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CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW, CONCEPTS
AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
In this chapter, the study explains about the literature review from thesis and
journal review. Concept of discourse, context, cohesion which is including text,
texture, ties and cohesion itself, the lexical cohesion and the last is the context of
situation. The last is explanation of theoretical framework, where the main theory
comes from Halliday and Hasan (1976) and David Nunan (1993).
2.1 Literature Review
Literature review explained about the review of the literature that used in this
study. There are two literature reviews in this study; those are; thesis review and
journal review.
2.1.1 Thesis Review
In thesis review, there are three theses that were reviewed and two Journals
that related to the topic of the study.
Aksana (2006) in his thesis about lexical cohesion of editor’s massage in Bog-
Bog magazine. His thesis is aimed to analyse and identify the lexical cohesion and
the context of situation which are used in the text. In his study, there are two
problems found first how the lexical cohesion built in editor's massage in Bog-Bog
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Magazine and second is how the context of situation reflects the written text of
editor's massage in Bog-Bog Magazine. The data were taken from an English written
text editor's massage of Bali Cartoon Magazine named 'Bog-Bog Magazine'. His
collected data were analysed descriptively and qualitative^ based on the theory of
cohesion proposed by Halliday and Hasan on their book entitled Cohesion in English
(1976), and the theory of context of situation proposed by Halliday on his book
entitled Language, Context, and Text: Aspect of Language in a Social-Semiotic
Perspective (1985).
Budiasih (2007) about context of situation and lexical cohesion in Legend Story.
In her thesis she investigates the context of situation affecting in the story and finding
out the types of lexical cohesion. The primary data of Budiasih's thesis was taken
from a legend story entitled Giant Kebo Iwa that consists of four paragraphs. It was
selected as the data based on the need of her research. The selected data was whereas
each qualitatively analysed by using descriptive technique. The analysis was based on
the theory proposed by M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan on their book entitled
Language, Context and Text: Aspect of Language in Social-Semiotic Perspective
(1985), and Cohesion in English (1976).
Widari (2005), who discusses the types of lexical cohesion found in the English
text cassette cover based on the theory of discourse analysis. The aims are to analyse
how many types of lexical cohesion found in the text and what types is most
frequently used. In her thesis the analysed data was taken from an English text found
in a cassette cover, which is a monologue text that tells about the songs content in the
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cassette, how the process of the album made, and also consists of expressions of
thanks from the singer to some dedicated people in her life. Her analysis of the data
already collected by means of library research method which is based on inductive-
deductive method. It means that the data were analysed from the data towards the
theory and from the theory towards the data. Then, the data that has been analysed is
presented descriptively. The main theory used in her study which was based on the
theory of David Nunan (1993), and Halliday and Hasan (1976).
There are similarities of this study with those previous studies. Those studies
discussed about lexical cohesion and used the same theory that proposed by Halliday
and Hasan (1976) and Nunan (1993). Moreover, the differences of this study with
those previous studies are from the data source and the technique of analyzing the
data. On the previous study, the data source was taken from cartoon magazine, legend
story and cassette cover while in this study the data source was taken from Indonesia
Tatler Traveller Magazine.
By reviewing all these above it can support this study in the sense of giving
explanation about the types of lexical cohesion and also give some information about
how to analyse the types of lexical cohesion itself.
2.1.2 Journal Review
Morley (2006) in Lexical Cohesion and Corpus Linguistics: Special issue of
International Journal of Corpus Linguistics (11:3). In his article Lexical Cohesion
and Rhetorical Structure he states that lexical cohesion does not only contributes to
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the texture of a text, it can help to indicate the rhetorical development of the
discourse. This article looks at this argument -structuring function of lexical cohesion
first by considering single texts using the techniques of Classical Discourse Analysis
and then by using the methodology of corpus linguistics to examine several million
words of text. First, the nature of cohesive links within single article is examined.
Next, the link between headlines and the articles that follow them is studied. Finally,
various concessive mechanisms which structure arguments are examined in detail. It
is argued that an awareness of the mechanisms outlined in this article will help
students to understand better the kind of argumentation presented in the texts. All the
texts studied are from English newspapers.
On the other hand, Mahlberg (2006) also in the same journal, Lexical
Cohesion and Corpus Linguistics: Special issue of International Journal of Corpus
Linguistics (11:3) with his article Lexical Cohesion: Corpus linguistic theory and its
application in English language teaching explain that the cohesion is generally
described with regard to two broad categories; grammatical cohesion and lexical
cohesion. These categories reflect a view on language that treats grammar and lexis
along separate lines. Language teaching textbooks on cohesion often follow this
division. In contrast, a corpus theoretical approach to the description of English
prioritizes lexis and does not assume that lexical and grammatical phenomena can be
clearly distinguished. Consequently, cohesion can be seen in a new light: cohesion is
created by interlocking lexico-grammatical patterns and overlapping lexical items. A
corpus theoretical approach to cohesion has important implications for English
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language teaching. The article looks at difficultes of teaching cohesion, shows links
between communicative approaches to ELT and corpus linguistics, and suggests
practical application of corpus theoretical concepts.
2.2 Concepts
The concepts of this study were based on the theory of cohesiveness proposed
by Halliday and Hasan and also by other theories which are related to this study.
2.2.1 Discourse
Halliday and Hasan (1985:10) state that discourse is a type of structure; the
term is used to refer to the structure of some postulated unit higher than the sentence.
In the other hand, Crystal (1992 :25) explains that discourse is a continuous
stretch of (especially spoken) language larger than a sentence, often constituting a
coherent unit such as sermon, argument, joke, or narrative. The term discourse has
relation to the study of the text. Nunan (1993:6) also said that discourse refers to
language in context. Discourse analysis involves study of language in use.
2.2.2 Context
Context is very important in understanding a text, in order to be able to find
the real message that is wanted to be conveyed by the writer. Halliday (1985:7) state
the term of context refers to the text within a text, text which is put together or
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accompanies other text. It includes other nonverbal going on or the total environment
in which a text unfold.
According to Nunan (1993) context refers to the situation giving rise to the discourse,
and within which the discourse is embedded. He also state two different types of
context. First is the linguistic context - the language that surrounds or accompanies
the piece of discourse under analysis. And second is the non-linguistic or experiential
context within which the discourse takes place.
2.2.3 Context of Situation
Halliday (1985) explain that context of situation serve to interpret the social
context of the text, the environment in which meaning are being exchanged. Context
is very important in understanding a text in order to be able to find the real message
that wants to be conveyed by the writer. In order to be able to understand what people
mean, Halliday classifies the context of situation into three; Field, Tenor and Mode.
2.2.4 Cohesion
Halliday and Hassan (1976) state that cohesion refers to the range of
possibilities that exist for linking something with what has been going on before.
The concept of cohesion is a semantic one; it refers to relations of meaning
that exist within the text and that define it as a text. Cohesion also occurs where the
interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent on that of another
(Halliday and Hasan, 1976).
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2.2.5 Lexical Cohesion
Nunan (1993: 28) State that lexical cohesion occurs when two words in a text
are semantically related in some ways - in other words, they are related in terms of
their meaning. It can be identified into two; reiteration and collocation.
1. Reiteration
Is the form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of lexical item, the use
of general word to refer back to a lexical item, and number of things in between like
the use of synonym, near-synonym, or superordinate. It Covers repetition, synonym,
superordinate, and general word.
2. Collocation
Is the term that uses all items in the texts that are semantically related, it is related to
the idea or sense of meaning. Collocation can be explained by means of;
complementary, antonym, conveseness, the same ordered séries, unordered lexical
sets, and certain lexical sets.
2.3 Theoretical Framework
This study based on discourse analysis study and the analysis of type's lexical
cohesion that mainly will be based on the theory which are proposed by Halliday and
Hasan (1976) in Cohesion in English and David Nunan (1993) in Introducing
Discourse Analysis. Then, the theory of context of situation proposed by Halliday in
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his book entitled Language, Context and Text: Aspect of Language in a Social-
Semiotic Perspective is chose for the supporting theory. Those théories are very close
related to this study because this study are aimed to find out the types of lexical
cohesion that frequently occured and to compare the types of lexical cohesion found
in the editor's note of Indonesia Tatler Traveller Magazine. In principle Nunan states
that:
"Lexical cohesion occurs when two words in a text are semantically related in some
ways -in other words, they are related in terms of their meaning".
Furthermore, Halliday and Hasan explain that lexical cohesion is 'phone'
cohesion that is established through the structure of lexis, or vocabulary and hence at
the lexico-grammatical level (1976:274). In their book entitled Cohesion in English
(1976) Halliday and Hasan distinguishes the types of cohesion into two; Lexical
Cohesion and Grammatical Cohesion.
2.3.1 Lexical cohesion
Lexical Cohesion is cohesion that expressed through relation on vocabulary.
"Lexical cohesion occurs when two words in a text are semantically related in some
way - in other words, they are related in terms of their meaning" (Nunan, 1993:28).
Based on Halliday and Hasan (1976), lexical cohésion can be identified into two, as
follows:
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2.3.1.1 Reiteration
Is the form of lexical cohesion which involves the repetition of lexical item,
the use of general word to refer back to a lexical item, and number of things in
between like the use of synonym, near-synonym, or superordinate. It covers
repetition, synonym, superordinate, and generai word.
a. Repetition is more frequently used in certain discourse types than the others.
Repetition means that the lexical items already present in the previous sentence and
are repeated in the following sentences on the text. It reflects the continuity of
thoughts and subject matter.
Example:
Algy meet a bear. The bear was bulgy. (Halliday, 1985:310)
The word bear in the second occurrence harks back to the first.
What we lack in a newspaper is what we should get. In a word, a 'popular' newspaper
may be the winning ticket. (Nunan, 1990:29)
The word newspaper in the second occurrence harks back to the first.
b. Synonym or near - synonym is the second part of reiteration, where the occurrence of
this two lexical item on the text having the same or nearly the same meaning. This
does not mean that there is a total overlap meaning, simply that so far as one kind of
meaning goes, and they mean the same.
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Example:
Accordingly ...I took leave, and turned to the ascent of the peak. The climb is perfect
easy... (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:278).
c. Superordinate is used to refer to a word which has general properties, not the specific
one.
Example:
Pneumonia has arrived with the cold and wet conditions.
The illness is striking everyone from infants to the elderly. (Nunan, 1990:28)
The word illness is the superordinate of the word pneumonia.
d. General word which correspond to major classes of lexical item are very commonly
used with cohesive force.
Example:
There's a boy climbing the tree.
The idiot's going to fall if he doesn't take care. (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:279-280)
The word boy is a gênerai word for idiot.
2.3.1.2 Collocation
Is the term that uses all items in the texts that are semantically related, it is
related to the idea or sense of meaning. Collocation can be explained by means of;
complementary, antonym, conveseness, the same ordered series, unordered lexical
sets, and certain lexical sets.
The types of collocation can be seen as follows:
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a. Complementary is related by a particular type of oppositeness. It is used to achieve
strong cohesion in a text, where the presence of one sense component excludes
another and there is no gradation between the terms.
Example:
1. Work in a hotel is an interesting job for man or woman. (General English,
1997:40)
2. Many boys and girls own an aquarium with pretty Goldfish inside it. (General
English, 1997:67)
In sentence (1), the items man and woman are complement to each other and the
occurrences of those two items are classified as complementary. Similar to the
sentence (1), boys and girls in example (2) is also complement to each other.
b. Antonym can be described as the oppositeness of experiential meaning and it
involves grabble opposite between the items.
Example:
When we are angry we dose the mouth firmly. Sometimes we open the mouth when
we feel surprised or afraid. (General English, 1997:67)
The word close and open can be classified as antonym, because they have an opposite
meaning.
c. Converseness describes a contrast of lexical item. It is contrastive lexical relation as
there is a measure of logical reciprocity between lexical items with the presupposed
one. Converseness is predominantly associated with reciprocal social roles, kinship
relation, spatial, or temporal relations, and a number of verbs.
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Example:
Allan Wood court stood beside your father when he lay dead. He stood beside your
dead mother. Today, I give you to him a father's love. (Dickens, 1992:102)
The contrastive of lexical items mentioned is a kinship relation between the word
father and mother and there is a reciprocal meaning between the items. This relation
can be classified as converseness.
d. The same ordered séries is a set of lexical item which are found among words that
dénote unité or periods of time.
Example:
The visitors arrived at the house on a Saturday. On the Sunday morning they walked
to the little church in the park. (Dickens, 1992:41)
The item Saturday and Sunday are creating cohesive effects in the text. Their
occurrence is considered as the same ordered séries and they are included as related
items. Here Saturday and Sunday refer to the names of days in a week,
e. Unordered lexical sets have three différent types which can sub classified
into: part-to-part relation, part-to-whole relation, and co-hyponym.
1. Part-to-part relation refers to a recognizable relation where one lexical item, as part
of a thing occurs mutually with another.
Example:
He lay there, completely still, dressed in shirt and trousers. His hair and beard were
long and ragged. His eyes were open. (Dickens, 1996:17)
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The item hair and beard is form of part-to-part relation, and their occurrence creates
cohesiveness. Those items can be classified to such relation and they are included in a
group of the same thing that is part of head.
2. Part-to-whole relation is the relation between one lexical item, as a part of a thing,
which occurs mutually with another.
Example:
Each of the différent parts of our body, our eyes, our ears, our nose, our arms, many
différent thing to do. (General English, 1997:60)
The example above shows the occurrence of part-to-whole relation created by the
items body, eyes, ears, nose, and arms. The items eyes, ears, nose and arms refer to
the item body, since ail of those items are part of body or they are inclusive to body.
3. Co-hyponym is a relationship existing between set of lexical items which are
included as a hyponym under the term of superordinate.
Example:
The moon and the star were out when the driver suddenly stood up, waved his whip
and cried. (Dickens, 1992:19)
The presence of the moon and the star in the above example is collocation one to
another and it can be classified as co-hyponym, since they are included in the same
superordinate term, namely the object of the sky.
f. Certain lexical sets are the types of collocation cohesion which cover the semantic
relation within the lexical item. The cohesive effect that is built deriving from the
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occurrence of such lexical pair on text simultaneously. It means that the relation is not
easy to classify in systematic terms.
Example:
The journey, through darkness and snow, seemed to Esther like a dreadful dream. The
coach drove quickly through the dark street. The often stooped at police stations
where Mr. Bucket asked questions. (Dickens, 1992:92)
In the above example, we can see the cohesive effect of the text formed by the items
journey, coach, streets, and police stations, in which they are considered as certain
lexical sets, since they have similar pattern of collocation and have semantic relation
to one and another.
2.3.2 Grammatical Cohesion
Grammatical cohesion is kind of cohesion that expresses through relation on
grammar. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), the types of grammatical
cohesion divided into four items, those are: reference, substitution, ellipsis, and
conjunction.
1. Reference
Reference is a communicative relationship between words and sentences in a text
and as a cohesive element has semantic basis. As semantic property, reference not
necessarily has been encoded in the text.
Reference is divided into four kinds of situational reference. They are exophoric,
endophoric reference, anaphoric reference, and cataphoric referency.
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1. Exophoric Reference
Exophoric reference is reference that must be interpreted to the context of situation
and it does not name anything. It means that exophoric reference contributes to the
creation of the text only; it does not contribute directly to cohesion within the text.
2. Endophoric Reference
Endophoric reference is reference that must be made the text and refers to a thing as
identified in the surrounding text. There are two types of endophoric reference, they
are anaphoric and cataphoric reference.
3. Anaphoric Reference
Anaphoric reference is reference to preceding text.
4. Cataphoric Reference
Cataphoric reference is reference that involves information referring to the following
text.
Halliday and Hasan (1976) also identify three sub-types of referential
cohesion; they are personal, demonstrative and comparative reference.
1. Personal Reference
Personal reference is reference that expressed through pronouns and determiners. It
serves to identify individuals and objects that are named at some other point in the
text.
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2. Demonstrative Reference
Demonstrative reference is reference that expressed through determiners and adverb.
These items can represent a single word or phrase, or much longer chunk of text -
ranging across several paragraphs or even several pages.
3. Comparative Reference
Comparative reference is reference that expressed through adjectives and adverbs and
serves to compare items within a text in terms of identity or similarity.
2. Substitution
Substitution is a relation within a text. A substitution is a short of counter,
which is used in the place of répétition of a particular item or simply refers to the
replacement of one item by another. There are three types of substitution, they are:
1. Nominal Substitution
The nominal substitution is reflected by one and ones. The substitution
one/ones is the maker of a grammatical relation; it présupposes a particular noun that
has function as Head in the nominal group.
2. Verbal Substitution
The verbal substitution in English is do (with the usual morphological scatter
do, does, did, doing, and done).
3. Causal Substitution
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Causal substitution is a kind of substitution in which the one that is
presupposed is not an élément within the clause but an entire clause and the
contrasting élément is provided outside the clause.
3. Ellipsis
Ellipsis is a form of substitution whereby omissions can be made in a sentence
or passage regarding a noun or a verb as well as a clause considered as same as
substitution, namely nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis and clausal ellipsis.
1. Nominal Ellipsis
Nominal ellipsis occurs when an élément in a particular nominal group is left
unexpressed.
2. Verbal Ellipsis
The verbal ellipsis is ellipsis within the verbal group. The elliptical verbal group
présupposes one or more words from a previous verbal group.
3. Clausal Ellipsis
Clausal ellipsis is ellipsis within the structure of the clause. In clausal ellipsis there
could be the omission of complément, adjunct or other element in one clause.
4. Conjunction
Conjunction differs from reference, Substitution, and ellipsis in that it is not a
device for reminding the reader or previously mentioned entities, actions and states of
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affairs. There are four types of conjunction; adversative, additive, temporal and
causal.
1. Adversative
Adversative refers to the relation which belongs to different sentences that are
grouped together.
2. Additive
Additive appears when two sentences structurally grouped together.
3. Temporal
Temporal refers to the dimension that is presented in the communication process.
4. Causal
Causal tends to be specific such as result, reason and purpose. They are distinguished
to each other; except for they are used as prepositional phrases.
2.3.3 Context of Situation
Bronislaw Malinowsky is a linguist who proposed firstly the concept of
context of situation (in Halliday and Hasan 1985). He states that the utterance
becomes only intelligible when it is placed within its context of situation. In this case,
context refers to the total environment of the text including the verbal environment
and the situation in which the text was uttered.
In order to be able to understand what people mean, Halliday classifies the
context of situation as foliows:
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2.3.3.1 Field
Halliday state that the field of discourse refers to what is happening. The field
refers to the nature of social action that is taking place, what is the participants are
engaged in, and which the language figures as some essential component. Halliday
and Hasan (1985:45) also explain that the field of discourse is the 'play' - the kind of
activity, as recognised in the culture, within which the language is playing some parts
[predicts experiential meaning].
The field largely détermines the content what is being said. It refers to what
the participants in the context of the situation are actually engaged in doing.
The notion of field includes the items as follows:
1. Arena/activities: refers to particularly to the location of the interlocutors.
2. Participants: refers to the inhérent features of the participants.
3. Semantic domain: refers to the broad domain, the gênerai subject matter of the
content of the spécifie language event.
2.3.3.2 Tenor
The tenor of discourse refers to who is taking part. The ténor also refers to the
nature of the participant, their status and rôles, including kinds of relationship
obtained among the participants whether that is permanent or temporary relationships
of one kind or another. Based on Halliday and Hasan (1985:46) the ténor of discourse
is the 'players' - the actors or rather the interacting rôles, that are involved in the
création of the text [predicts interpersonal meanings].
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The tenor of discourse of the interpersonal system account several features
such as :
1. The speech roles (modes) of either statement/question or demand.
2. The person involved of speaker and addressing.
3. The polarity of either positive and negative.
2.3.3.3 Mode
Halliday and Hasan (1985:46) state that mode of discourse is the 'parts' - the
particular functions that are assigned to language in this situation, and the rethorical
channel that is therefore allotted to it [predicts textual meanings]. The mode of
discourse refers to what part the language is playing. The mode also refers to what the
participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation. It also
mentions the symbolic organization of the text, the status and its function in the
context, including the channel that spoken or written and what is achieved by the text
in terms of such catégories as persuasive, expository, didactic, and others.
The mode features several aspects of :
1. Theme comprising of person theme or object theme.
2. The use of cohesion of reference (to situation-exophoric and to text-anaphoric),
conjunction (adversative or neutral).
3. Ellipsis (dialogue).
4. The lexical cohesion : reiteration and collocation.
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2.3.3.4 Text
Based on Halliday and Hasan (1976:1) a text is unit of language in use. It is
no grammatical unit like a clause or sentence; and it is not defined by its size. A text
is sometimes envisaged to be some kind of super-sentence, grammatical unit that is
larger than a sentence but is related a sentence in the same way that a sentence is
related to a clause, a clause to a group and so on (Halliday and Hasan 1976: 1-2).
Text is a piece of naturally occurring spoken, written, or signed discourse identified
for purposes analysis. It is often a language unit with a definable communicative
function, such as conversation, a poster (Nunan 1993: 6).
2.3.3.5 Texture
The concept of texture is entirely appropriate to express the property of 'being
a text'. A text has texture, and this is what distinguishes it from something that is not
a text. It derives this texture from the fact that it's function as a unity with respect to
its environment (Halliday and Hasan 1976:2). Texture is important in distinguishing a
text from something that is not a text. Any passage that is consists of more than
sentences is perceived as a text. It means that there will be certain linguistic features
present in that passage which contributes to its total unity and gives its texture.
2.3.3.6 Ties
A tie is a term for one occurrence of part of cohesively related to items. It
refers to a single instance of cohesion. We cannot have a tie without two members,
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and the members cannot appear in a tie unless there is a relationship between them,
such semantic relations from the basis for cohesion between the messages of a text.
There are certain kinds of meaning relation that may obtain between the two members
(Halliday and Hasan 1985: 73).
The concept of tie makes it possible to analyze a text in term of its cohesive
properties, and give a systematic account of its patterns of texture. Ties are a term
used to a single instance of cohesion pointed to the occurrence of a pair of cohesively
related items (Halliday 1976: 4).