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Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Motivation
The processes that account for an individualsintensity, direction, and persistence of effort towardattaining a goal.
What is Motivation?
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Motivation and Performance
Motivation
Ability
Effort
Environment
Performance
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3 Major Types of Motivation
Theories
Content Theories of Motivation
WHAT motivates us
Process Theories of Motivation
WHY and HOW motivation occurs
Reinforcement Theory
HOW outcomes influence behaviors
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Content Perspectives on
Motivation
Content Perspectives Approaches to motivation that try to answer the question,What factors in the workplace motivate people?
Content Perspectives of Motivation
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Aldefers ERG Theory
McGregorys Theory X and Theory Y
Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory
McClellands Achievement,
Power, and Affiliation Needs
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Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Self-
actualization
Esteem
Belongingness
Security
PhysiologyFood
Achievement
Status
Friendship
Stability
Job
Friends
Pension
Base
NEEDS
General Examples Organizational Examples
job
Challenging
title
at work
plan
salary
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Assumptions of Maslows
HierarchyMovement up the Pyramid
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until
all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
Maslow Application:
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!
Individuals
therefore must
move up the
hierarchy in order
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Maslows Hierarchy of NeedsA Content Perspective
What factor or factors motivate people
Weakness of Theory
Five levels of need are not always present Order is not always the same
Cultural differences
Needs Hierarchy in Chinaan example:
Belonging
Physiological
Safety
Self actualizing in service to society
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Alderfers ERG TheoryA Content Perspective
Existence needs
Physiological
Relatedness needs How one individual relates to his/her social
environment
Growth needs
Achievement and self actualization
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Alderfers ERG TheoryA Content Perspective
Satisfaction-Progression Frustration-Regression
Growth Needs
Relatedness
Needs
Existence Needs
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Content Theories
Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are
created by different factors.
Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factorsthat create job dissatisfaction.
Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that
create job satisfaction.
Attempted to explain why job satisfaction
does not result in increased performance.
The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction,
but rather no satisfaction.
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Herzbergs Motivation-Hygiene
Theory
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Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-
Dissatisfaction
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McClellands Needs Theory
Three-Needs Theory
There are three major acquired needs that are
major motives in work.
Need for achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel and succeed
Need for power (nPow)
The need to influence the behavior of others Need of affiliation (nAff)
The desire for interpersonal relationships
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Pictures Used for Assessing Levels of
nAch, nAff, and nPow
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Process Perspectives of
Motivation
Why people choose certain behavioral
options to satisfy their needs and how they
evaluate their satisfaction after they have
attained their goals.
Process perspectives of Motivation
Goal Setting Theory
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
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Goal-Setting TheoryA Process Perspective
Basic Premise: That specif icand di f f icu l tgoals, with self-generatedfeedback, lead to higher performance.
Difficulty Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.
Specificity Clarity and precision of the goal.
Goal Achievement Depends on:
Acceptance Extent to which persons accept a goal as their own.
Commitment Extent to which an individual is personally interested in reaching a goal.
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Equity Theory:A Process Perspective
Individuals equate value of rewards to effort andcompare it to other people.
Inputs/OutcomesComparison of
self with others
Equity
Inequity
Motivation to maintain
current situation
Ways to reduce inequity Change inpu ts
Change outcomes
Alter percept ions of self
Alter percept ions o f o ther
Leave situat ion Change compar isons
outcomes(self)
inputs (self)=
outcomes (other)
inputs (other)
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Justice and Equity Theory
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Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of theoutcome (the final
distribution).
Who got what?
Procedural Justice
The perceived fairness ofthe process used to
determine the outcome(the final distribution).
How was who gets whatdecided?
Interactional Justice
The degree to which oneis treated with dignity
and respect.
Was I treated well?
Three types of Justice
E pectanc Theor
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Expectancy Theory
The Basic Idea
People tend to prefer certain goals, or
outcomes, over others.
They anticipate experiencing feelings of
satisfaction should such a preferred
outcome be achieved.
Basically, people are motivated to behave
in ways that produce valued outcomes.
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Expectancy TheoryA Process Perspective
Motivation depends on how much we want
something and how likely we are to get it
Elements
Effort to Performance Expectancy(E) is the probabilitythat effort will lead to performance.
Performance to Outcome Expectancy(I) is the
perception that performance leads to an outcome.
Outcome is the consequence or reward forperformance.
Valence (V) is how much a particular outcome is
valued.
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Expectancy TheoryA Process Perspective
M = E x I x V
For motivated behavior to occur: Effort-to-performance must be greater than 0
Performance-to-outcome must be greaterthan 0
Sum of valences must be greater than 0*
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The Expectancy Model of
Motivation
Environment
Motivation Effort Performance
Ability
Outcome
Outcome
Outcome
Valence
Outcome Valence
Outcome Valence
Valence
Valence
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High Effort
Decision to
Exert Effort
Low EffortPerformance
Goal
Performance
Goal
Expectancy
What are my chances
of reaching my
performance goalif I work hard?
Expectancy
What are my chances
of reaching my
performance goal
if I slack off?
Instrumentality
What are my chances
of getting various
outcomes if I achieve
my performance goal?
Valence
How much do I value
these outcomes?
Outcome 3
Outcome 2
Outcome 1
Outcome 3
Outcome 2
Outcome 1
A General Model of Vrooms
Expectancy Theory
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Reinforcement Theory
Assumptions:Behavior is environmentally caused.
Behavior can be modified (reinforced) byproviding (controlling) consequences.
Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Argues that behavior is a function of itsconsequences.
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Motivation: From
Concepts to
Applications
ChapterSEVEN
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Job Design Theory
Characteristics:
1. Skill variety
2. Task identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
Job Characteristics
Model
Identifies five job
characteristics and theirrelationship to personaland work outcomes.
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Job Design Theory (contd)
Job Characteristics Model
Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given,
directly affect three psychological states ofemployees:
Knowledge of results
Meaningfulness of work Personal feelings of responsibility for results
Increases in these psychological states result in
increased motivation, performance, and job
satisfaction.
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The Job Characteristics Model
E X H I B I T 71Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 7880). 1980 byAddison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.
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Job Design Theory (contd)Skill Variety
The degree to which a job requires a variety ofdifferent activities (how may different skills areused in a given day, week, month?).
Task IdentityThe degree to which the job requires completion ofa whole and identifiable piece of work (frombeginning to end).
Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantialimpact on the lives or work of other people.
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Job Design Theory (contd)
AutonomyThe degree to which the job provides substantialfreedom and discretion to the individual inscheduling the work and in determining the
procedures to be used in carrying it out.
Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activitiesrequired by a job results in the individual obtainingdirect and clear information about the effectivenessof his or her performance.
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Prentice Hall, 2003 34
Characteristics Examples
Skil l Variety High variety The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines,
does body work, and interacts with customers
Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
Task Identity
High identity A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the
object, and finishes it to perfection
Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs
Task Signif icance
High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit
Low significance Sweeping hospital floors
Autonomy
High autonomy A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and
decides on the best techniques for a particular installation
Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a
routine, highly specified procedure
Feedback
High feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to
determine if it operates properly
Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a
quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it
Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics
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Computing a Motivating
Potential Score
People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are
generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in
influencing personal and work outcome variables ratherthan influencing them directly.