A Sewer intended to carry sanitary sewage.
Separate sewage: Sewer intended to carry only sanitary sewage and dry
weather flow (the normal flow in a sewer during dry weather). It is normally
taken as the average daily waste. Consumption of the locality.
Strom Sewer or Strom water Drain or storm water channel: a sewer which
carries storm water and surface water, street water and other waste water or
drainage but excludes sewage and industrial wastes.
Sub-main Sewer: An arbitrary term used for relatively large branch sewer.
Algae: Simple rootless plants that grow in bodies of water in relative proportion
to the amount of nutrients available.
Algal Bloom: An unusual, sudden or excessive abundance of algae. Algal
blooms can adversely affect water quality and aquatic life adversely.
Aquatic Life: A beneficial use the waterbody provides is a suitable habitat for
survival and reproduction of desirable fish, shellfish, and other aquatic
organisms.
Aquifer: An underground layer of sand, gravel or rock that stores or conveys
water below the surface of the soil.
Bacteria, Fecal Coliform and Fecal Streptococcus: Rod-shaped bacteria
usually found in the intestinal tracts of animals, including humans. Their
presence in water indicates recent contamination by human or animal feces.
These bacteria are obviously not harmful to animals or humans, but they do
indicate that sewage contamination has occurred and suggests the presence of
disease-causing bacteria and viruses such as E. Coli, Salmonella, and
Cryptosporidium. The presence of fecal coliform and fecal streptococcus
bacteria in water is affected by several environmental factors, including
sunlight, nutrient levels, temperature, amount and character of sediment,
predation by other organisms, flow, and amount of runoff.
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Bacteria: Bacteria are a group of microscopic, single-celled organisms. They
may have spherical, rodlike, or spiral shapes. They inhabit virtually all
environments, including soil, water, organic matter, and the bodies of
multicellular animals.
Fecal Coliform Bacteria (FC): A group of bacteria found in the intestinal tract
of humans and animals, and also found in soil. While harmless in themselves,
coliform bacteria are commonly used as indicators of the presence of
pathogenic organisms and other disease-causing bacteria, such as those that
cause typhoid, dysentery, hepatitis A and cholera. Measured in number of
bacteria per 100 milliliters of water.
Biological Oxygen Demand: The amount of oxygen required by aerobic
microorganisms to decompose the organic matter in sample of water. Used as a
measure of the degree of water pollution.
Contamination: To make impure or unsafe by contact with potentially harmful
substances.
Escherichia coli (E. Coli): A subgroup of fecal coliform bacteria present in the
intestinal tracts and feces of warm-blooded animals. It is used as an indicator of
the potential presence of pathogens. There are many different strains of E. coli
that are classified into more than 170 serogroups. Although most strains of
E. coli are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals,
the E. coli O157:H7 strain produces a powerful toxin and can cause severe
illness.
Effluent: Liquid flowing out of a system, such as a discharge of liquid waste
from a factory or water leaving a sewage treatment plant.
Eutrophication: The aging process by which lakes are fertilized with nutrients.
Natural eutrophication will very gradually change the character of a lake.
Cultural eutrophication is the accelerated aging of a lake as a result of human
activities marked by excessive input of fertlizers, pesticides, organic matter in
the form of domestic sewage etc.
Ground Water: Underground water in an aquifer, used for drinking water in 75
percent of Minnesota households. The subsurface water supply in the saturated
zone below the level of the water table.
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Organism: A living body made up of cells, tissues and organs.
Percolation: Movement of water through soil layers of materials.
Pesticide: A chemical substance used to kill or control pests, such as weeds,
insects, fungus, mites, algae, rodents and other undesirable agents.
pH Scale: A measure of acidity, with 7 being neutral. Numbers under 7 are
acidic and numbers over 7 are alkaline.
Phosphate: An essential nutrient containing phosphorus and oxygen. Phosphate
is often a critical nutrient in lake eutrophication management.
Plume: The path and form taken by contaminated ground water as it moves
from the source.
Pollution Prevention: Eliminating or reducing at the source the use, generation
or release of toxic pollutants, hazardous substances and hazardous wastes.
Pollution: The contamination of soil, water or air by the discharge of
potentially harmful substances.
Population: Aggregate of individuals of a biological species that are
geographically isolated from other members of the species and are actually or
potentially interbreeding.
Recycle: The process of collecting materials from the waste stream and
separating them by type, remaking them into new products, and marketing and
reusing the materials as new products.
Reuse: The use of a product more than once in its same form for the same or
different purpose.
Runoff: That portion of precipitation or irrigation water that flows off a field or
paved area and enters surface water.
Seepage: Percolation of water through the soil from unlined canals, ditches,
laterals, watercourses, or water storage facilities.
Sewage: The organic waste and wastewater that comes from homes, farms and
businesses.
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Soil: The top layer of the earth's surface, composed primarily of rock, minerals
and decomposed matter from dead plants or animals.
Concept used for treatment
Screening: Large solids (plastics, rag, woody material) are removed first by
mechanical screens. Traditionally, screening was used to remove only large solid
material (> 25-30mm) in order to protect downstream operations. Nowadays, much
finer screens (6mm mesh) are commonly employed to remove smaller inert solids. The
material retained (screenings) is usually washed to remove faecal matter and then
compressed for disposal to landfill or to an incinerator.
Grit removal: At the next preliminary stage, fine mineral matter (grit and sand),
originating mainly from road runoff, is allowed to deposit in long channels or circular
traps. The retained solids are removed and usually sent to landfill for disposal.
Primary sedimentation: The sewage passes into large sedimentation tanks to provide
a quiescent settlement period of about 8 hours. Most of the solids settle to the bottom of
the tanks and form a watery sludge, known as ‘primary sludge’, which is removed for
separate treatment. The sewage remaining after settlement has taken place is known as
‘settled sewage’.
Secondary (biological) treatment: Settled sewage then flows to an aerobic biological
treatment stage where it comes into contact with micro-organisms which remove and
oxidise most of the remaining organic pollutants.
At smaller works, the biological stage often takes the form of a packed bed of graded
mineral media through which the sewage trickles and on the surfaces of which the
micro-organisms grow. At most larger works, the sewage is mixed for several hours
with an aerated suspension of flocs of micro-organisms (known as the activated sludge
process). As well as removing most of the polluting organic matter, modern biological
treatment can, where necessary, remove much of the nitrogen and phosphorus in the
sewage, thus reducing the nutrient load on the receiving waters.
Final settlement: Following secondary (biological) treatment, the flow passes to final
settlement tanks where most of the biological solids are deposited as sludge (secondary
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sludge) while the clarified effluent passes to the outfall pipe for discharge to a
watercourse. In the case of the activated sludge process, some of the secondary sludge
is returned to the aeration tanks for further contact with the sewage. The secondary
sludge from biological treatment also requires separate treatment and disposal and may
be combined with the primary sludge for this purpose.
Tertiary treatment: In circumstances where the highest quality of effluent is required,
a third (tertiary) stage of treatment can be used to remove most the remaining
suspended organic matter from the effluent before it is discharged to a
watercourse. Tertiary treatment is effected by sand filters, mechanical filtration or by
passing the effluent through a constructed wetland such as a reed bed or grass plot.
Anaerobic digestion: In this process, consolidated liquid sludge is retained in an
airtight tank (digester) and maintained at 35 deg. C for 12-20 days. Under the anaerobic
conditions in the tank, various bacteria break down about half of the sludge organic
matter and convert it into a gas containing about 70 per cent methane.
The gas is used to heat the digester and, in some cases, also to fuel gas engines to
generate electricity. The sludge resulting from anaerobic digestion is much less
offensive in odour than the untreated raw sludge and, with certain restrictions, is
generally suitable for use in agriculture in liquid or solid form. Further consolidation of
sludge after digestion, to reduce its volume, is a common practice.
Lime stabilization: At some smaller works, lime is added to liquid sludge to raise its
pH to above 12.0 for several hours. The high alkalinity improves its odour and reduces
the number of pathogens.
Facultative Ponds - Oxidation pond, in which both aerobic and anaerobic activities are
carried out in a single unit is called facultative pond. They are the most widely used
oxidation ponds. Facultative ponds are mostly rectangular in shape with a length-
breadth ratio of 3: 1. They are usually l-2m deep. Shallow areas near the edge of the
tank should be avoided to prevent breeding of mosquitoes.
Anaerobic Ponds - These are comparatively deep ponds with a depth of 3-5 meters to
ensure anaerobic conditions. They can be operated with a high organic loading.
Retention time for these ponds is about 30 days.
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They are generally used for the pretreatment of strong organic wastes before adding
them to facultative ponds. The main problem with such anaerobic ponds is the
production of odor
Aerated Ponds - Aerated ponds are of less common use when compared to other
oxidation ponds. They utilize floating aerators to maintain dissolved oxygen levels and
to provide mixing. Retention times for these ponds are a few days. The process
involves bacterial floc and produces good quality effluents
2.2 CONCEPTS OF FINANCIAL INCENTIVES/DISINCENTIVES
It is used in the study to plan the possible way to present a perfect approach in
the research. In a broader sense, the socio-economic activity of the society ends with
pollution or contamination in the natural resources and hazards to human health, due to
the interaction of human activities with water and other natural resources.
Tax
Faqir S. Bagi (2002), according to him when water/sewer facilities are built to
provide safe drinking water which will reduce health related risk, this will benefits
existing businesses and also helps to attract new businesses to the community. Further it
will enable to generate private investment, public fund and increase the property tax
base, through these expansions and increasing of businesses activities will increase the
local income and it will add to the local property tax bases, sales tax revenue and even
local income tax revenue will also increase.
Ecological Protection Tax
Min Niu, Liangliang He and Jie Jiang (2008), ecological protection tax imposed
to pollution behaviors and ecological tax includes pollution tax is directly associated
with actual pollution values, pollution tax or material tax is indirectly imposed on those
product through which it produce pollution in the production process. The
implementation of tax difference such as low tax rate for the beneficial ecological
products and high tax rate for those products which will harm the ecology. The
Government has right to share resources benefits with resources development
enterprises together and by launching tax system, the purpose for imposing the
resources tax for keeping within limits of unlimited exploitation for natural resources.
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The expansion of taxation range is needed for conforming the classes of the available
resources. Relatively laws should be adapted to avoid the ecological tax conflicts with
present ecological basic laws, regulations and other department laws, it should be
uniformed and it must bound with the science based development view. These will
compel the social pollution costs into production costs and market price and improved
ecological qualities can be realized by forming laws and polices.
Water Pollution Tax
James Boyd (2003), a tax based policy and a command-and-control quantity
standard can both achieve the efficient outcome. The economists have compared two
broad types of policy, they are Charges and standards approach and a uniform treatment
approach. Under charge approach, a uniform tax is applied to a set of polluters, with the
tax level set high as much as necessary to encourage aggregate effluent reductions
adequate to meet an ambient water quality standard were as in uniform treatment
approach, all firms are required to trim down their emissions by an equal percentage,
sufficient to meet an ambient standard. With a tax system, all the facilities need not to
reduce their pollution by same amount/quantity. Because the facilities differ in their
control costs, this flexibility is very important for the tax system. Under such system
high control cost firms abate less and low cost firm abate more. Through these given
level of ambient water quality can be achieved more economically than if all firms
abate the same amount.
Subsidy
Anand Bhansali et. al. (1992), the treatment of municipal wastewater was the
rational for the subsidies, the newly constructed publicly owned treatment works
(POTWs) became heavily involved in processing industrial effluents. The consequence
of this was the tax money drawn national wide subsidized industrial waste treatment.
Water using industries increased their use of POTWs during the subsidy period and
when charges and other restriction were imposed during that time their discharge will
decreased marginally. In other word water intake increased with use of POTWs and
decrease with the pollution legislation. The subsidized of POTWs will induce the
industrial development.
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Willingness to pay
John C. Whitehead (1995), the effect of changes in prices, quality and income
on willingness to pay for quality change was examined. The comparative study was
done between resources users and resources non-users. The empirical measures of
willingness to pay for quality changes will vary inversely with the own price for
resources users and for resources non-users, the willingness to pay will vary inversely
with the own price if the quality improvement leads to resource use. No effect will be
found for nonusers if the improvement doses not lead to resources use. The cross-price
and its potential effect were shown by identify the substitution and complementary
relationship between trips to natural resource sites. The equivalent variation for a
quality improvement should increase with increases in the quality change and with
income.
Mirajul Haq, et. al. (2007), Safe drinking water is an effective health measure to
prevent or reduces the mortality caused owing to water-born diseases. Scarce drinking
water not only resulted in more sickness and deaths; however it will also enhance
health cost, lower worker productivity and school enrolment. The willingness to pay
(WTP) for improved water service and prevention of the behaviour for the quality
improvement of drinking water and by applying contingent valuation (CV) method for
estimating the economic value of non-marketing environmental goods. The WTP
depends on income, wealth; household education level will determine the WTP. The
economic effect of unsafe drinking water include changes in the expenditures pattern
and well being in terms of medical costs, earning lost, lost production in the household,
loss of leisure time and so on. Urban dwellers are fully depending on the government
sources rather than their own source and their own sources are negligible. The
respondents form urban areas are having higher willingness to pay compare to rural
peoples. Those who are using tap water are significantly affect WTP and who is having
own sources are WTP higher in order reduce the maintenance cost of their own source
2.3 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
Theoretical background of the study with reference to the theory of externality
is reviewed. Based on the theory of externality, the study attempted to analyze the
negative externalities in terms of pollution that is caused by improper disposal of
domestic sewage into the water bodies. Study on the impact of pollution generated by
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domestic sector and disposal of sewage into water channel, surface water, livestock and
human health of the surroundings is done on the support of theory of externality.
Nick Hanley et. al., (2007), authors have explained the concept of externalities
as a bridge between the private and social points of view. Also focused on focused on
ecosystem and transferable externality. Externality exists when one person’s action
affect other people, who neither receive compensation for harm done nor pay for the
benefit gained. In his example Riley’s discharge of wastewater into the Cloquet River
that affects Ole’s well-being is an externality. Riley’s choices affect Ole, who receives
no compensation for damage done. According to the authors whether market failure
exists by comparing the market outcome to the social optimum but for market outcome,
Riley has no economic incentive to account for how his level of pollution affects Ole.
Private pollution levels exceed socially optimal pollution level. Pollution is the classic
example of negative externality. Ecosystem externality was focused in the study
through example. That is; hundred years ago, residents of the country (U.S.A) killed
nearly all the natural predators (eg. coyotes), in order to reduce risk to domestic animal
and children (Croker and Tschirhart, 1992). Unfortunately, the consequence was one of
the largest rodent in huge number ever witnessed in the United State. Rodent invaded
the villages and farms wash out to the crops and this is not the traditional case of one
person affection on another person. This resulted into negative externality and few
citizens recognized that killing of coyotes and foxes (cause) would reduce grains and
bread production (effect). The externality emerged from different points in the
ecosystem than that from where it has started. How the rodent affects people indirectly
through grain, is called ecosystem externality. The market outcome does not include
the externality of ecosystem which is in the social optimum. Authors idea on
transferable externality is that it differs from the conventional view of the pollution
externality. Hence, transferable is aggravated by intentional behavior and not by
accidental outstanding of production. People protect themselves from external damage
by transferring the threat to another location or through time to another generation
(Bird, 1987). They concluded with the view of material balance, most environmental
programs or policy will not reduce environmental problems since they do not reduce
the mass of material used. Ultimately this will continue to allow the waste mass to flow
into the environment and the program and policy will simply transfer these
accumulation of waste though time and across space.
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Nick Hanley et. al., (2004), points out that Externalities are the classic case of
market failure. The externalities exist when a person does not bear all the cost or
receive all the benefits of his or her action. It exists when the market price excludes its
social impact, cost or benefits. Many externalities in the environment would raise the
risk to life. All actions that are modified the risk to others in which no compensation is
paid. The authors focused the idea of ecosystem externalities and its indirect impact.
An action that affects the environmental system at one point of period and no harm
seems to be done or reflected. But the action is working in its way through the system
and it shows and reflects in somewhere else as an unexpected surprise. The ecosystem
externalities highlight that the economist cannot assume the cause and effect of
production and consumption cannot determine clearly. Because there is no effect under
the ‘streetlight’, there might be an unpredictable effect somewhere else (Croker and
Tschirhart, 1993). Hence, it is very critical for the economist to work with scientist in
the field of life science to predict good capacity for indirect externalities.
Yew-Kwang Ng and Xiaokai Yang (2000) in their work have shown that by
adopting inframarginal analysis of external cost control through taxation was liable
only to correct allocational inefficiency but not organizational inefficiency. Traditional
analysis of externality considered only allocational inefficiency that is, efficient relative
consumption and production of different goods and inputs. It failed to pay proper
attention to organizational inefficiency, which relates to efficient division of labour and
extent of market. Authors of this article argue that external costs cause both allocational
and organizational inefficiency. Measures of taxation and subsidy cannot correct the
organizational inefficiency on the level of division of labour and extent of market.
External costs lead to very high or low level of division of labour. Low cost taxes, sales
tax and subsidies were not helpful in correcting organizational inefficiency. There exist
two lines of thinking regarding external costs in economics. Traditional line of thinking
was generated by Pigou who argued that taxation could solve negative externality. The
other line of thinking relating to theory of endogenous externality given by Coase,
Cheung and Brazel. By criticizing the traditional Pigovian theory of externality, they
argue that for any good there was a tradeoff between the measurement cost and
distortions caused by imprecise measurement. The degree of externality depends upon
the extent of tradeoff. They had given the example by stating that if the measurement
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cost of pollution is low then the degree of externality would be less and rights to
pollution would be well defined and therefore they would be efficiently traded and vice
versa. Yew-Kwang Ng and Xiaokai Yang reviewed Barzel's idea about externality as
“Even for the trade of oranges, it is not efficient to eliminate all externality caused by
imprecise measurement of quality and quantity of orange since precise measurement
may require division of orange into more than one thousand grades with a unique price
for each grade which has a slightly different taste from another grade”. The theory of
endogenous externality is formalized by Holmstrom, Milgrom Yang, Wills and Lio.
Barnett A. H. and Bruce Yandle (1999) in their article “The End of Externality
Revolution” have analyzed the history of evolution of the concept externality and it
helps to know how the externality theory entered into the economist’s lexicon. They
conferred the works of the economists like Marshall, Pigou, Knight, Young, Staff,
Clapman, Graham, Hicks, Lange, Viner and Joan Robinson about externality. From
their literature they observed that the concept of externality was the rationale for
unlimited Government intervention into private transactions. Marshall introduced the
concept of externality in 1922 by saying that the entering firms produce costs (benefits)
that are external to the firm but internal to the industry. Marshall initiated the concept of
externality, but Pigou elaborated it. Initially Pigou in his first edition of ‘The
Economics of Welfare’ assumed that political solutions could solve the externality
problem. But after the emergence of efficiency and welfare economics, he faced severe
criticism and then he modified his argument in his forth edition of ‘The Economics of
Welfare’ in 1932. Thus input price changes are externally imposed. Marshall and Pigou
initiated the externality debate known as “empty boxes debate” in their argument it is
clear that increasing and decreasing cost competitive industries produce non-optimal
investment and output. Pigou argued that this was the reason for the divergence
between marginal private net product and marginal social net product. Solution
suggested by Pigou was to give bounties to firms entering decreasing cost industries
and imposition of taxes to firms entering increasing cost industries. Then economists
started the work of categorizing the decreasing, increasing and constant cost industries
for identifying which should be taxed and which should be subsidized. Pigou is of the
view that Government intervention was the only solution to the problem of externality
and the private contractual arrangements would worsen the situation. Clapman
considered this specification of laws of returns as an empty box concept by stating that
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laws of returns have never been attached to specific industries. After that economists
like Young and Knight found that this externality is pecuniary, which failed to represent
the divergence between marginal private net product and marginal social net product.
Thus the only observed from this empty box debate was that the distinction between the
pecuniary and technological externalities. Knight argued that Pigou’s assertion that
private activity could not solve the problem of externality was wrong by arguing that
property rights and private contractual arrangements would solve the problem of
externality.
Jon D. Harford (1998) focused that the issues of childbearing choices and
externality in a two – generation model of a competitive economic with a pollution
externality is twisted with the aggregate consumption of one of two goods, is based on
population growth and their external effect. The externality is understood as a pollution
interpretation. This would be better for comparing with Williams Schulze and Ralph C.
d’ Age (1974) and Daniel F. Spulber (1985) regarding the Pigovian taxation of
pollution from firms. Such taxation will induce each existing firm to limit their
pollution level. With both the externalities in a two – generation model, the
childbearing tax will approximately equal the per capita net present value of Pigovian
taxation. Among the classical economist and others, there is disagreement about
whether population growth is a ‘problem’, which in present terms can be interpreted as
a disagreement about the sign of the net value of externalities caused by one more
child. The author has ignored this kind of complication, it has good quality of allowing
both childbearing and externality generating consumption choice to be endogenous and
disproportionate concern of parents for their own children is recognized.
Trenery Dolbear F (1968) indicates the conventional assumption of price
theory, that some qualification to the usual classroom externality prescription are
necessary and it is notwithstanding. He has sympathy for Pigovian tax subsidy policy.
Pauly’s suggestion was similar to his idea “it is not in general possible to impose a per
unit tax which will simultaneously compensate for damage and achieve a Pareto
optimum”. He preferred to show the result that can be achieved with a “per unit tax”.
But Pauly is minded with “increasing per unit tax”. The average as well as the total tax
depends on the quantity consumed. In general the marginal condition can be satisfied
with the constant per unit tax which will be equal to marginal social and private cost.
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Mishan holds on constant welfare of both the parties and he realized that the income is
generated to third party (Government) from this issue. Whose performance is not
present in his model, which may called as ‘partial analysis’. Mishan constructed a
model that is not suitable for handling the case which will occupy the constant per unit
tax because not only the income of government affects but also the welfare of the both
parties will also affect. An incentive to internalize externalities from the tax and
subsidies of the concept of Mishan was not clear. And he considered the weather will
be simple to regulate externality with a tax system. The author agreed that it is a
practical issue and he suggested the problem is likely to be small since the welfare
effects of the internalizing technique will be small. In real world the compensation at
marginal damage (Pauly’s example of water pollution) rates leads to considerably differ
from the exact compensation.
Robert J. Staff and Francis X. Tannian (1783) have explained the concept of
externalities as a bridge between the private and social points of view, as the conditions
external to an industry were internal to society. Thus externalities focus attention on the
relationship between individual firm or industry and the entire society. They have
analyzed the Pigou’s treatment of externality in “The Economics of Welfare”. Pigou in
his article “The Economics of Welfare” especially in the part II dealt with the
divergences between social and private net products, which aroused due to externality.
External effects may be both positive and negative. It referred to those costs which
were thrown upon the people, who were directly concerned or involved in such activity.
Many of the economists and environmentalists are of the view that the solution
to the problem of externality lies in charging price for environmental goods in the form
of prohibition of action causing pollution and imposing taxes and subsidies. Robert J.
Staff and Francis X. Tannian explained the concept of externalities in a new angle that
is, as a bridge between the private and social points of view, as the conditions external
to an industry are internal to society. They have given that the externalities focused
attention on the relationship between individual firm or industry and the entire society.
Coase considers the pollution problem is of reciprocal nature. It is necessary to
know whether the damaging business is liable or not for the damage caused since
without the establishment of this initial delimitation of rights there can be no market
25
transactions to transfer and recombine them. But the ultimate result is independent of
legal position of the pricing system is assumed to work without cost. This is known as
the Coase theorem he argues that the problems which we face in dealing with actions
which have harmful effects is not simple one of restraining those responsible for them.
The decision depends upon whether the gain from the prevention of the harm is greater
than that of the loss which was suffered elsewhere as a result of stopping the active
which produces the harm. Coase rules out that government need not interfere in the
form of specifying standards or levying a tax to correct externality, but advocates that
the government must define and enforce property rights for environmental resources
and mitigation transaction.
Shankar defines he concept of externality as the action of producers of
consumers have intended external effects on the other producer of the consumer.
Externalities are of two types, viz. positive and negative externalities. Positive
externality arises when an action by an individual or a group confers benefits to others.
Whereas negative externalities arises when an action by an individual or group
produces harmful effects on others. The author differentiates between social benefits
and private benefit. If an activity generates positive externality that the social benefit is
higher than that of the private benefit and if an activity generates negative externality
than the social cost is higher than that of the private cost. Market failure occurs because
markets for environmental goods and services do not exits of if exist, the market prices
underestimates their social scarcity values. The two important reasons for non existence
of the market are difficulty in defining, distributing and enforcing property rights and
the high units of creation and generation of markets.
2.4 REVIEW OF LITERATURE
This segment of the chapter discusses published information relevant to the
study by various scholars and researchers. It helps the present study to give new
interpretations based on old studies. It helps to trace the academic development in the
field of the research. Past studies have been grouped into two major categories viz.
Health & Environmental aspect and Cost & Technology aspect.
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2.4.1 Health and Environmental aspect
Author Year Findings (Indian scenario)
R. Vimal Kumar 2008 Freshwater of KARAPAD Bay is carrying sewage in
TUTICORIN owing to rein lowered, here the salinity
level is extreme about 6ppt (parts per thousand) is high
which is giving shock to fish species. They are having
difference in salt content in their blood due to pH value,
owing to sewage the oxygen level is depleted in the area.
They found through their sample that the concentration
of ammonia was high in the water.
The Hindu 2008 Sewage was pumping out from Underground drainage
system into open space by the authority due to heavy
rainfall by which residents were annoyed and worrying
of health hazards and having the fear that it would affect
the water quality of their wells and bore wells and should
protect the water resources and human health instead of
damaging. The practice should not carry out in future in
any were and need to monitor the system round the clock
and its water flow.
Andrew Cameron
and Attwood
2007 The domestic wastewater is a potentially valuable
resource for the agricultural sector, untreated sewage is
highly concentrated with pathogenic organisms. That
leads to negative impact on human health and livestock.
When the cattle are exposed to untreated sewage or
wastewater will lead to affect in the health of human
being through food chain process. The consumption of
contaminated poorly cooked meet by people will resulted
in the tapeworm infestation.
Bindu Shajan
Perappadan
2007 Author reiterates that rising population leads to
generation of sewage in huge quantum, which led to
water related disease like typhoid, malaria, cholera and
jaundice. Sewage collected within urban area
contaminated the groundwater, which was the source the
drinking water, leading to health hazards due to
mosquitoes breeding, percolation into soil bed and
polluting ground water resources.
27
Bhaskar Ghose 2007
According to author, Delhi city is spreading toward the
eastern bank of the river Yamuna and growing rapidly.
River becomes the main source for the survival of the
human being in the city, Public have to encounter
unpleasant smell while crossing the river and river is
flooded with the sewage of the city. When it flows to
downstream of Wazirabad it carries untreated and
partially treated domestic and industrial wastewater,
contributed through several drains. Delhi Jal Board
(DJB) has started to clean the river, towards 2010
Common Wealth Games. State and local authority should
check and monitor the surface water system regularly
and should not take remedy at any occasion.
The Hindu 2007 This emphasised that the residents of Kailasapuram in
Tondiarpet zone and Govind Singh Street in Pulianthope
zone had complained that the drinking water was
contaminated with sewage. A resident said that the water
pumped every morning was very cloudy and had a foul
smell. The residents were worried about the occurrence
of acute diarrhoeal diseases (ADD) in their locality. The
Chennai Corporation had taken remedial measures and
intensified the fogging operation to overcome the
population of mosquitoes.
Muhammad Abbas
Aziz
2006 He underlined that in Pakistan informally sewage water
is used for irrigation purpose. Only 10 percent of
wastewater is getting primary level of treatment, about
95,000 acres (32,000 hectares) are irrigated with
wastewater. The accumulation of heavy metals in leafy
vegetables such as radish, carrot, cabbage, cauliflower
and so on. Foods are having higher possibility of
transferring heavy metals to humans and through animal
milk are also possible, which cause mental disorder,
respiratory problems and hormonal imbalance. Through
appropriate sewage treatment, it can reuse for
groundwater recharge, aquaculture, and irrigation of
lawns, urban recreational, etc. the management of
wastewater treatment is to protect the environment and
reducing health hazards and to mobiles clean water to
28
overcome water scarcity and crop production. Other wise
risk will associate with the cultivable foods through
pathogenic micro-organisms and outbreak of water-borne
diseases is the ultimate result.
Hamner, Steve
et, al.
2006 Authors have emphasized that in Varanasi 200 MLD of
untreated sewage is discharged into the Ganga river, were
about 108 MPN (most probable No.) of faecal Coliform
count per 100ml and BOD over 40 mg/l was found in the
river water and which is most polluted zone of the river
in Varanasi. Water-borne like gastrointestinal disease,
cholera, dysentery, hepatitis-A, and typhoid disease were
estimated around 66 percent during one year period prior
to the survey. Regression analysis were used focused the
significant between the water borne disease and the use
of river water (bathing, laundry, brushing teeth, washing
eating utensil etc.) in which thirty-three cases of cholera
were found in the survey household were exposed by
using this harmful water. Low income and low
educational level are significantly associated with the
water-borne disease. From the study it was highlight that
there is lack of sewerage facilities, toilets in residence,
outdoor defecating were practiced and poor sanitation.
This will devastate the environment severely.
Nuanjun Pasda et,
al.
2006 Authors emphases that the Bangkok covers more than
1500 km2
and has 10 million populations, wastewater
disposal is creating enormous pollution problems and it
was estimated the quantity of sewage sludge is about 108
tonnes dry matter (DM) per day in 2005. Plant nutrient
content in the sewage was high and organic matter
content was low and the concentration of heavy metals
varies from sample to sample and some times it is higher
than the US regulation for sewage sludge use
in
agriculture. Faecal coliforms were present in the sludge
and it indicating a possible contamination of the soil,
measures were taken to decrease these pathogenic
populations, the sewage sludge should be heated by
composting.
29
Valdas Paulauskas,
Nomeda Sabiene
and Ernestas
Zaleckas
2006 Authors said that sewage sludge should be stored in the
special place which will have optimistic impact on
destruction of pathogens and micro-organism
contaminants and future it will reduce the contamination
of heavy metals. To stabilize this sewage sludge, cement
kiln dust were applied to increase the pH and temperature
and to reduce the moisture content, which will not
mobilize the heavy metals.
John Stansbury 2006 Presently 2.4 billion peoples are not having adequate
sewage treatment facilities, less than 15 percent of the
wastewater is treated in Latin America and untreated or
poorly treated wastewater is polluting more then half of
the world’s rivers, lakes and coastal water. Posing to
serious impact on water system in the global
environment, which is results in more then 5 million
deaths per year owing to waterborne disease which is
equal to ten folds of all the wars combined.
Magdalena
Svanström et al.
2005 This article attempted to analyse the advantages of the
treatment methodology Supercritical water oxidation
(SCWO) in treating sewage. It was suitable for the
treatment of wet organic waste. SCWO
allows for
complete oxidation of all organics in sewage sludge and
almost complete recovery of the inherent energy,
essentially without harmful emissions. In this paper, a
life-cycle assessment (LCA) of sewage sludge SCWO
(Aqua-Critox) is presented and the results are compared
with LCA results for other
sludge handling options.
Compared to other methods of treatment, advantages of
SCWO methodology were phosphorus extraction, reuse
of treated water for agriculture and co-incineration with
municipal solid waste.
Dollar L. H. 2005
He combined the results of experiments conducted for
the treatment of municipal solid waste in laboratory and
outdoor. Two laboratory series of experiments contained
municipal solid waste (MSW) amended
with sewage
sludge, one with higher proportions of ash in the MSW
than the other. Outdoor experiments contained
waste
30
streams with different proportions of ash. Field cells
compared moisture retention of refuse and MSW co-
disposed with sewage sludge. Belt-pressed sludge
retained water as bound water that was released by decay
and changing pH. Sun-dried sludge also retained more
moisture than MSW alone. In gravimetric terms, ash
reduced the storage potential of MSW, in laboratory and
outdoor experiments. However,
outdoor experiments
released less leachate from ash-rich refuse than middle-
income waste with no ash fraction.
Prafulla Das 2005
He emphasis that the water contamination emerges as a
dangerous killer, and it has killed 2169 people through
water-borne diseases, 4,96,000 people were exposed to
diarrhea and 29,000 were suffered from jaundice and
jaundice disease were limited to certain part of
Bhubaneawar, in Orissa state. The reason beyond these
disease was about 12,446 tubewells sunk over a decade
remained untested and 470 water quality test were done
from 3,403 tubewells in the district, were not safe for
drinking purpose and it was contaminated by bacteria
with high pH value, this was not potable use owing to the
leakage of sewage from the neighboring septic tank,
leach pits and open sewage overflows in isolated area,
leakages in the pipeline, non-clearance of sewage.
Because of rapid growth in urban population the
authority is fail to supply the sufficient quantity of water
to their population. Most of the tubewells remains out of
use and which makes the water crises very horrible.
Raghavachari
Srikanth and
Durgadas Naik
2004 Impact of health by using raw domestic sewage which
resulted to high contamination of vegetable owing to
fecal coliforms, Giardia cysts and other pathogenic
bacteria like Shigella and Salmonella. Nutritional intake
of raw greens (like cabbage, carrots, etc.) which is grown
in the raw sewage have caused the following diseases
like Giardiasis, Amebiasis, and Diarrhea in the farming
groups and having its impact in the sourrounding area
also and this was checked with the hospital data and with
other areas. Within the locality of Asmara.
Comprehensive health education program were
31
encourage to among the communities to know the risk of
untreated wastewater used for agricultural crops.
Sumithra S and
Narayanan. J
2004 The major causes of river pollution like rapid industrial
development and urbanization and studied about
discharge of industrial and domestic untreated sewage
into river Bhadra. During summer season the physical –
chemical parameter showed high level of concentration
than in rainy season because dilution would reduce its
concentration. Installation of STP in Bhadravathi, which
reduced the pollution load was confirmed by sample
collection taken at discharge point in the river Bhadra
and analyzed for various physical-chemical parameters.
Zhang Yue 2004 In his speech has highlighted that water should be priced
to make the community to realize the importance of
water resources. To overcome water supply scarcity the
government should switch over to recycling of sewage
water. In the Sewage Treatment Plant in Tianjin
Development Zone the treated water had the standard
quality of drinking water.
Mamdouh Riad 2004 Author highlights the use of land and a water resource,
which is directly linked to public health, food security
economic and social benefits. Treated Municipal waste
water was an important water resource, when it is
properly and effectively used, then it would turn to
valuable. 2.4 billion Cubic meter of waste water was
generated annually and the cost spent on this is 600
million Egyptian Pound (US$ 100 million) annually. This
plan had been implemented by involving various
stakeholders such as local community and farmers so that
operation and maintenance of these forests, the variety of
trees to be selected for plantation by keeping in view the
various factors like to soil, climate, and economy.
Laiqh A. Khan 2004 He emphasised that treated sewage water was fit for fish
farming and healthy for consumption. Mysore City
Corporation tested this on an experimental basis for four
months by releasing treated sewage into a five acre pond
for fish farming and tested the quality of fish harvested.
It was found that there was no enteric pathogen in those
fish and were fit for consumption.
32
Abdul G. Liew et
al.
2004 This study has reported the use of sewage sludge
generated from sewage treatment plant (STP) as raw
material in a clay brick-making process. The physico-
chemical and mineralogical characterization of the
sewage sludge and clay were carried out in order to
identify major technological constraints for its usage in a
clay brick-making process. Bricks were produced with
sewage sludge additions ranging from 10 to 40 percent
by dry weight. Bricks with more than 30 percent sludge
addition were not recommended for use since they are
brittle and easily broken even when handled
gently.
Therefore, sludge bricks of this nature are only suitable
for use as
common bricks, which are normally not
exposed to view, because of poor surface finishing.
Teresa Z
Mitakakis, Martha
I Sinclair & Karin
Leder
2004 Negative impact of human health was focused through
consuming the drinking water which was separated from
sewage and larger population were exposed to pathogens
and chemical contamination. When the drinking water
pump was removed the cholera disease was drastically
stopped among the population. The treated wastewater
will be efficiently used for toilet flushing, garden
watering, washing car, outdoor surface, irrigating sports
fields and public parks etc., will be very useful for the
sustainable development system by which we can reduce
the demand of fresh water.
Tjalfe G. Poulsen
and Jens Aa
Hansen
2003 The purpose of the article is to assess the Strategic
environmental assessment (SEA) of sewage sludge
management in a Danish municipality (Aalborg), with
160,000 inhabitants
using alternative methods for
aggregation of environmental impacts. It also discussed
the use of SEA in sludge management. . Six different
scenarios for management of sewage sludge within the
Aalborg municipality involving thermal treatment,
composting and landfilling of sludge were evaluated.
Thermal sludge treatment with energy utilisation was
shown to
be a promising option for sewage sludge
management in Aalborg. The
analysis showed that
aggregation procedures, sludge biogas potential
and
sludge production were very important.
33
Saptarshi
Bhattacharya
2003 This article revealed that the residents of MKB nagar,
Chennai had been using sewage contaminated drinking
water for ages without their knowledge. Some private
sewage lorries carrying sullage from different place were
dumping them into the storm water channels nearby.
Only when the drinking water pipes discharged blackish,
foul smelling water, the contamination was suspected and
the authorities informed.
Vinson Kurian 2003 According to him the Integration of anaerobic technology
in sewage treatment and he found it was suitable with
respect to energy conservation. Implementation of this
technology in countries like India, Columbia and Brazil
has shown it to be a success in sustainable waste water
treatment.
G. Brinda 2003 Emphasis in this article was that the discharge of sewage
and industrial waste into sea will harm the marine life
and it posed a big threat to ocean eco-system, planktons
and coral reefs were damaged by these wastewater,
excessive amount of nutrients are present in the
wastewater which affect the growth of plankton and
acting as a fuel for the algae and finally it attacks Corals
which is world third largest barrier reef. Pollution, over
fishing and global warming are playing a vital role in
contaminating the Coral reefs teem. Finally human
excreta have worst effect on aquatic environment.
Gargi Parsi 2003 He underlined that around 14 percent of the whole
riverine length is severely damaged and 19 percent in
moderately polluted and the major rest portion is
comparatively clean. Industrial sector generated effluents
about 13000 MLD and sewage generation from urban
area is around 23000 MLD, which two times to industrial
effluents. The stagnation of sewage in urban area will
lead to mosquitoes breeding, contamination of
groundwater and high level of pathogens contribution is
from sewage alone which will increase the ratio of water
borne diseases. In large urban vicinity the ground water
quality have been damaged.
34
M.Ludin,
M.Olofsson,
G.J.Pettersson &
H.Zetterlund,
2004 The effective disposal of sludge from sewage treatment
in Sweden. The four options evaluated included
agricultural application, incineration with solid waste,
phosphorus recovery by incineration and phosphorus
recovery by fractionation. Among these incineration and
direct application to agricultural soil are the best methods
for handling the sustainable sludge management in
environmental aspect. But direct application to
agricultural soil is a cost-effective solution and it will
reduce the level of contaminants in sludge will decrease
continuously.
Avelino Nunez-
Delgado
2002 The effectiveness of the treatment is variable in different
place and the negative values are achieved in the
different place in different occasion and the controlling
authority should promote periodical maintenance on the
systems. Heavy metals are highly found in the sewage
sludge sample and which is spread on frost and cultivable
area of Galicia for that chemical stabilization and
biological composting is needed to reduce the intensity
pollution.
B. B.
Chanappagoudar
and S.R.
Salakinkop
2002 The significance of irrigation with treated sewage as it
contained micro-nutrients like phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, sulphur, iron, manganese and boron. Also
observed increased yield of crops over and above the
yield in bore-well irrigated areas.
B.N. Pandey 2002 Authors tested the water in Koshi Zone (North Bihar)
and found it not suitable for human consumption due to
the presence of faecal matter of human and animal
origin. They found this drinking water contamination had
caused damages to human health.
U. Krogmann et at. 2001 Authors say that the understanding of farmer’s
perception and choices about the application of sewage
sludge on land and it is the locally accepted plan for
managing its sewage sludge. Open semi-structured
interviews were conducted with 50 fruit and vegetable
farmers in New Jersey Annual Vegetable Meeting in the
1999. Application of sewage sludge is not a common
practice for these growers. Farmers are thinking on their
35
crops and land, because of negative public perception,
sewage sludge contain heavy metals, odour complaints,
and increase of contaminants in the water supply will
compensate economic incentives and soil improvement
benefits, but not mentioned about Environment.
Usha Rai 2001 In this article author said that the increasing demand for
agricultural irrigation and sewage spewing into the river
system that is 16,000 MLD is generated from class 1 city
and 1600 MLD from class 2 cities with population 1,
00,000 and 50,000 to 1 lakh, respectively. 17,600 MLD is
generated every day in the country, only 4000 MLD are
treated and the huge quantity is sapped into water bodies.
The total length of the our river system is 45,000 km
length, in which 6,000 km have BOD above the
priscribes level and is unfit for drinkable standard.
Coliform conten in the yamuna is high as in raw sewage.
In Punjab and Haryana 90 percent of the wastewater is
used for irrigation porpose and they are not letting into
water bodies. We are proficiency with IT and in sewage
management we are still in bullock cart age. Southern
rivers are cleaner then north and there civil authorities
are executing well and there communities are more
literate. GAP was initiated by the Prime Minister (Rajiv
Gandhi) in 1985 for cleaning up the river. River Yamuna
and Sabarathi most polluted rivers of the country and the
suilty cities are Delhi and Ahmedabad, with growing
population they are pouring both sewage and industrial
pollutants into the river. Delhi Govt. is planning to divert
there city sewage toward Haryana and Calcutta is the
biggest city on the Ganga and they are handling its
sewage better than the other cities.
The Hindu 2001 This article underlines that the raw sewage and shipyard
discharge are responsible for infecting the large number
of corals with high concentration of the dissolved metals.
The healthy corals contain a natural population of
bacteria which is ecofriendly in purifying the water. The
environmental stress due to these pollution which
reduced the count of corals and also the unique group of
photosynthetis bacteria population which owing to lack
of light in the water bodies.
36
Akila Dinakar 2001 The dense human settlement near the water course will
lead to pollution as it becomes recipient of waste water
and solid waste. The industries located in the city and the
residential complexes discharge their waste water and
sewage directly into these water ways. There is
inadequacy of treatment facilities in Adayar where the
existing STP capacity is 223 MLD but the estimated flow
of sewage is 440 MLD.
Rajiv K. Sinha and
Er. Ambuj K.
Sinha
2000 Examined how the domestic sewage can be recycled
through aquatic plant, which is favourable for the
conservation of resources with environmental sanitation.
The aquatic plant called duck weeds (Lemna) and water
hyacinths (Eichhornia cressipes) were used for treatment
and purification of domestic sewage and it is
economically a viable solution to overcome the problem
of disposal of urban sewage. These plants absorb and
incorporate the dissolved material in their own structure.
More then 80 countries including India using this
biological treatment which is scientifically proved.
Rajiv K. Sinha and
Er. Ambuj K.
Sinha
2000
Sewage water is irrigated through sprinklers and
perforated pipes significantly improve the irrigation in
terms of BOD and DO values. Economic and ecological
value trees are planted like fuelwood, shade-giving trees
are grown with sewage and harvested for timber, fibre
and chemicals. These sewage farming is also carried out
in Chennai city. In India rosewood and Teak-wood
plantation is done in sewage irrigation. Eucalyptus,
matchwood trees and neem are responding very well to
sewage irrigation and it absorbs nearly 40 liters per
tree/day as well as large quantity of toxic wastewater
while transpiring clean water vapour into the atmosphere
and it very suitable for sewage silviculture.
Rajiv K. Sinha and
Er. Ambuj K.
Sinha
2000 Authors emphasized that the domestic sewages and
industrial waste have contaminated major rivers and
well. Indian Rivers become giant sewers for the countries
urban populations and storm drainage with human and
cattle excreta, urban sewage, surface run-off from
dumping sites for municipal solid wastes and industrial
37
wastes, dumping of ashes and animal carcasses, partly
and unburnt human bodies etc. are the main sources
pollution in river Ganga and Yamuna.
Sonu Satija and
Bibhu Mishra
1999 In this article authors have estimated the domestic
sewage generation, monetary value of nutrients present
in the sewage, the alternative ways of sewage treatment
etc. In India around 15000 MLD of sewage is generated
from the 444 cities/towns, disposed into water bodies and
the wastewater which contains nutrients was estimated
the value of Rs. 375 million, which is drain into earth
unwontedly. Which is polluting the natural resources?
Domestic waste occupies 75 percentage of the total
pollution in the Ganga river, the volume the organic
waste is about 4.33 tones. When this sewage is mixed
with fresh water it will generate the parameters like
BOD, COD, nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, noxious gases,
methane, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, etc. which will
consume the oxygen level in the natural water body.
Ultimately it have negative value of oxygen in the water
bodies resulted in rising the bacterial level causing
physical, chemical and biological damages to the natural
environmental. Treatment measures like aquaculture
sewage treatment plant (ASTP) were used to check the
pollution and maintain the ecobalance in natural aquatic
system. For duckweed culture is 0.36 hectare and for fish
culture 0.2 hectare of land is needed for the treatment of
one MLD of sewage, five days is needed for the
preservation of this water and around 90 percent of the
pollutant is removed and in fish pound around three to
four tones of fish can be harvested and the monetary
value of this is Rs. 18,000 within 10-12 months. The
capital cost for this treatment will be Rs. 15 lakhs and the
operational cost is Rs. 85,000 and this system gives a
return of Rs. 33,000 per year from the sale of fish apart
from pollution control. In this way the grey water can be
reuse for the productive purpose which is essential for
the sustainability of the ecosystem for the fourth coming
generation.
38
Hasselgren. K 1999 This study has analyzed the usage of dewatered and non-
dewatered sewage sludge from a secondary treatment
plant for the plots planted with three Salix (willow)
clones according to the Swedish short-rotation forestry
concept. By the application of sludge stem biomass
production was noticed to be enhanced. Sludge metals in
general accumulated in the soil within the layer in which
the sludge was applied, whereas metal transportation
below this point was less pronounced. Concentrations of
nutrients and metals in plant tissues were not influenced
by the sludge application rates, but decreased in general
with stem and stand age
Himanshu Kaushik 1998 Focused on the issue of mixing of industrial effluents and
domestic waste water in the AMC (Ahmedabad
Municipal Corporation) sewage line, which hampered the
process of treatment plant. Sabarmathi river was
reported to have received about thirty per cent of raw
domestic waste water. A substantial portion of population
suffered from scarcity of drinking water.
Stewart Dallas, et.
al
1998 Authors brought out a case of domestic waste water
usage in Australia. It was a study on grey water reuse and
its implications on human health risks. State support was
observed in this endeavour with a view to achieve
development of sustainable water reuse technology.
P.J. Parsons 1986 Municipal is sole body with the responsible to collect and
dispose the household waste in the dumping yard and to
destroy them by chemical treatment and incineration and
disposed of to landfill as solids sludge or liquids, when
the landfill is overlie an aquifer directly and rain entering
into the waste will encourage the accumulation of
leachate and contaminate surface water and ground water
and it will pollute water reserve in universal. The
characteristic Ground water below to landfill will have
severely broken down.
Mohammas Zafar
and Pawan Kumar
1986
Authors have made a study with a sample size of 60
farmers in which 30 farmers under sewage and 30 under
non-sewage irrigation. They found that sewage irrigation
39
supplied plant nutrients to potato crops enhanced its
profit per unit area compared with non-sewage irrigated
crop. Potato is consumed as a staple food, it also stands
first in protein production, and unfortunately per capita
consumption in India is very low (13 kgs) compare to
Germany, Belgium and Denmark etc. 174 Kgs, 146 Kgs
and 132 kgs respectively.
Alan Webb and
Daniel Badger
1977 The elimination of water pollution is done by promoting
the growth agricultural crops through sewage irrigation.
When the wastewater is disposed in the cropping fields
beyond the level of plant usage, the effectiveness of this
application will diminish ultimately, fail to remove
nitrogen and phosphorous from the water and their will
be high probability of groundwater contamination. Lower
irrigation will extend the long-run productivity. When
the govt. is willing to apply huge amount of sewage to
the amount of land, then the govt. should purchase their
own land, in water scarcity are they have to contact with
farmers for disposing the wastewater in the form of
irrigation to the independent farmers.
Robert K. Horton
and Herman G.
Baity
1941 This article discusses the advantages of disposal of
textile wastes with domestic sewage. The advantages
listed out were reduction of capital outlay, constant and
skilled supervision of entire treatment, elimination of
chances of neglect and mismanagement by mill labor. It
also discusses the problems arising from the combined
treatment. The major problem was the difference in the
characteristic of effluent and sewage. The treatment
methodology suggested for the treatment of combined
waste was the activated sludge process as it removes
color better, but it is more easily upset by variations in
the character of the waste.
40
2.4.2 Cost and Technological aspect
Author Year Findings
The Hindu 2008 Decentralized system is viable for the community to
operate wastewater treatment system with full efficient
and it will avail cost effective solution for the
individual and vertical building and colonies in urban
centres. Recycled water is used for garden purpose and
this system is minimizing the maintenance cost. Like
wise it conserve the water resources and it produce
Energy by converting biogas (Methane). Through this
it protects global warming.
Tzanakakis V.E,
Paranychianaki.
N.V and Angelakis
A.N
2007
Soil is used for the treatment of wastewater, through
this crop production were increased by direct
application of wastewater into crop and by this process
they have protected the surrounding environment. This
system was practiced since ancient civilizations period
onwards, from this practiced they have found
significant impact and land based wastewater treatment
system can be used to treat municipal wastewater and
other wastewater. It will be efficiently used to rise the
irrigated areas. The change in the system was realized
from time to time due to technical innovation.
In the second phase (1905-1972) is was conventional
wastewater treatment plants which include trickling
filters and later it was upgraded with activated sludge
and in the third phase it developed
Melissa Howell-
Alipalo
2007 McLaren Vale grape grower made use of this
wastewater as irrigation for their crops, they reduced
the fertilizer, water supply, less groundwater, and they
saved half the cost ground water and 65 percent of the
cost of potable water and the they received more yield
then ever before. This company was become
financially healthy by utilizing this wastewater with
out wasting.
Maria
Prihandrijanti,
Almy Malisia &
2006
Authors have used Cost Benefit Analysis between
Centralized Wastewater Treatment System (CWATS)
and Decentralized Wastewater Treatment System
41
Ralf Otterpohi (DEWATS) in Surabaya-Indonesia, from the analysis
they have founded the net present value cost in high
and cost benefit ratio is very low in the CWATS and
vice-versa in DEWATS, usage of domestic wastewater
for agricultural purpose is safe and biogas product is
utilized for cooking purposes. DEWATS is feasible
economically in terms of building and O&M cost, as
well as for the society (expenditure for the medical
treatment will decrease on health aspect).
Srivatsan P 2005
According to him DEWATS is the alternative solution
to reduce the wastewater contamination and the
encouragement of low-cost sewage treatment
technologies to facilitate to reduce the impact of waste-
water on human life and the environment. The CPCB
also recognized that this system is an effective means
of pollution control. DEWATS technology becomes an
integral part of civil engineering courses in all the
universities in the State Karnataka. Wastewater
treatment technology gives the benefits generating the
biogas and improving the quality of the environment in
all the aspect.
Sabiena Feenstra,
Raheela Hussain &
Wim van der Hoek
2000 The wastewater is rich in nutrient farmers are willing
to use nutrient rich water even without treatment,
having the knowledge of cost and benefit from their
yield output and lack of knowledge toward
environmental impact and health risk of irrigation with
untreated wastewater. The prevalence of diarrheal
disease and hookworm infection was very high among
farmer community as well as with their children below
12 ages.
D. Kay et. al. 1999 In this article authors said that the in order improve the
environmental quality near the recreation point,
removal of point sources pollution and to setup in
distance place, employing the secondary treatment
with involving disinfection of Ultra Violet (UV) light
to check the pathogens as a tertiary treatment. From
the treatment significant reduction was observer and
this is little expensive compare to other treatment
42
process. Discussed about three potential sources: high
flow discharge form sewerage system, partial treated
from UV and finally the bacterial concentrations and
river are drained into coastal water from the adjacent
catchments area, and were calculated the expensive
remedial measures were taken. Catchment modelling
methods were used as a mechanism for prediction of
diffuse sources of pollution.
T. H. Y. Tebbutt 1998 In this article author said that 142 liter per capita water
consumption in UK and most part of it returned as
wastewater, industrial sector also emit the same
quantum of water as a waste in the environment. For
controlling these wastes they have adopted meter in
water supply for industrial use and in domestic use.
Amount of leakage in a distribution system have
greatly affected by its age and density and the old
system will produce excess rate of leakage i.e. 35
percent, modern development can easily reach the
unaccounted water and it will reach to less then 10
percent. By these the volume and nature of wastewater
can reduced. in older sewerage system damaged and
cracked joints loss the sewage into the surrounding and
penetration into groundwater may increase the flow of
sewage. Cost for separate will be higher then that of
combined system and problems take place in this were
release of paper, plastics and sanitary items in
sewerage system.
Gay. J and Robert.
D
1993 Authors pointed out that Sewage sludge in agriculture
is beneficial, utmost care is necessary when discharged
in the field to minimize the risk on workers, livestock,
contamination of soil and ground water quality by
heavy metals and other chemicals. They argued further
that cost and impact resulting from the installation of
treatment depends on the nature of receiving water, site
of the treatment work and sludge disposal route. More
than one third of substance is removed in the primary
treatment and the higher level of removal is carried out
at secondary treatment level.
43
2.5 CRITICAL REMARKS
The preceding review of literature included discussions on both theory and
concepts and review of past studies. Different concepts related to the study like health,
environmental aspect, different types of diseases, cost of the treatment, concept related
to treatment methodologies help to gain conceptual clarification. It is quite helpful to
discern the appropriate methodology and different variables for the present study. It is
also useful to identify the research gap, on which the present may focus.
There are a very few studies available on sewage water in India and abroad
from time to time. Studies available over a period of 1986 – 2009, discussions on
economic and environmental issues of sewage water were reviewed in this chapter.
Studies, which were grouped under the environmental aspects, included details
of strategies of management of sewage pollution, physic-chemical properties of sewage
polluted soil and water and impact of sewage polluted water on human health and
plants. Studies which report on the impact of sewage pollution and human health
relevant to the present study have been reviewed; this approach facilitates to make out
problems, hypotheses to be tested and enables a critical approach to the policy issues
pertaining to domestic wastewater.
Most of the previous studies have discussed the issues of sewage water dwelling
on either economic or environmental perspectives in a truncated manner. Present study
has tried to integrate the economic and environmental issues of sewage water with
reference to Trichirappalli Corporation. It focuses on the economics of pollution control
with reference to domestic wastewater. Studies discussing the impact of wastewater
released by residential area on human health are found to be petite. This study proposes
to fill the research gap on sewage generation, treatment, health aspects so as to amend
the policy framework aiming for sustainable management of the sewage in detail.