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Chapter 6Learning
© 2014 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
Sarah Grison • Todd Heatherton • Michael Gazzaniga
Psychology in Your Life
Psychology in Your Life
FIRST EDITION
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Section 6.1
How Do the Parts of Our Brains Function?
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6.1 What Are the Three Ways We Learn?
• Learning: A change in behavior, resulting from experience– Central to almost all areas of human
existence
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We Learn From Experience
• Behaviorism: a formal learning theory from the early twentieth century– John Watson: focused on environment and
associated effects as key determinants of learning
– B. F. Skinner: designed animal experiments to discover basic rules of learning
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We Learn From Experience
• Critical for survival
• Adapt behaviors for a particular environment– Which sounds indicate potential danger?– What foods are dangerous?– When is it safe to sleep?
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We Learn in Three Ways
1. Non-associative learning
2. Associative learning
3. By watching others
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We Learn in Three Ways
• Non-associative learning– Information about one external stimulus (e.g.,
a sight, smell, sound)– Habituation: A decrease in behavioral
response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus
– Especially if the stimulus is neither harmful nor rewarding
• See Figure 6.2a next slide
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We Learn in Three Ways
• Non-associative learning: information about one external stimulus (e.g., a sight, smell, sound)
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We Learn in Three Ways
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We Learn in Three Ways
• Non-associative learning– Sensitization: An increase in behavioral
response after lengthy or repeated exposure to a stimulus
– Heightened preparation in a situation with potential harm or reward
• See Figure 6.2b next slide
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We Learn in Three Ways
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We Learn in Three Ways
• Associative learning– Understanding how two or more pieces of
information are related
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We Learn in Three Ways
• Associative learning
• Classical conditioning: learn that two stimuli go together– Example: music from scary movies elicits
anxiousness when heard
• Operant conditioning: learn that a behavior leads to a particular outcome– Example: studying leads to better grades
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We Learn in Three Ways
• Learning by watching others– Observational learning – Modeling– Vicarious conditioning
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The Brain Changes During Learning
• Long-term potentiation (LTP)– The strengthening of synaptic connections
between neurons– Recall that “cells that fire together, wire
together”– Exposure to environmental events causes
changes in the brain to allow learning
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Section 6.2
How Do We Learn by Classical Conditioning?
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6.2 How Do We Learn by Classical Conditioning?
• Familiar example: association between scary music in movies and bad things happening to characters
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Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Pavlov: Nobel Prize in 1904 for research
on the digestive system
• Observed dogs began to salivate as soon as they saw bowls of food– Salivating at the sight of a bowl is not
automatic– Behavior acquired through learning by
association
• See Figure 6.3b next slide
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Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn Stimuli Are Related
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Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related
• Classical conditioning– A type of learned response in which a neutral
object comes to elicit a response when it is associated with a stimulus that already produces a response
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Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the
Four Steps in Classical Conditioning :1. Present unconditioned stimulus: evokes
unlearned response
2. Present neutral stimulus: no response
3. Pair stimuli from Steps 1 and 2: learned response (conditioning trials)
4. Neutral stimulus alone will trigger learned response (critical trials)
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Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the
Four Steps in Classical Conditioning– Step 1: presenting food causes salivary reflex– Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus
that elicits a response that is innate and does not require any prior learning (Food)
– Unconditioned response (UR): A response that does not have to be learned, such as a reflex (Salivation)
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Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Step 2: clicking metronome is neutral
stimulus– Neutral stimulus: anything seen or heard;
must not associate with the unconditioned response
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Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Step 3 (conditioning trials): start of
learning– Dog begins to associate US (food) and
neutral stimulus (metronome)
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Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Step 4 (critical trials): Association learned
– Metronome alone, without food, makes dog salivate
• See Figure 6.3 next slide
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Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal the Four Steps in Classical Conditioning
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Through Classical Conditioning, We Learn That Stimuli Are Related• Conditioned stimulus (CS): A stimulus
that elicits a response only after learning has taken place
• Conditioned response (CR): A response to a conditioned stimulus; a response that has been learned
• See Scientific Thinking: Pavlov’s Experiments Reveal Learning by Classical Conditioning next slide
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Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Animals adapt via conditioning– Learning to predict outcomes leads to new
adaptive behaviors
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Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Acquisition– Acquisition: The gradual formation of an
association between conditioned and unconditioned stimuli.
– Strongest conditioning occurs when CS is presented slightly before US
• See Figure 6.5a next slide
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Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
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Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Extinction – Extinction: A process in which the
conditioned response is weakened when the conditioned stimulus is repeated without the unconditioned stimulus
• See Figure 6.5b next slide
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Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
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Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Spontaneous recovery– Spontaneous recovery: A process in which a
previously extinguished response reemerges after the conditioned stimulus is presented again
– Can occur after only one pairing following extinction
– Response will weaken if CS-US pairings do not continue
• See Figures 6.5c, 6.5d next slide
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Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
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Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Generalization, discrimination, and second-order conditioning– Stimulus generalization: Learning that
occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response
– Animals respond to variations in CS
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Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Generalization, discrimination, and second-order conditioning– Stimulus discrimination: A differentiation
between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus
• See Figure 6.6 next slide
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Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning
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Learning Varies in Classical Conditioning
• Generalization, Discrimination, and Second-Order Conditioning– Second-order conditioning: second CS
becomes associated with first CS; elicits CR when presented alone
– Neither US nor original CS present– Example: pairing black square (second CS)
with metronome (first CS) so black square produces salivation (CR) on its own
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We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning
• Phobia– Acquired fear that is very strong in
comparison to threat
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We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning
• The Case of Little Albert
• Classical conditioning demonstrated in phobias:– Watson showed “Little Albert” various neutral
objects (e.g., white rat, rabbit, dog, monkey, white wool)
– Paired rat (CS) and loud clanging (US) until rat alone produced fear (CR)
– Fear generalized to all similar stimuli
• See Figure 6.7 next slide
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The Case of Little Albert
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We Learn Fear Responses Through Classical Conditioning
• Counterconditioning– Counterconditioning: exposing subject to
phobia during an enjoyable task– Systematic desensitization: exposure to
feared stimulus while relaxing
– CS -> CR1 (fear) connection replaced with CS -> CR2 (relaxation) connection
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Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov’s belief: Any two events presented together would produce learned association
• By 1960s, data suggested that some conditioned stimuli more likely to produce learning
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Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning
• Evolutionary Influences– Certain pairings more likely to be associated– Conditioned taste aversions: easy to produce
with smell or taste cues– Auditory and visual stimuli: value for signaling
danger
• See figure 6.8 next slide
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Adaptation and Cognition InfluenceClassical Conditioning
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Adaptation and Cognition Influence Classical Conditioning
• Cognitive Influences– Through classical conditioning, animals
predict events– Easier when CS before US rather than after
US– Easier when CS is more unexpected or
surprising
• See figure 6.9 next slide
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Section 6.3
How Do We Learn by Operant Conditioning?
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6.3 How Do We Learn by Operant Conditioning?
• Operant conditioning– A learning process in which the
consequences of an action determine the likelihood that the action will be performed in the future
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Animals Learn through the Outcomes
of Their Actions• Thorndike’s Experiments Reveal the
Effects of Action– Thorndike’s puzzle box: challenged food-
deprived animals to find escape– Trap door would open if animal performed
specific action– Animal quickly learned to repeat behavior to
free itself and reach the food
• See Figure 6.10 next slide
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Thorndike’s Experiments Reveal the Effects of Action
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Animals Learn through the Outcomes
of Their Actions• Thorndike’s general theory of learning
– Law of effect: any behavior leading to a “satisfying state of affairs” likely to be repeated
– Any behavior leading to an “annoying state of affairs” less likely to reoccur
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Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning
• B. F. Skinner’s learning theory based on the law of effect– Animals operate on environments to produce
effects– Reinforcer: stimulus occurs after response and
increases likelihood of response reoccurring– Consequences determine likelihood of
behavior in future
• See figure 6.11 next slide
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Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning
• Shaping– Shaping: operant-conditioning technique;
reinforce behaviors increasingly similar to desired behavior
• See Figure 6.12 next slide
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Shaping
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Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcers can be conditioned– Reinforcers that are necessary for survival,
such as food or water, are called primary reinforcers
– Events or objects that serve as reinforcers but do not satisfy biological needs are called secondary reinforcers
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Learning Varies in Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcer potency – Premack principle: more valued activity can
reinforce performance of less valued activity– Example: “Eat your spinach and then you’ll
get dessert”
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Reinforcement and punishment have opposite effects on behavior– Reinforcement: behavior more likely to be
repeated– Punishment: behavior less likely to occur
again
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Positive and negative reinforcement– Both positive and negative reinforcement
increase likelihood of a given behavior
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Positive and negative reinforcement– Positive reinforcement: The addition of a
stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated
– Example: feeding a rat after it has pressed a lever
– Negative reinforcement: The removal of a stimulus to increase the probability that a behavior will be repeated
– Example: taking a pill to get rid of a headache
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Positive and negative punishment– Both positive and negative punishment
reduce likelihood that behavior will be repeated
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Positive and Negative Reinforcement– Positive punishment: The addition of a
stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will recur
– Example: electrical shock, speeding ticket– Negative punishment: The removal of a
stimulus to decrease the probability that a behavior will recur
– Example: loss of food, loss of privileges
• See figure 6.14 next slide
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Continuous reinforcement: behavior
reinforced each time it occurs– Fast learning, uncommon in real world– Partial reinforcement: behavior is occasionally
reinforced – More common in real world
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– How reinforcement given by how
consistently given = four common schedules
1. Fixed schedule: predictable basis
2. Variable schedule: unpredictable basis
3. Interval schedule: based on passage of time
4. Ratio schedule: based on number of responses
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Fixed interval schedule (FI): Reinforcing the
occurrence of a particular behavior after a predetermined amount of time since the last reward
– Example: paycheck
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Variable interval schedule (VI): Reinforcing
the occurrence of a particular behavior after an unpredictable and varying amount of time since the last reward
– Example: pop quiz– More consistent response rates than fixed
interval
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Fixed ratio schedule (FR): Reinforcing a
particular behavior after that behavior has occurred a predetermined number of times
– Example: paid by the completed task– Often yields better response rates than fixed
interval
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Variable ratio schedule (VR): Reinforcing a
particular behavior after the behavior has occurred an unpredictable and varying number of times
– Example: slot machine
• See Figure 6.15 next slide
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Schedules of Partial Reinforcement
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Reinforcement and Punishment Influence Operant Conditioning
• Schedules of partial reinforcement– Partial-reinforcement extinction effect:
behavior lasts longer under partial reinforcement than under continuous reinforcement
• To condition behavior to persist:– Use continuous reinforcement initially– Slowly change to partial reinforcement
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Operant Conditioning Affects Our Lives
• Parental Punishment Is Ineffective
• To be effective, punishment must be– Reasonable– Unpleasant– Applied immediately– Clearly connected to the unwanted behavior
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Operant Conditioning Affects Our Lives
• Parental Punishment Is Ineffective
• Punishment can cause confusion– Wrongly applied after desirable behavior– Leads to negative emotions (e.g., fear, anxiety)– Fails to offset reinforcing aspects of the
undesired behavior
• Reinforcement teaches desirable behavior
• See Figure 6.16 next slide
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Parental Punishment Is Ineffective
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Operant Conditioning Affects Our Lives
• Behavior modification– Behavior modification: operant conditioning
replaces unwanted behaviors with desirable behaviors
– Token economies: opportunity to earn tokens (secondary reinforcers) for completing tasks and lose tokens for behaving badly
– Tokens later traded for objects or privileges– Gives participants sense of control
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Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Behaviorists believed conditioning principles explained all behavior. In reality, reinforcement explains only a certain amount of human behavior
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Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Dopamine activity affects reinforcement– Dopamine has a biological influence on
reinforcing value– Drugs that block dopamine’s effects disrupt
operant conditioning– Drugs that enhance dopamine activation
increase reinforcing value of stimuli
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Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Biology constrains reinforcement– Some animal behaviors hardwired– Difficult to learn behaviors counter to
evolutionary adaptation– Conditioning most effective when matched to
animal’s biological predispositions
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Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Learning without reinforcement– Tolman argued that reinforcement impacts
performance more than knowledge acquisition– Ran rats through complex mazes to obtain
food– Cognitive map: A visuospatial mental
representation of an environment
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Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Learning without reinforcement
• In Tolman’s study three groups of rats traveled maze
– Group 1: No reinforcement
– Group 2: Reinforcement every trial
– Group 3: Reinforcement only after first 10 trials
• See Figure 6.19 next slide
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Learning Without Reinforcement
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Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Learning without reinforcement– Latent learning: Learning that takes place in
the absence of reinforcement– Group 1: Slow, many wrong turns– Group 2: Faster, fewer errors each trial– Group 3: Before reinforcement, similar to
Group 1. After reinforcement, better than Group 2
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Biology and Cognition Influence Operant Conditioning
• Learning without reinforcement– Insight learning: A sudden understanding of
how to solve a problem after a period of either inaction or thinking about the problem
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Section 6.4
How Do We Learn by Watching Others?
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6.4 How Do We Learn by Watching Others?
• Behaviors we learn by watching others– Mechanical skills, social etiquette, situational
anxiety, attitudes about politics and religion
• Three ways we learn by watching1. Observational learning
2. Modeling
3. Vicarious conditioning
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Three Ways We Learn through Watching
1. Observational learning: The acquisition or modification of a behavior after exposure to at least one performance of that behavior– Examples: foods safe to eat, objects and
situations to fear– Powerful adaptive tool
• See Figure 6.20 next slide
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Three Ways We Learn through Watching
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Three Ways We Learn through Watching
• Bandura’s research reveals learning through observation– Observation of aggression: Bandura’s Bobo
doll study– Group 1: watched film of adult playing quietly
with Bobo, an inflatable doll– Group 2: watched film of adult attacking Bobo– Viewers of aggression were more than twice
as likely to play aggressively
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Three Ways We Learn through Watching
• Learning through modeling
• Modeling: The imitation of behavior through observational learning– More likely to imitate actions of attractive,
high-status models similar to ourselves
• See Figure 6.22 next slide
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Learning Through Modeling
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Three Ways We Learn through Watching
• Learning through vicarious conditioning
• 3. Vicarious conditioning: Learning the consequences of an action by watching others being rewarded or punished for performing the action– Rewarded behavior more imitated– Punished behavior less imitated
• See Figure 6.23 next slide
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Learning Through Vicarious Conditioning
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Watching Others Results in Cultural Transmission
• Meme: shared piece of cultural knowledge– Similar to genes, selectively passed across
generations, can spread much faster– Animals also show this kind of knowledge
sharing
• See Figure 6.24 next slide
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Watching Others Results in Cultural Transmission
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Biology Influences Observational Learning
• Mirror neurons– Fire in your brain and other person’s brain
every time you watch them engaging in an action
– Does not always lead to imitation– Scientists are still debating mirror neurons’
function