52
ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENT
CHAPTER 3 - ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENT
Introductory anatomy of the skeletal and
muscular systems
The skeletal system• The appendicular skeletal system (figure3.1)consistsoftheshouldergirdle,skull,hipgirdle,legandarmbones.
• The axial skeleton (figure3.1)consistsoftheskull,vertebralcolumn,ribsandsternum.
The functions of the skeletal systemaretoactasaleversystem,assurfaceareaforattachmentofmuscle,tendonsandligaments,andtogiveshapeandsupporttothebody.Also,redandwhitebloodcellsaremanufacturedwithinbonemarrow,andbonesstorefatsandminerals.
Types of bones and principal functionsSee a summary of these terms in figure 3.1.• Long bones,forexample,thefemur(whichactsasalever).
• Short bones,forexample,carpals(whichhavestrengthandlightness).
• Flat bones,forexample,thepelvis(whichhasalargesurfaceareaformuscleandtendonattachments),thecranium(whichhasthefunctionofbrainprotection).
• Irregular bones,forexample,thevertebrae(whichprotectthespinalcord),thepatella(asesamoidbonewhichincreasesthemechanicaladvantageofthequadricepstendon).
THESKELETON
longbones
shortbones
axial
flat bones
appendicular
irregularbones
skull skull
mandiblemandible
clavicle
sternum
scapula
ribsribs
humerus
ulna
radius
pelvis vertebralcolumn
vertebralcolumn
sacrumsacrum
carpals metacarpals
phalanges
femur
patella
tibia
fibula
tarsals
metatarsalsphalanges
ulna
carpals
figure 3.2 – the human skeleton
Youneedtofamiliariseyourselfwiththenamesofbonesinfigure3.2thatarticulateattheankle,knee,hip,shoulderandelbow,whenyouanswermovementanalysisquestions.
STUDENT NOTE
Ageneraloverviewoftheskeletalsystemismeanttobeusedasanintroduction,butwillnotbedirectlyexamined.Yourmainfocusforrevisionisonmovementanalysisinrelationtosportingoractivity-basedperformances.
STUDENT NOTE
SECTION A – CHAPTER 3
figure 3.1 – the skeleton
53
APPLIED EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
Bony featuresProtrusionsanddepressionsactastheplacesonbonesatwhichligamentsandmuscletendonsattach(theirshapeincreasesthesurfaceareaontheboneavailableforattachment).
Cartilage• Hyaline (articular) cartilagehasasmooth,solidmatrixwhichsitsontheendsofbones,andformstheexactsurfaceswhichareincontactandmoveacrossoneanotherwhenajointisused.
• White fibro-cartilageistoughandslightlyflexibleandexistsbetweenvertebrae.• Yellow elastic cartilageissoftandelasticandexistsintheearlobes.
The structure and function of bone tissue• Theperiosteumisanouterprotectivecoveringofbonewhichprovidesattachmentformuscletendonsandligaments.Thedeeperlayersoftheperiosteumareresponsibleforgrowthinbonewidth.
• Theepiphyseal discorgrowthplateisthesegmentofaboneinwhichanincreaseinbonelengthtakesplace.• Compact bone consistsofsolidbonetissue,locateddowntheshaftofalongboneandtheouterlayersofshort,flatandirregularbones.Itsdensestructuregivesstrengthandsupport.
• Cancellous bonehasalattice-likeorspongyappearance.Itislight-weightandislocatedattheendsofalongbone,inadditiontoprovidingtheinternalbonetissueinshort,flatandirregularbones.
Types of joints and articulating bones
Articulationisdefinedas‘a place where two or more bones meet to form a joint’.
Joint typesJointtypes(figure3.3)are:• Fibrous or immovable–forexample,betweenbonesofthecranium.
• Cartilaginous or slightly moveable–forexample,vertebraldiscs.
• Synovial or freely moveable(classifiedintable3.1onpage55).
Synovial jointSeefigure3.4forthelocationsoftheelementsofasynovialjoint.• Synovial fluidreducesjointfrictionbylubrication,andmaintainsjointstability.
• Synovial membraneenclosesfluidandsecretesfluid.• Joint capsuleisasleeveoftough,fibroustissuesurroundingthejoint.
• Aligamentisanextensionofthejointcapsuleconsistingofstrong,fibrousconnectivetissuethatprovidesstabilitybyjoiningbonetobone.
• Articular cartilagepreventsfrictionbetweenbones,andcushionstheendsofbones.
• Bursaepreventfrictionandwear.• Pads of fatcushionthejoint.• Menisci helpbonesfittogetherandimprovestabilisationofthejoint.
JOINT TYPES
fibrous orimmovable
cartilaginousor slightlymoveable
synovial orfreely
moveable
compact bone
synovial cavityfilled with
synovial fluidsynovialmembrane
cancellousbone
ligament
joint capsule
articular (hyaline)cartilage
medullary cavity
figure 3.3 – joint types
figure 3.4 – a synovial joint
Types of joints and articulating bones
54
ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENT
Terms used in movement analysisTermsofmovementconsistofthreemainsections:• Planesofthebody.• Axesofthebody.• Movementpatterns.
Tohelpanalysemovement,itispossibletoimagineaseriesoflinesandsurfacesthatdividethebodyintosections–thelinesarecalledaxes andthesurfacescalled planes.
Planes of the bodyThetermbody planeisdefinedas‘an imaginary flat surface running through the centre of gravity of the body’, andisusedtoassistintheunderstandingofmovementofbodysegmentswithrespecttooneanother.Withineachplaneanaxiscanbeidentifiedinassociationwithaparticularjointaboutwhichthemovementtakesplace.
Three imaginary planesRefertofigure3.5.• Frontal (coronal) plane
• Averticalplanethatdividesthebodyintofront and backsections.• Movementsinthisplaneareabductionandadduction,asforexampleinacartwheel.
• Andspinallateralflexion,asforexampleinsideflexiontrunkbends.
• Sagittal (median) plane • Averticalplanethatdividesthebodyintoleft and rightsides.• Movementsinthisplaneincludeflexionandextension,asforexampleinsomersaults,bicepscurl,polevaulttake-off,sprinting,dorsiflexion,andplantarflexion.
• Transverse (horizontal) plane• Ahorizontalplanethatdividesthebodyintoupperandlowersections.• Movementsarerotationalmovementpatternssuchassupination,pronation,andspinalrotation.
• Examplemovementswouldbetwistingorturning,thespinningskater,discus,hammerorskiturns.
Axes of rotation Anaxisofrotationisdefinedas‘an imaginary line about which the body rotates or spins, at right angles to the plane’–lookatfigure3.5axeslabelledA,BandC.
Three imaginary axes • Longitudinal axis
• AxisAonfigure3.5.• Thisaxisrunsverticallyfromthetopoftheheadtoapointbetweenthefeet.•Movementsinthetransverseplaneaboutthelongitudinalaxisarerotationalmovements.• Examplesofsportingmovementswouldbethespinningskaterandthehammerthrow.
• Transverse axis • AxisBonfigure3.5.Thisaxisrunshorizontallyfromsidetosideacrossthebody betweenoppositehipsatrightanglestothesagittalplane.
•Movementswithinthesagittalplaneaboutthetransverseaxisareflexion,extension,hyperextension,dorsiflexionandplantarflexion.
• Sportsmovementsaboutthisaxisincludesitups,andthehighjumpFosburyFlopflightphase.
Sagittal Frontal
Transverse
Axis A
Axis B
Axis C
figure 3.5 – planes and axes
SECTION A – CHAPTER 3
55Joint actions
APPLIED EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
• Frontal axis (sometimescalledthe front axis)• AxisConfigure3.5.• Thisaxisrunshorizontallyfromfronttobackbetweenbellybuttonandlumbarspine.•Movementsinthefrontalplaneaboutthefrontalaxisincludeabduction,adductionandspinallateralflexion.• Examplesofsportsmovementsaboutthisaxisareacartwheel,andthebowlingactionincricket.
Joint actions
Intable3.1themovementrangesofsynovialjointsareclassifiedaccordingtotheiraxesofmovement.Thismeansthatjointsthatallowonlyoneplaneofmovementareidentifiedasaone-axisjoint,atwo-axesjointhasmovementwithinanytwoplanes,whereasathree-axesjointhasmovementinallthreeplanes.
Table3.1– summary of synovial joint types and movement ranges
synovial joint types movement range example body place: articulating bones
ball and socket 3axes,flexion/extension,abduction/adduction,rotation,circumduction
hip:femur,acetabulumofpelvis.shoulder:scapula,humerus.
hinge 1axis,flexion/extension knee:femur,tibia.elbow:humerus,radius,ulna.
pivot 1axis,rotation spine:atlas:odontoidprocessofaxis(turnsheadsidetoside).elbow:proximalendsofradiusandulna.
condyloid (modified ball and socket)
2axes,flexion/extension,abduction/adduction
=circumduction
knuckles:jointoffingers:metacarpals,phalanges.wrist:radius,carpals.
saddle 2axes,flexion/extension,abduction/adduction
=circumduction
joint at base of thumb:carpal,metacarpal.
gliding alittlemovementinalldirections
centre of chest:clavicle,sternum.spine:articulatingsurfaces.wrist:carpals.ankle:tarsals.
Movement patterns at joints, the terminologyThepossiblerangesofmovementswithinasynovialjoint(figure3.6)varyaccordingtotheshapeofthearticularsurfacesandthereforeaccordingtothejointtype.Thesemovementpatternshavebeencategorisedaccordingtotherelevantbodyplanes.
Movement patterns in the sagittal (median) plane:Flexionmeanstobend,resultinginadecreasedanglearoundthejoint–forexample,bendingoftheknee.
Extensionmeanstostraighten,resultinginanincreasedanglearoundthejoint–forexample,straighteningofthekneefromabent-leggedtostraight-leggedposition.
Hyperextensionistheforcedextensionofajointbeyonditsnormalrangeofmotion–forexample,thearchedspinethatiscreatedintheflightphaseoftheFosburyFlophighjumptechnique.
Plantarflexioninvolvesextendingthetoestherebyincreasingtheangleattheankle–forexample,standingontip-toes.
Dorsiflexiondescribesmovementofthefoottowardstheshin–forexample,walkingonone’sheels.
56
ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENT
Movement patterns in the frontal (coronal) plane:Abductionmeanstotakeawayandsoischaracterisedbymovementawayfromthemidline–forexample,acartwheelingymnastics.
Adductionmeanstobringtogetherandsoischaracterisedbymovementtowardsthemidline–forexample,bringingthelowerlegsbacktogetherfromtheinvertedcartwheel.
Lateral flexionissidewaysbending.
Eversionisthejointactionattheanklecharacterisedbytheturningofthesoleofthefootlaterallyoutwards–forexample,thekickactioninbreaststroke. Inversionisthejointactionattheanklecharacterisedbytheturningofthesoleofthefootmediallyinwards–forexample,afootballplayerinvertsthefoottopasstheballwiththeoutsideofhisorherboot.
Depressiondescribesmovementoftheshouldersdownwards–forexample,thepreparationforadeadlift,grippingthebar.
Elevationdescribesmovementoftheshouldersupwards–forexample,ashouldershrug.
Movement patterns in the transverse (horizontal) plane:Horizontal abduction and adductionStartoffwithyourarmstretchedoutinfrontofyouparalleltotheground,whilstyourshoulderisflexed.Nowmoveyourarmawayandtothesideofthebody.Thisiscalledhorizontalabduction(alsoknownashorizontalextension).Ifyoureturnbacktoyourstartingpositionyouwillhaveperformedhorizontaladduction(alsoknownashorizontalflexion).Adiscusthrowerduringthepreparatoryswing(horizontalabduction)andreleaseofadiscus(horizontaladduction)performsthesemovementpatterns.
Pronationischaracterisedbytherotationoftheforearmmediallysothatthehandfacesdownwards–forexample,atop-spinforehandintennis.
Supinationischaracterisedbytherotationoftheforearmlaterallysothatthehandfacesupwards–forexample,therighthandactioninahockeyflick.
Rotationistheturningofastructurearounditslongaxis.Rotationcanbeinwards,hencemedial rotationofthehumeruswiththeforearmflexedbringsthehandtowardsthebody–forexample,inthebreaststrokethehumerusrotatesmediallyasthehandsenterthewater.Rotationcanbeoutwards,hencelateral rotationofthehumerusdescribesamovementwherebythehandmovesawayfromthebody–forexample,thehumerusrotateslaterallyinpreparationfortheforehandstrokeintennis.
extension
horizontalabduction
circumduction
horizontaladduction
flexion
adduction
abduction
depression
elevation
plantarflexion
dorsiflexion
eversion
inversion
pronation
supination
lateralflexion
hyperextension
rotation
MOVEMENTPATTERNS
wrist joint(flexion / extension,
abduction / adduction)
elbow joint(flexion / extension)
hip joint(flexion / extension
abduction / adduction= circumduction +
medial / lateralrotation)
radio-ulnar joint(pronation / supination)
vertebral column(flexion / extension
lateral flexion,rotation)
knee joint(flexion / extension)
ankle joint(dorsiflexion /plantarflexion,
inversion /eversion)
shoulder joint(flexion, extension abduction /adduction = circumduction +horizontal flexion / extension
medial / lateral rotation)
figure 3.6 – movement patterns
figure 3.7 – major joints – movement patterns
SECTION A – CHAPTER 3
57Introductory anatomy of the muscular system
APPLIED EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
Circumductionisacombinationofflexion,extension,abductionandadduction–forexample,whentheupperarmmoves(armcircling)sothatitdescribesaconewiththeshoulderjointattheapex.Circumductionisacombinationoftwoplanes–sagittalandfrontal planes. Mostmovementsthatoccurinphysicalactivitiesarecombinationsofthemovementsexplainedinfigure3.7.
Introductory anatomy of the muscular system
Body muscles
sternocleidomastoid
posterior deltoid
teres minorteres major
triceps brachii
latissimus dorsi
extensorsof wristand fingers
trapezius
infraspinatus
external abdominaloblique
gluteus maximus
gracilissemitendinosus
biceps femoris
semimembranosus
gastrocnemius
soleus
calcaneal tendon(achilles tendon)
ham
stri
ng
gro
up
facial muscles
anterior deltoid
biceps brachii
brachoradialis
adductors of thighpectineusadductor longusgracilis
sartorius
patella ligament
gastrocnemius
soleus lateral leg muscles
extensor digitorum longus
tibialis anterior
patella
vastus lateralisrectus femorisvastus medialis
quadricepsgroup
tensor fascia latae
external abdominaloblique
flexors of wristand fingers
rectus abdominus
serratus anterior
pectoralis major
trapezius
sternocleidomastoid
figure 3.8 – superficial anterior muscles figure 3.9 – superficial posterior muscles
Inyourmovementanalysisyouwillneedtoidentifymajorskeletalmusclesofthehumanbody(figures3.8and3.9above)inrelationtojointactivityandmuscleanalysisintables3.2,3.3and3.4below.Themusclesidentifiedinthesetablesgiveyouplentyofchoicetoselectfrom.Howeverifyourefertoyourexamsyllabusyoumaywishtofocusonthemusclesthatyourexamboardhasspecified.
STUDENT NOTE
58
ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENT
Table3.2– wrist, elbow and shoulder movements and muscles
body part / joint movement pattern active (agonist) muscles movement examples
wrist extension extensor carpi ulnaris,extensordigitorum
followthroughinanover-armthrow
flexion flexor carpi radialis,flexicarpiulnaris dumbbellwristcurls
arm / elbow
forearm / radio-ulnar (pivot)
flexion biceps brachii,brachialis bicepcurls
extension triceps brachii,anconeus(forearm) followthroughover-armthrow,benchpress,tricepsdips
supination supinator,bicepsbrachii catchingthebarduringaclean
pronation pronator teres,pronatorquadratus puttingtopspinonatennisball
shoulder joint adduction latissimus dorsi,anteriordeltoid,teresmajor/minor
recoveryphaseinoverarmthrow,tricepsdips
abduction medial deltoid,supraspinatus preparationphaseshoulderpass
flexion pectoralis major,anteriordeltoid,coracobrachialis
releasephaseinoverarmthrow,tricepsdips
extension posterior deltoid,latissimusdorsi,teresmajor
shoulderpositionduringjavelinapproachrun
medialrotation latissimus dorsi,posteriordeltoid,pectoralismajor,teresmajor,subscapularis
forehandstroke/followthroughattabletennis
horizontaladduction pectoralis major,anteriordeltoid armswingintothereleasephaseofadiscusthrow
horizontalabduction posterior deltoid,trapezius,latissimusdorsi
preparatoryswing(backward)ofthearminthediscus
lateralrotators teres minor, infraspinatus backhandstroke/followthroughattabletennis
shoulder or pectoral girdle (scapula + clavicle)
elevation upper fibres of trapezius,levatorscapulae,rhomboids
adumbbellshouldershrug
depression latissimus dorsi, lowerfibresoftrapezius,pectoralisminor,
serratusanterior(lowerfibres)
preparationfordeadliftwhengrippingthebar
protraction serratusanterior recoveryphaseduringbreaststroke
retraction rhomboids,trapezuis pullphaseduringbreaststroke
upwardrotation upper fibres of trapezius,serratusanterior
armrecoveryphaseduringbutterflystroke
downwardrotation lower fibres of trapezius,rhomboids armpullphaseduringbutterflystroke
4 rotator cuff muscles stabilise shoulder joint
supraspinatus
subscapularis
Themainagonistmuscleforeachmovementisinred boldfonttypeintables3.2,3.3and3.4.
STUDENT NOTE
SECTION A – CHAPTER 3
teres minor,infraspinatus
59Introductory anatomy of the muscular system
APPLIED EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
Table3.3– trunk and spine movements and muscles
body part / joint movement pattern active (agonist) muscles movement examples
trunk / spine flexion rectus abdominus,internal/externalobliques,transversusabdominus
situps
core stability muscles
extension/hyperextensionsupportslowerback
erector spinae group-sacrospinalis/ extension-trunkpositionduringnetballshotatgoal,hyperextension-flightphaseofFosburyFlop
rotation external obliques,rectusabdominus,erectorspinae
hammerthrowswings,baraniintrampolining/gymnastics
lateralflexion internal obliques,rectusabdominus,erectorspinae,quadratuslumborum,sacrospinalis
sidebends,twistingtrunk/abdominalcurls
Table3.4– hip, knee and ankle movements and muscles
body part / joint movement pattern
active muscles (main agonist) movement examples
hip flexion iliopsoas,rectusfemoris,pectineus,sartorius,tensorfascialatae,adductorlongusandbrevis
squatstart(low)position,highkneeliftduringsprinting,movingthekneesupintoatuckposition
extension gluteus maximus,hamstringgroup,adductormagnus
highjumptake-off,rearlegdriveduringsprinting
adduction adductor longus / magnus / brevis,pectineus,gracilis
crossoverphaseduringjavelinrun-up,sidefootingafootball
abduction gluteus medius/minimus,sartorius,tensorfascialatae,piriformis
movementintotheinvertedphaseofacartwheel
medialrotation gluteus medius/minimus,tensorfascialatae,iliopsoas,gracilis
hipmovementacrosscircleduringtravelphaseofadiscusturn
lateralrotation gluteus maximus,psoasmajor,adductors,piriformis,sartorious
movementintoayogastorkposition
knee extension quadriceps group-rectusfemoris/vastusmedialis/vastusintermedius/vastuslateralis
highjumptake-off,rearlegdriveduringsprinting
flexion hamstring group-bicepsfemoris/semimembranosus/semitendinosus,sartorius,gracilis,gastrocnemius
squatstart(low)position,highkneeliftduringsprinting,movingthekneesupintoatuckposition
ankle plantarflexion gastrocnemius,soleus,tibialisposterior,peroneus,flexordigitorumlongus
take-offphaseduringjumping
dorsiflexion tibialis anterior,extensordigitorumlongus
landingphasefromjump
internal/external
multifidus(deeplumbarportion)
obliques,transversusabdominus
core stability muscles
60
ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENT
Agonists and antagonists
Musculo-skeletal attachmentsLigaments attachbonetobonetolimittherangeofmovementofjoints.Tendons attachmuscletoboneacrossjointstotransmitthemuscleforce.Theyarestrongandmainlyinelastic–forexample,theAchillestendonattachesthegastrocnemiusmuscletotheperiostealbonetissueofcalcaneusortheheelbone.
Origins and insertion of musclesThetendonatthestaticendofthemuscleiscalledtheoriginandthetendonattheendofthemuscleclosesttothejointthatmovesiscalledtheinsertionofthatmuscle.
Antagonistic muscle actionThistermdescribesthefactthatmusclesworkinpairs(seethesummaryinfigure3.10,andthedetailsinfigure3.11).• Theagonististheactivemuscle,themuscleundertensionordoingworkandfunctioningastheprime moverofajointduringthedesiredmovement.
• Theantagonistrelaxestoallowtheagonisttoworkasmovementoccurs.• Forexample,curlingabar,theagonist=biceps brachii muscle,andtheantagonist= triceps brachii muscle.
Asynergist muscleholdsthebodyinpositionsothatanagonistmusclecanoperate,thuspreventinganyunwantedmovementsthatmightoccurastheprimemovercontracts.Forexample,thetrapeziusmuscleholdstheshoulderinplaceduringthebarcurlingexercise.
Afixatormusclebydefinitionisasynergistmuscle,butismorespecificallyreferredtoasafixatororstabiliser whenitimmobilisestheboneoftheprimemover’sorigin,thusprovidingastablebasefortheactionoftheprimemover.Forexample,thedeltoidmusclestabilisesthescapuladuringabarcurl.
MUSCLEFUNCTION
agonist
fixator
antagonist
synergist
agonist(biceps)
antagonist(triceps)
fixator(deltoid)
synergist(trapezius)
figure 3.10 – muscle function
figure 3.11 – muscle function – curling a bar
SECTION A – CHAPTER 3
61Types of muscular contraction
APPLIED EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
Types of muscular contraction
Duringmuscularcontraction,amusclemayshorten,lengthenorstaythesame.Whenamusclechangesitslength,thecontractionisclassifiedasdynamic.Whenthemuscleremainsthesamelength,astaticcontractionoccurs.
Static contractions – isometric muscle contractionIn isometric contractions (figure3.12)thelengthofthemuscledoesnotchange,buttheamountoftensiondoesincreaseduringthecontractionprocess.
Inatrainingsituationisometricworkisdonebyexertingthemaximumpossibleforceinafixedpositionforsetsof10seconds,with60secondsrecovery.Isometriccontractionsareresponsiblefortheconstantlengthofposturalmusclesinthebodyandhencestabilisethetrunkinmanydynamicactivitiessuchasinsprinting.
Dynamic muscle contraction – concentric and eccentric contraction
Concentric muscle contraction Thistypeofcontractioninvolvesamuscleshorteningundertension(figure3.13)andisaformofisotonicmuscle contraction.Forexample,inthedrivingupwardsphaseinajumporsquat,thequadricepsmusclegroupperformsaconcentriccontractionasitshortenstoproduceextensionofthekneejoint.
Eccentric muscle contraction Thistypeofcontractioninvolvesamusclelengtheningundertensionandisaformofisotonicmusclecontraction.Whenamusclecontractseccentricallyitisactingasabrake,thuscontrollingthemovement.Forexample,duringthedownwardmovingpartofajumporsquat,thequadricepsmusclegroupislengtheningundertensionandsotheworkislabelledeccentricornegative.Eccentricmusclecontractionproducesthebiggestoverloadinamuscle,therebyenhancingitsdevelopmentasfarasstrengthisconcerned.Thechiefpracticaluseofeccentricmusclecontractionisinplyometric,elastic or explosivestrengthwork(figure3.14).
Foreccentriccontractions,theagonist muscleistheactivemuscle,whichinthiscaseislengthening.Inthecaseofthelandingfromajumporcontrolleddownwardmovementinasquat,thequadricepsmusclegrouplengthensundertension,andisthereforetheagonist.Tobetheagonistinthissituation,themusclemustbeundertension.Theantagonist muscle duringtheexampleofadownwardsquattingmovementwouldbethehamstringmusclegroup,whichgetsshorterandwhichrelaxesoractsasafixatorforthehipjoints.
Manymusclecontractionsinvolveacombinationofdynamicandstaticworkinwhichthemusclesshortenbysomeamount,andthedegreeoftensionincreases.
figure 3.12 – isometric holds
concentric muscle contraction(quadriceps)
eccentric muscle contraction(quadriceps)
figure 3.14 – eccentric contraction
figure 3.13 – concentric contraction
62
ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENT
Analysis of movement
Table3.5–the high jump
Afteracontinuallyacceleratedrun-upwithalongpenultimatestride,thejumper(figure3.15)hasaveryfastlasttake-offstride.
physical activity joint used articulating bones
movement produced
agonist muscles type of muscular contraction (isotonic)
high jump at take-off
figure 3.15a
ankle-take-offleg
talus,tibia,fibula plantarflexion gastrocnemius,soleus,tibialisposterior,peroneus,flexordigitorumlongus
concentric
knee-take-offleg
tibia,femur extension quadriceps group: rectusfemoris,vastusmedialis,vastusintermedius,vastuslateralis
concentric
shouldergirdle
clavicle,scapula elevation upper fibres of trapezius,rhomboids,levatorscapulae
concentric
high jump in flight
figure 3.15b
hips femur,acetabulumofpelvis
extension gluteus maximus,assistedby:
hamstring group:bicepsfemoris,semimembranosus,semitendinosus
concentric
spine vertebrae extension/hyperextension
erector spinae group concentric
figure a
figure b
figure 3.15 – high jump take-off and flight
Inthefollowingmovementanalysisexamples,notallagonistmuscleshavebeenlisted.Themainagonistmusclesareoutlinedinred.
Notethatintheflightphaseofthehighjump(figure3.15,figureb)themovementtakesplaceinthesagittalplaneaboutthetransverseaxis.
STUDENT NOTE
SECTION A – CHAPTER 3
63Analysis of movement
APPLIED EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
physical activity joint type movement produced
agonist muscles antagonist muscles type of muscular contraction
leg action in sprinting
figure 3.16a left leg
ankle/hinge plantarflexion gastrocnemius,flexordigitorumlongus
tibialis anterior,extensordigitorumlongus
concentric/isotonic
knee/hinge extension quadriceps group hamstring group concentric/isotonic
action of hip joint
figure 3.16b left leg
hip/ballandsocket
flexion iliopsoas,rectusfemoris,adductorlongus/brevis
gluteus maximus,bicepsfemoris,adductormagnus
concentric/isotonic
action of the trunk
figure 3.16c
spine/cartilaginous
extension erector spinae group rectus abdominus isometric
Table3.6–sprinting leg action
Notethattheleversystemattheanklejoint(seefigure3.16)isasecondclassleverwiththefulcrum(pivot)undertheballofherfoot.Seethesectiononpage68laterfordetailsofleveractionatjoints.
figure a figure b figure c
Themainagonistmuscleforeachmovementisinred boldfonttype.Themainantagonistmuscleforeachmovementisinblue boldfonttypeintable3.6above.
Youmustlistall musclesinthequadricepsandhamstringgroupswhenyouanalysetheactionsofthekneeandhipsduringphysicalactivityintable3.6above.
STUDENT NOTE
figure 3.16 – sprint – a full stride
64
ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENT
physical activity joint used articulating bones
movement produced agonist muscles type of muscular contraction (isotonic)
arm action in over arm throw
figure 3.17 a-c
elbow humerus,radius,ulna
elbowjointextendsasmovementprogresses
triceps brachii,anconeus
concentric
shouldergirdle
scapula,clavicle
elevation,upwardrotation
elevation: trapeziusupperfibres,levatorscapulae.
upward rotation: trapeziusupperfibres,serratusanterior
concentric
handjoints carpals,radius,ulna
supinationtopronation pronator teres,pronatorquadratus
concentric
figure a figure b figure c
Table3.7–the arm action in an over arm throw – sequence analysis
Notethattheleversystemoperatingattheelbowduringthismovementisafirstclasslever,withfulcrum(pivot)withintheelbowjoint,theeffortthroughthetricepsmuscle,andtheloadatthehandasforceisappliedtotheball.
physical activity
joint used articulating bones
movement produced
agonist muscles plane of movement
movement axis
type of muscular contraction (isotonic)
leg action in squat
figure 3.18
knee–figuresatoc
tibia,femur extensiontoflexion
quadriceps group sagittal transverse eccentric
hip–figuresctoe
femur,acetabulumofpelvis
flexiontoextension
gluteus maximus,hamstringgroup
sagittal transverse concentric
ankle–figurec
tibia,fibula,talus
dorsiflexion tibialis anterior sagittal transverse concentric
Table3.8–the full action of the squat, down then up
figure a b c d e
Themainagonistmuscleforeachmovementisinred boldfonttypeintables3.7and3.8below.
STUDENT NOTE
figure 3.17 – over arm throw
figure 3.18 – squat – down then up
SECTION A – CHAPTER 3
65Analysis of movement
APPLIED EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
physical activity joint type movement produced
agonist muscles antagonist muscles type of muscular contraction (isotonic)
arm action in push-up – down movement
figure 3.19 a to c
elbow/hinge flexion triceps brachii,anconeus
biceps brachii,brachialis
eccentric
up movement
figure 3.19 c to e
shoulder/ballandsocket
horizontaladduction
pectoralis major,anteriordeltoid
trapezius, posteriordeltoid
concentric
Table3.9– the full action of the push-up, down then up
figure a
b
c
d
e
Notethatduringaverycontrolleddownwardeccentricphaseinfigures3.19a-ctheagonistmuscleisthetriceps brachiimuscle.Thisisbecausethetricepsbrachiimuscleisunderextremetensionbydefyinggravity,andsoactsasabraketocontrolthedownwardphaseofthepush-up.Thesamereasoningappliestotheanconeusmuscle.
Thepush-up(d-e),attheelbowjoint,takesplacewithinthesagittalplaneandaroundthetransverseaxis.
Duringthepush-up(d-e),attheshoulderjoint(horizontaladduction),takesplacewithinthetransverseplaneandaroundthelongitudinalaxis.
STUDENT NOTE
figure 3.19 – push-up – down then up
Themainagonistmuscleforeachmovementisinred boldfonttype.Themainantagonistmuscleforeachmovementisinblue boldfonttypeintable3.9above.
STUDENT NOTE
66
ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENT
physical activity
joint type movement produced
agonist muscles body plane body axis type of muscular contraction (isotonic)
leg action in kicking (right leg)
figure 3.20
ankle/hinge plantarflexion tibialis anterior sagittal transverse eccentric
knee/hinge extension quadriceps group sagittal transverse concentric
hip/ballandsocket
flexion iliopsoas,rectusfemoris,adductorlongus/brevis
sagittal transverse concentric
Table3.10–this sequence covers the strike phase only for the kick
Themainagonistmuscleforeachmovementisinred boldfonttypeintable3.10below.
Astheankleplantarflexes,duringthefootstrikeoftheball,thetibialisanteriorlengthensandisunderextremetension.Thenastheballleavesthefootthismusclewillshorten(contract)andthefootwilldorsiflex.
STUDENT NOTEfigure 3.20 – a kick
Practice questions
Warm-upquestion1) Hockeyinvolvesmovementatmanyjointsinthebody.Identifywhichbonesarticulateateachofthefollowingjoints:
shoulder,elbow,radio-ulnar,hip,knee,andankle. 6marks
Warm-upquestion2) Completethemissinggapsintable3.11namingthemainagonistandantagonistmuscles,bodyplaneandbodyaxisforeach
oftheactionsidentified. 6marksTable3.11–action at joints
action main agonist main antagonist body plane body axis
elevating the shoulders
extending the elbow joint
flexing the hip joint
flexing the knee joint
dorsiflexing the ankle joint
flexing the trunk
Warmupquestion3) Describethefollowingmovementterminology,andgiveaphysicalactivityforeachmovement:abduction,circumduction,
rotationandplantarflexion.Inwhichplane(s)doeseachmovementpatternoccur? 12marks
SECTION A – CHAPTER 3
67Practice questions
APPLIED EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY
4) Figures3.21atocshowthefinalstride,take-offandflightphaseofalongjump.
Usethesethreepicturestohelpyoucompletethefollowingjointanalysis.
a) Namethetypeofmusclecontractionoccurringin thelegwhosefootisincontactwiththeground infigure3.21a,namethemainagonistmuscle responsibleforthismusclecontractionandexplain whyyouhaveselectedthismuscle. 3marks
b) Completethefollowingjointanalysisbelowintable 3.12forfigure3.21b. 9marks
Table3.12– joint table
joint joint type articulating bones main agonist muscle
left ankle
left knee
left hip
c) Describethechangesinmovementpatternsintheleftankle,knee,hipandtrunkfromfigures3.21btoc. 4marks
d)) Suggesttwofactorsthataffecttherangeofmovementatthehipjoint.2marks 5) Figure3.22showsatennisplayercompletingaforehanddrive.Usethisfiguretohelp
youcompletethefollowingjointanalysis.
a) Fortheshoulderjointduringhorizontaladduction,identifythetypeofjoint,the articulatingbones,themainagonistmuscleandthetypeofmusclecontraction. 4marks
b) Usingthemusclesthatcreateelbowflexionduringtheforehanddrive,explainwhat ismeantbyantagonisticmuscleaction. 4marks
c) Namethemovementpatternproducedontherighthandsideofthetrunkandthe mainagonistcreatingthismovement. 2marks
d) Inwhichbodyplaneandaroundwhichaxisdoesthetennisforehandoccuratthe flexedrightelbowpositionshowinfigure3.22? 2marks
6) Theathleteinfigure3.23isholdingaplankbridgeposition.Usethephotographtohelp
youcompletethefollowingjointanalysis.
a) Identifythejointtype,articulatingbones,themainagonist(primemover)andtypeofmusclecontractionatthehip joint. 4marks
b) Explainwhythemusclecontractionisofthistype. 1mark
c) Explaintheroleofthecoremusclesinrelationtotheplankbridgeposition. 2marks
d) Therearefourrotatorcuffmusclesthatareinserted aroundthecufforcapovertheproximalhumerus.Name oneofthesemusclesandexplainhowthesemuscles providerangeofmovementandyetcollectivelyprotect theshoulderjoint. 2marks
figure b a
figure c
figure 3.21 – long jump take-off and flight
figure 3.22 – tennis forehand
figure 3.23 – athlete holding a plank position
7) Figures3.24atocshowanelitesprintercompletingafullrunningstride.
a) Analysetheactionofthehipjointfromthestrikepositionoftheleftlegtothecompletionofafullrunningstride. 3marks
b) Identifythemainagonistmusclesresponsibleforthesemovementpatternsinfiguresaandbonly. 2marks
c) Atthecompletionofthefullstridefocusontheleftfootplant,identifythebonesthatformtheanklejoint,thejoint actionandthemainagonistresponsibleforthismovementpattern. 4marks
d) Figurecshowstherightkneeinarecoveryposition.Identifythejointtype,mainagonistmusclegroup,itsantagonist musclegroupandthetypeofmusclecontractionoccurringatthisjoint. 4marks
e) Explaintheterm‘bodyplane’. 2marks
f) Inwhatplaneandaround whichaxisdoesthesprint legactionoccur? 2marks
8) Differentiateandgiveexamplesofconcentric,staticandeccentricwork. 6marks
figure a figure b figure c
figure 3.24 – sprint – a full stride
68
ANALYSIS OF MOVEMENTSECTION A – CHAPTER 3