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CHAPTER 8CHAPTER 8
Cellular Reproduction:Cells from Cells
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You began life as a single cell, but there are now more cells in
your body than stars in the milky way.
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THE BIG PICTURE:
BIOLOGY IS THE STUDY OF LIFE
ALL life is made of cells.
Cells divide and reproduce by using the information of DNA.
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Figure 8.1
This was YOUR “baby” picture
You couldn’t do much
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AND LOOK AT YOU NOW !
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In this chapter, we will discuss how
cells divide, a topic that has fascinated
scientists since they first observed
it through a microscope more
than 100 years ago.
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and just like carefully
watching a game played repeatedly,
they have been able to figure out the rules
of cell division
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ALL LIFE IS MADE OF CELLS
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There are WELL over 50 TRILLION CELLS IN A HUMAN BODY
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Perspective on 50 trillion
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Perspective on 50 trillion
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Perspective on 50 trillion
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And all those cells divided from just 1 fertilized egg cell
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There are two kinds of cell division:
1.Mitosis - making a “photocopy” of a cell
• (for growth and maintenance)
2.Meiosis – taking a cell & “halving” it
• (for sexual reproduction)
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MITOSIS
MEIOSIS-testicles-ovaries
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MITOSIS
PARENT CELL
“DAUGHTER” CELL
“DAUGHTER” CELL
START > > > > > END
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SP
ER
M C
EL
LS
R
EA
DY
TO
F
ER
TIL
IZE
MEIOSIS – IN MALES
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MEIOSIS – IN FEMALES
START > > > > > END
EG
G C
EL
LS
EG
G C
EL
LS
R
EA
DY
TO
BE
F
ER
TIL
IZE
D
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MITOSIS HAPPENS IN YOUR TOES, TOO
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Mitosis:- Happens everywhere BUT sex cells (testicles
or ovaries)
- Produces 2 genetically identical "daughter" cells from a single "parent" cell.
- Grew you from a single fertilized cell to the person you are today.
- Repairs / Replaces cells lost through everyday wear and tear- ex: skin cells
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MeiosisMeiosis, on the other hand, is quite different.
It shuffles the genetic deck, generating “daughter” cells that are distinct from one another and from the original parent cell.
only a few special cells (sex cells) are capable of meiosis:
- Female > eggs - males > sperm
So, basically, mitosis is for growth and maintenance, while meiosis is for sexual reproduction.
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A QUICK CHECK
What is the cellular process that produces identical “daughter” cells? ___________________
What is the cellular process that takes place everywhere in your body but your sex cells? __________________
What is the cellular process that made you grow from a single cell to the person you are today?
______________
What is the cellular process that only produces sex cells? ______________________
Who lives in a pineapple under the sea? ___________
MITOSIS
MITOSIS
MITOSIS
MEIOSIS
S.B.S.P.
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THE CELL CYCLE
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THE CELL CYCLE
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Phases of CELL DIVISIONINTERPHASE
PROPHASE
PROMETAPHASE
METAPHASE
ANAPHASE
TELEPHASE CYTOKINESIS
1 C
ELL
->->
->2
CELLS
MITOSIS
NOT MITOSIS
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Phases of CELL DIVISION
INTERPHASE – cell grows to make room (G1), makes a copy of each chromosome(S), but the old copies of the chromosomes are stuck to the copied ones (G1, S, & G2)
PROPHASE - In the nucleus, copied chromosomes condense and become visible. Outside the nucleus in the cytoplasm, the spindles forms.
PROMETAPHASE – Nuclear membrane breaks up, spindle fibers begin to interact with newly copied chromosomes
NO
T
MIT
OS
ISM
ITO
SIS
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METAPHASE – Chromosomes pushed by spindle fibers to the metaphase plate ready to be separated
ANAPHASE –Chromosomes separate into two genetically identical groups, move to opposite ends of the cell.
TELEPHASE - Nuclear membranes form around each of the two sets of chromosomes, the chromosomes begin to spread out, and the spindle fibers begins to break down
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CYTOKINESIS –
cell divides into 2 (READY TO START AGAIN)
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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nPG6480RQo0&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VlN7K1-9QB0
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QUICK REVIEW
An in-between time in a cells life where it doubles its DNA and grows ______________
A time in a cells life when the chromosomes condense and become visible also the spindles start to form ____________________
A time in a cells life cycle when spindle fibers finally get to interact with the newly condensed chromosomes because the nucleus just dissolved __________________
interphase
prophase
prometaphase
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QUICK REVIEW
When chromosomes are pushed to the middle of the cell. ____________________
Chromosomes begin moving AGAIN but this time away from each other and towards the opposite sides of the cell. ____________
Nuclear membranes form around each of the two new sets of chromosomes, this is the END of the line ____________
Cells move away from each other _________
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
cytokenisis
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QUICK REVIEW
This phase is NOT part of mitosis ________interphas
e
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INT
ER
PH
ASE
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PR
OP
HA
SE
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PR
OM
ET
AP
HA
SE
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ME
TA
PH
ASE
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AN
AP
HA
SE
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TE
LO
PH
ASE
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CY
TO
KIN
ESIS
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INT
ER
PH
ASE
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A TOUR OF DNA
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Here is a eukaryotic cell (animal cell)
DNA
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The DNA in a cell is packed into an elaborate, multilevel system of coiling and folding.
DNA Packing
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THE CHROMOSOME
THE CENTROMERE
c
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It’s like a
super belt
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A Chromosome
- (1 continuous piece of DNA)
- (a single chromatid)
ALSO a chromosome
- (2 identical continuous pieces of DNA connected at centromere)
-(made of 2 sister chromatids)
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QUICK REVIEW
DNA DOUBLE HELIX
HISTONE
NUCLEOSOME
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QUICK REVIEW
= a chromosome
= a chromosome
OR
2 identical sister ……
chromatids
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• Genes = a unit of heredity passed on from a parent to its offspring
– are written in the language of DNA
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WHERE IS A GENE?!?!?!?!
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• Chromosomes:
– Are made of DNA and histones (protein to wrap DNA around)
– Are not visible in a cell until the chromatin condenses (folds) to the stereotypical chromosome shape.
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ORGANIZE FROM THINNEST (1) TO THICKEST (5)
histones
DNA double helix
Super coil
Chromosomes (coiled)
Nucleosomes
1
2
3
4
5
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INT
ER
PH
ASE
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PR
OR
PH
ASE
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PR
OM
ET
TA
PH
ASE
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Eukaryotic Chromosomes
The number of chromosomes in a
eukaryotic cell depends on the species.
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RED VISCACHA RAT
JK
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Karyotype = A picture of your
condensed chromosomes
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A karyotype
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Remember: this picture is of condensed chromosomes
also
we know, from mitosis, that chromosomes don’t condense unless they were first doubled
(during S of interphase)
So
Look close. . .
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Each chromosome is really made up of it’s “identical twin” from when
it doubled in S of interphase
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For example: If this is mom’s #1 chromosome with information on how her childs eyes will be colored
Your dad has the same #1 chromosome with his version of how to color his child’s eye color
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=
CLOSER INSPECTION
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Each “identical twin” joined at the centromere is known as a chromatid
Here we see 4 chromatids in total, of 2 chromosomes
2 chromatids on the left chromosome (from mom) & 2 chromatids on the right chromosome (from dad)
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Sister chromatids = 2
chromatids joined at
the centromere
s
Here we see ________ pairs of sister chromatids.
2
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=
Homologous chromosomes = moms version of chromosome next to dads version of that same chromosome
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22 PAIRS OF CHROMOSOMES
(44 CHROMOSOMES + 2 sex chromosomes ) = 46
total chromosomes
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A healthy human has a total of 46 chromosomes
or
___ pairs of chromosomes & 2 sex chromosomes
22
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A healthy human has 2 kinds of chromosomes:
1)Autosome = any chromosome that is not related to gender
(chromosome #’s 1 - 44)
2)Sex chromosome = the 2 chromosomes that are related to gender
(chromosome #’s 45 & 46 or x & y)
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MEIOSIS
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WHAT IS MEIOSIS? (NOT MITOSIS)
• meiosis (pronounced my-o-sis) is a process that reduces the number of chromosomes per cell in half. (46 -> 23)
• Meiosis always results in the formation of gametes, (sperm or egg)
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Q – What is the point of meiosis? EXPLAIN!!
Q – What happens to the future cells if a sex cell undergoes mitosis instead of meiosis? EXPLAIN!!
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Q: What is the point of Meiosis?
A: To prepare for sexual reproduction
Q: But why does meiosis have to be different than mitosis?
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Every person is made of cells
Each cell in our body has 46 chromosomes
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A SEXUALLY MATURE MALE AND FEMALE
WANT TO HAVE A BABY
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MALE
•He has 46 chromosomes
per cell
FEMALE
•She has 46 chromosomes
per cell
Without meiosis, a baby would have 92
chromosomes (46 from mom & 46 from dad)
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Remember: meiosis is a process that
cuts the number of chromosomes in
half (46 -> 23)
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QUICK REVIEW
How many chromosomes does a body cell have? _______
How many chromosomes does a cell have before MITOSIS? __________
How many chromosomes does a cell have after MITOSIS? __________
How many chromosomes does a cell have before MEIOSIS? __________
How many chromosomes does a cell have after MEIOSIS? __________
46
46
46
46
23
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Fertilization
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• Dad’s sperm = ___ chromosomes
• Mom’s egg = ___ chromosomes
FERTILIZATION = fusion of sperm and egg
23
23
46 total
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=
MOM (23 chrom) DAD (23 chrom)
+
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From
dad
YOU (46 chromosomes per cell)
From
mom
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The instant just before YOU (becoming 46 chrom’s)
23 chromosomes
23 chromosomes
And ever since this moment each cell in you has been copied
through the process of _________
mitosis
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You divided … and divided…. And divided
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MEIOSIS
(ABREVIATED)
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MEIOSIS VIDEO
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1_-mQS_FZ0
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* REMEMBER *
• Meiosis = reduces the number of
chromosomes per cell in half. (46 -> 23)
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What meiosis looks like
I P P M A T C P P M A T CMEIOSIS I MEIOSIS III I I I I
II II II II II II
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STARTS WITH ENDS WITH
MITOSIS
•1 CELL
•46 CHROMOSOMES PER CELL
•2 CELLS
•46 CHROMOSOMES PER CELL
MEIOSIS
•1 CELL
•46 CHROMOSOMES PER CELL
•4 CELLS
•23 CHROMOSOMES PER CELL
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ABREVIATED REVIEW
OF MITOSIS
I
P
P
M
A
T
C
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ABREVIATED REVIEW OF
MEIOSIS
I
P
P
M
A
T
CP
P
M
A
T
C
MEIO
SIS
IM
EIO
SIS
II
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I
P
P
M
A
T
C
I
P
P
M
A
T
C
MEIO
SIS
I
P
P
M
A
T
C
MEIO
SIS
IIM
ITO
SIS
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MEIOSIS I
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MEIO
SIS
IINTERPHASE (G1)
23 chromosomes from mom
23 chromosomes from dad
I
P
P
M
A
T
C
46 total
* Note = chromosomes are not really condensed *
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MEIO
SIS
IINTERPHASE (S)
23 chromosomes from mom
23 chromosomes from dad
I
P
P
M
A
T
C
46 total
S = synthesis (each chromosome copies itself)
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MEIO
SIS
IINTERPHASE (G2)
23 chromosomes from mom
23 chromosomes from dad
I
P
P
M
A
T
C
46 total
G2 = gap 2
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MEIO
SIS
IMEIOSIS I - ( Prophase I )
23 chromosomes from mom
23 chromosomes from dad
I
P
P
M
A
T
C
46 total
Centrosomes begin to form
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MEIO
SIS
IMEIOSIS I – ( Prometaphase I )
23 chromosomes from mom
23 chromosomes from dad
I
P
P
M
A
T
C
46 total
Nucleus breaks up and spindle fibers rush in
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MEIO
SIS
IMEIOSIS I – (Metaphase I )
23 chromosomes from mom
23 chromosomes from dad
I
P
P
M
A
T
C
46 total
Tetrad’s (homologous chromosomes) line up side by side
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ZOOMING IN
Tetrad = the combination of 2 homologous chromosomes lined up RIGHT next to each other
Dad’s #1 chromosome
Mom’s #1 chromosome
Dad’s #2 chromosome
Mom’s #2 chromosome
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Also, when the homologous chromosomes get this close (a tetrad) some of their information gets switched or CROSSES OVER.
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MEIO
SIS
IMEIOSIS I – (Anaphase I )
23 chromosomes
to the left
I
P
P
M
A
T
CBecause of all the “crossing over” it is impossible to
call one side mom’s and one side dad’s
23 chromosomes
to the right
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MEIO
SIS
IMEIOSIS I – (Telophase I )
23 chromosomes
to the left
I
P
P
M
A
T
CNote: chromosomes begin to unwind (not shown)
and nucleus reforms
23 chromosomes
to the right
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MEIO
SIS
IMEIOSIS I – (Cytokenisis I )
23 chromosomes to the left cell
I
P
P
M
A
T
CEnd of meiosis I
23 chromosomes to the right cell
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MEIOSIS II
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MEIO
SIS
IIMEIOSIS II – (Prophase II )
23 chromosomes to the left cell
P
P
M
A
T
CCentrosomes begin to form (NO INTERPHASE!)
23 chromosomes to the right cell
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MEIO
SIS
IIMEIOSIS II – (Prometaphase II )
23 chromosomes to the left cell
P
P
M
A
T
CSpindle fibers make first contact with
chromosomes as nucleus breaks up
23 chromosomes to the right cell
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MEIO
SIS
IIMEIOSIS II – (Metaphase II )
23 chromosomes to the left cell
P
P
M
A
T
CChromosomes line up at metaphase plate
23 chromosomes to the right cell
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MEIO
SIS
IIMEIOSIS II – (Anaphase II )
23 chrom’S
P
P
M
A
T
CSNAP!!!
23 chrom’S
23 chrom’S
23 chrom’S
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ZOOMING IN ON METAPHASE II
3 CENTROMERES = 3 CHROMOSOMESor 6 chromatids or 6 sister chromatids
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ZOOMING IN ON ANAPHASE II
CE
NT
RO
ME
RE
S
6 CENTROMERES = 6 CHROMOSOMESor 6 chromatids
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MEIO
SIS
IIMEIOSIS II – (Telophase II )
23 chrom’s
P
P
M
A
T
CChromosomes unwind and nucleus reforms
23 chrom’s
23 chrom’s
23 chrom’s
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MEIO
SIS
IIMEIOSIS II – (Cytokenesis II )
23 chrom’s
P
P
M
A
T
CChromosomes unwind
23 chrom’s
23 chrom’s
23 chrom’s
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If you’re a male this happens
SPERM
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EGGS
If you’re a female this happens
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SO…… HERE IS A COMPARISON OF THE TWO
STARTS WITH ENDS WITH
MITOSIS
______ CELL
____ CHROMOSOMES . PER CELL
_____ CELLS
____ CHROMOSOMES . PER CELL
MEIOSIS_____ CELL
____ CHROMOSOMES . PER CELL
_____ CELLS
____ CHROMOSOMES . PER CELL
46 46
46 23
41
1 2
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All non-sex cells are called somatic cells
Sperm and egg cells are called gametes
Lets simplify
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Lets simplify….. even more
n = information
23 chromosomes = n (or haploid)
46 chromosomes = 2n (or diploid)
OR HALF THE INFORMATIONO
OR DOUBLE THE INFORMATION
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=
MOM (23 chrom) DAD (23 chrom)
+
“n” or haploid “n” or haploid
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From
dad
YOU (46 chromosomes per cell)
From
mom
“2n” or diploid
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Parent cell 46 (chromosomes)
mitosis
46
46
Meiosis I
23
23 23 23 23
23
Meiosis II
DIPLOID CELLS (2n)
HAPLOID CELLS (n)
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Parent cell 46 (chromosomes)
mitosis Meiosis I
Meiosis II
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( Diploid 2n)
HAPLOID (n) = 3
HAPLOID (n) = 8
HAPLOID (n) = 11
HAPLOID (n) = 15
HAPLOID (n) = 20
HAPLOID (n) = 23
HAPLOID (n) = 27
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THE BIG DIFFERENCES
1. THE OUT COME
A. MITOSIS = 2 IDENTICAL DAUGHTER CELLS
B. MEIOSIS = 4 DIFFERENT DAUGHTER CELLS (WITH HALF THE GENETIC INFO AS PARENT CELL)
2. METAPHASE I (OF MEIOSIS I)
A. TETRADS LINE UP & CROSSING OVER OCCURS
3. THE NUMBER OF TIMES “PPMAT” HAPPENS
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Genetic Variation
• Without CROSSING OVER offspring of the parents would not be a blend of both parents but a clone !!!
This is not the adult
dog’s puppy
IT IS ITS
CLONE ! ! ! !
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Crossing Over
• In crossing over,
– Homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information.
– Genetic recombination occurs.
Crossing Over
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Nondisjunction
• nondisjunction = not separate
– a chromosome pair fail to separate during an anaphase.
– The result is gametes (sex cells) with an incorrect number of chromosomes (too much or too few).
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(MITO
SIS)
METAPH
ASE
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AN
AP
HA
SE
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TE
LO
PH
ASE
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CY
TO
KIN
ESIS
THE END RESULT ARE 2 CELLS THAT SUCK AND ARE ULTIMATELY DESTROYED
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Figure 8.20
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Figure 8.21
The result of nondisjunction in (meiosis)
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Down Syndrome: An Extra Chromosome 21
• Down Syndrome
– a condition where an individual has an extra chromosome 21.
– also called trisomy 21.
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Figure 8.22
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• The incidence of Down Syndrome increases with the age of the mother.
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Figure 8.23
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Abnormal Numbers of Sex Chromosomes
• Nondisjunction
– Also affects the sex chromosomes.
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Karyotype = A picture of your
condensed chromosomes
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A karyotype
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A human male karyotype
MALES ARE “XY”
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FEMALES ARE “XX”
A human female karyotype
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Remember: this picture is of condensed chromosomes
also
we know, from mitosis, that chromosomes don’t condense unless they were first doubled
(during S of interphase)
So
Look close. . .
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Each chromosome is really made up of it’s “identical twin” from when
it doubled in S of interphase
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=
CLOSER INSPECTION
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But some times accidents can happen during
cellular reproduction
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Figure 8.22
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Table 8.1
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Mind Blow
n
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Cancer
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What Is Cancer?
• Cancer = a disease of the cell cycle.
• Cancer cells do not respond normally to the cell cycle control system.
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THE CELL CYCLE
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• Cancer cells can form tumors,
TUMORS = Abnormally growing masses of body cells.
–can spread to other parts of the body.
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Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings Figure 8.10
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Cancer Treatment
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• Cancer cells are often grown in culture for study.
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BRAIN GAME
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Imagine a cell with 2 information pieces called chromosomes