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Page 1: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Computer Architecture and Computer Architecture and Assembly LanguageAssembly Language

Page 2: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Byte structure :

a byte has 8 bits

16 35 4 07 2

MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Page 3: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

CPU contains a unit called “Register file”.

This unit contains the registers of thefollowing types:

1. 8-bit general registers: AL, BL, CL, DL, AH, BH, CH, DH

2. 16- bit general registers:AX, BX, CX, DX, SP, BP, SI, Dl

3. 32-bit general registers: EAX, EBX, ECX, EDX, ESP, EBP,ESI, EDI (Accumulator, Base, Counter, Data, Stack pointer, Base pointer, Source index, Destination Index)

4. Segment registers: ES, CS ,SS, DS, FS, GS

5. instruction pointer: EIP

Registers:

Note: the registers above are a partial list. There are more registers.

Page 4: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

EIP - instruction pointer:

contains offset (address) of the next instruction that is going to be executed. Exists only during run time. The software change it by performing unconditional jump, conditional jump, procedure call, return.

AX,BX,CX,DX - 16-bit general registers:

contains two 8-bit registers:Example: AH,AL (for AX)

EAX - 32-bit general purpose register: lower 16 bits are AX.

segment registers: we use a flat memory model – 32bit 4GB address space, without segments. So for this course you can ignore segment registers.

ESP - stack pointer: contains the next free address on a stack.

XH XL

high byte

low byte

Page 5: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Basic assembly instructions:Each NASM standard source line contains a combination of the 4 fields:

label: (pseudo) instruction operands ; comment

optional fieldsEither required or forbidden by an instruction

Notes:

1 .backslash (\) uses as the line continuation character: if a line ends with backslash, the next line is considered to be a part of the backslash-ended line.2. no restrictions on white space within a line.3. a colon after a label is optional.

Examples:

1 .mov ax, 2 ; moves constant 2 to the register ax2. buffer: resb 64 ; reserves 64 bytes

Page 6: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Instruction arguments

A typical instruction has 2 operands.

The left operand is the target operand, while the right operand is the source operand

3 kinds of operands exists:

1. Immediate, i.e. a value

2. Register, such as AX,EBP,DL

3. Memory location; a variable or a pointer.

One should notice that the x86 processor does not allow

both operands be memory locations.

mov [var1],[var2]

Page 7: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Move instructions:

MOV – move data

mov r/m8,reg8 (copies content of 8-bit register (source) to 8-bit register or 8-bit memory unit (destination) )

mov reg32,imm32 (copies content of 32-bit immediate (constant) to 32-bit register)

-In all forms of the MOV instruction, the two operands are the same size

Examples:mov EAX, 0x2334AAFFmov [buffer], ax

Note: NASM doesn’t remember the types of variables you declare. It will deliberately remember nothing about the symbol var except where it begins, and so you must explicitly code mov word [var], 2.

Page 8: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Basic arithmetical instructions:

ADD: add integers

add r/m16,imm16 (adds its two operands together, and leaves the result in its destination (first) operand)

Examples:add AX, BX

ADC: add with carry

adc r/m16,imm8(adds its two operands together, plus the value of the carry flag, and leaves the result in its destination (first) operand)

Examples:add AX, BX (AX gets a value of AX+BX+CF)

Page 9: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Basic arithmetical instructions (Cont.):

SUB: subtract integers

sub reg16,r/m16 (subtracts its second operand from its first, and leaves the result in its destination (first) operand)

Examples:sub AX, BX

SBB: subtract with borrow

sbb r/m16,imm8 (subtracts its second operand, plus the value of the carry flag, from its first, and leaves the result in its destination (first) operand)

Examples:sbb AX, BX (AX gets a value of AX-BX-CF)

Page 10: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Basic arithmetical instructions (Cont.):

INC: increment integer

inc r/m16 (adds 1 to its operand)

*does not affect the carry flag; affects all the other flags according to the result

Examples:inc AX

DEC: decrement integer

dec reg16 (subtracts 1 from its operand)

*does not affect the carry flag; affects all the other flags according to the result

Examples:dec byte [buffer]

Page 11: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Basic logical instructions:

NEG, NOT: two's and one's complement

neg r/m16 (replaces the contents of its operand by the two's complement negation - invert all the bits, and then add one)

not r/m16 (performs one's complement negation- inverts all the bits)

Examples:neg AL (if AL = (11111110), it becomes (00000010))

not AL (if AL = (11111110), it becomes (00000001))

Page 12: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Basic logical instructions (Cont.):

OR: bitwise or

or r/m32,imm32 (each bit of the result is 1 if and only if at least one of the corresponding bits of the two inputs was 1; stores the result in the destination (first) operand)

Example:or AL, BL (if AL = (11111100), BL= (00000010) => AL would be (11111110))

AND: bitwise and

and r/m32,imm32 (each bit of the result is 1 if and only if the corresponding bits of the two inputs were both 1; stores the result in the destination (first) operand)

Example:and AL, BL (if AL = (11111100), BL= (11000010) => AL would be (11000000))

Page 13: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Compare instruction:

CMP: compare integers

cmp r/m32,imm8 (performs a ‘mental’ subtraction of its second operand from its first operand, and affects the flags as if the subtraction had taken place, but does not store the result of the subtraction anywhere)

Example:cmp AL, BL (if AL = (11111100), BL= (00000010) => ZF would be 0) (if AL = (11111100), BL= (11111100) => ZF would be 1)

Page 14: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Labels definition (basic):

Each instruction of the code has its offset (address from the beginning of the address space).

If we want to refer to the specific instruction in the code, we should mark it with a label:

my_instruction: add ax, ax …

-label can be with or without colon- an instruction that follows it can be at the same or the next line- a code can’t contain two different non-local (as above) labels with the same name

Page 15: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Unconditional Jump:

JMP: jump to instruction

Usually it takes the form:

jmp label *see section B.4.130 JMP in the nasm manual for full specification

Tells the processor that the nextinstruction to be executed is located at the label that is given as part of the instruction.

Example:mov eax,1inc_again: ; In this case it is infinite loop!

inc eaxjmp inc_againmov ebx,eax ; Never reached from this code…

Page 16: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Conditional Jumps:

JE,JG, JL, JGE, JLE, JNE: jump to instruction if condition is satisfied

Usually it takes the form:

j<cond> label *see section B.4.128 JMP in the nasm manual for full specification

Execution is transferred to the target instruction only if the specified condition is satisfied. Usually, the condition being tested is the result of the last arithmetic or logic operation.Example:

read_char:

mov dl,0. . .(code for reading a character into AL). . .cmp al, ‘a’ ; compare the character to ‘a’je a_received ; if equal, jump to a_receivedinc cl ; otherwise, increment CL andjmp read_char ;go back to read another

a_received:

Page 17: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

DB, DW, DD : declaring initialized data

DB, DW, DD, DQ (DT, DDQ, and DO) are used to declareinitialized data in the output file. They can be invoked in a wide range of ways:

db 0x55 ; just the byte 0x55db 0x55,0x56,0x57 ; three bytes in successiondb 'a',0x55 ; character constants are OKdb 'hello',13,10,'$‘ ; so are string constantsdw 0x1234 ; 0x34 0x12dw 'a' ; 0x41 0x00 (it's just a number)dw 'ab‘ ; 0x41 0x42 (character constant)dw 'abc' ; 0x41 0x42 0x43 0x00 (string)dd 0x12345678 ; 0x78 0x56 0x34 0x12 (dword)

Page 18: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Assignment 0

You get a simple program that receives a string from the user.Than, it calls to a function (that you’ll implement in assembly) that receives one string as an argument and should do the following:

1. Convert upper case to lower case. 2. Convert ‘[’ into ‘(’.3. Convert ‘]’ into ‘)’.4. Count the number of the non-space characters (all but ‘ ‘).(Note: characters that are not letters,’[‘ or ‘]’ will remain as they are)

e.g. “42: heLL[ o)>WorLd] " “42: hell( o)>world)“

The function shall return the number of the non-space characters of the string. The characters conversion should be in-place.

Page 19: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

section .data ; data section, read-write an: DD 0 ; this is a temporary var

section .text ; our code is always in the .text section global do_str ; makes the function appear in global scope extern printf ; tell linker that printf is defined

elsewhere ; (not used in the program)

do_str: ; functions are defined as labels push ebp ; save Base Pointer (bp) original value mov ebp, esp ; use base pointer to access stack contents pushad ; push all variables onto stack mov ecx, dword [ebp+8] ; get function argument;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; FUNCTION EFFECTIVE CODE STARTS HERE ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

mov dword [an], 0 ; initialize answerlabel_here:

; Your code goes somewhere around here...

inc ecx ; increment pointercmp byte [ecx], 0 ; check if byte pointed to is zerojnz label_here ; keep looping until it is null terminated

;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; FUNCTION EFFECTIVE CODE ENDS HERE ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; popad ; restore all previously used registers mov eax,[an] ; return an (returned values are in eax) mov esp, ebp pop dword ebp ret

Page 20: Computer Architecture and Assembly Language. Byte structure : a byte has 8 bits 16354072 MSB (most significant bit) LSB (least significant bit)

Running NASM

To assemble a file, you issue a command of the form

>nasm -f <format> <filename> [-o <output>] [ -l listing]

Example:

>nasm -f elf mytry.s -o myelf.o

It would create myelf.o file that has elf format (executable and linkable format).We use main.c file (that is written in C language) to start our program, and sometimes also for input / output from a user. So to compile main.c with our assembly file we should execute the following command:

gcc –m32 main.c myelf.o -o myexe.out

The -m32 option is being used to comply with 32- bit environment

It would create executable file myexe.out.In order to run it you should write its name on the command line:

>myexe.out


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