Chapter 16: Political Revolutions in Europe and the Americas Political Revolution
Political revolution changes fundamental basis of government
Apparent unity can shift rapidly
Revolutions often based on a coalition
Threshold of victory can bring crisis
Struggle to gain power within coalition often more brutal than effort to end prior system
Political Revolution
English, American and French Revolutions are all labeled “democratic” by analysts
These revolutions share common traitsSlogans included liberty, equality, fraternity, natural rights, pursuit of happiness, property, no taxation without representationOutcomes often different than stated goals
Human Rights in the Age of Enlightenment
Philosophical RationalesThomas Hobbes
• Saw origins of government in brutal life without government
– Life in nature--solitary, nasty, brutish, and short
• Made a social contract to natural world • To break contract was to return to state of
nature
Human Rights in the Age of Enlightenment
Philosophical Rationales [cont.]John Locke, 2nd Treatise on Government
• Social contract the origin of government• State of nature a benevolent place• Right of revolution if gov’t violates human rights• Majority rule of property holders the key
concern• Role of government is to protect property
Human Rights in the Age of Enlightenment
Study of Scientific Revolution a “new” field Characteristics of the Revolution
Rise of a community instead of individualsDevelopment of new methods
• Reliance on mathematics• Empiricism• Technology present in equipment use• Freedom of inquiry
Human Rights in the Age of Enlightenment
Intellectual Revolutions in Science & Philosophy
Copernicus revises the universe• Placed sun at center of solar system for simplicity• Feared impact from Church which accepted a geocentric
view• Published findings on his deathbed
Tyco Brahe offered complex geocentric model
Conflict between religious and mathematical astronomers
Human Rights in the Age of Enlightenment
Intellectual Revolutions in Science & Philosophy
Galileo added observations and new technology to the debate and supported geocentric view
Newton developed calculus
England’s Glorious Revolution, 1688
Unauthorized taxes by Charles I lead to civil war & Charles’ execution in 1649Oliver Cromwell leads Puritans to victory and rules as Lord Protector to 1658Civil War establishes principle that monarchy can be abolished
England’s Glorious Revolution, 1688
The Bill of Rights, 1689Parliament rejects Stuarts for William & Mary in 1688
New monarchs sign Bill of Rights in 1689• No taxes raised or armies recruited without approval of
Parliament• No subject can be detained without due process• King cannot suspend laws on his own• Reality is government by male property owners
Philosophes & Enlightenment in the 18th Century
Philosophes want to use science & reason to solve problems in politics & economicsIdeas are in American and French RevolutionsWere influenced by travel and knowledge of other culturesMost were deists in religion
Philosophes & Enlightenment in the 18th Century
Believed in Progress and the perfectibility of mankind
Encyclopedia of Diderot is famous product
Voltaire--freedom of liberty, press, inquiry
Enlightened DespotismGood government does not require self-government; rationale used by colonial powers
Philosophes & Enlightenment in the 18th Century
Rousseau skeptical about self-governmentPromotes idea of General Will which sounds close to tyranny in minds of critics
Is unclear about how to achieve it
Adam SmithPromoted free trade
Envy of wealth necessitated protection of private property
Revolution in North America, 1776
Americans resent British control from 1760s onward
British policy built of large army in North America and taxation to support it
Grievances lead to Declaration of Independence, 1776
It asserts same concerns as English on eve of the Glorious Revolution
Revolution in North America, 1776
Constitution and Bill of Rights, 1789Constitution creates federal governmentBill of Rights goes beyond British model to add freedom of press, religion, assembly, and right to bear armsApproach tied to four American factors
• 1) Settlers were religious dissenters; 2) abundant land; 3) absence of privileged classes; 4) world had become more radical with new political ideas
Revolution in North America, 1776
The First Anti-Imperial RevolutionRepresented rejection of colonial rule
But westward movement created American imperial ambition
Still, American Revolution inspired many subsequent revolutions such as Nehru in India
Not a complete political revolution; many groups left out but ideal of equality emerges
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
American Revolution was unique--4 million people, edge of continent, no tradition of class or clerical privilege, built on tradition of British liberty
French Revolution was internal revolt against entrenched elites & monarchy, in most populous & powerful European nation
All Europe affected by French Revolution
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
Origins of RevolutionKing’s need for revenue
France was divided into three Estates
Nobles and clergy were tax exempt
Revolt of the Third EstateWant to turn Estates-General into legislature
Sieyes, What is the Third Estate?
Want delegates to meet as unicameral legs.
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
The Revolt of the PoorEvents occur against backdrop of food shortage
• Assault on Bastille, July 14, 1789• Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen• Great Fear in the countryside• Women’s March on Versailles, Oct. 5-6, 1789
Constitution of 1791• Reflects ideals of philosophes• Promulgated after wave of protests
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
International War, the 2nd Revolution and the Terror, 1791-99
French actions threaten Europe• Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Europe attacks the Revolution, 1792Poor attempt to kill Louis XVI, August 9, 1792Legislature turns radical after September elections
• Reign of Terror• Levee en masse (national military draft)
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
International War, the 2nd Revolution, and the Terror, 1791-99 [cont.]
Radical actions under Robespierre• New Calendar• Worship of the Supreme Being
Success in war prompts reaction against extreme measures
• Directory established, 1795• Napoleon to power, 1799
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
Napoleon in Power, 1799-1812Consolidates or extends revolutionary ideas
• Code Napoleon, 1804• “careers open to talent” • Concordat with Pope• Full citizenship for Protestants and Jews• Actions reflect his own modest origins
French Revolution & Napoleon, 1789-1812
Napoleonic Wars & the Spread of Revolution, 1799-1812
Direct or indirect control of Europe by 1810
Flaws in his policies magnified by ambition• Unsuccessful in war against Britain• Defeated in invasion of Russia, 1812• Nationalism undermines his control of W. Europe• Defeated and exiled, 1814 & 1815• Congress of Vienna creates balance of power, 1815
Haiti: Slave Revolution & Overthrow of Colonialism
Caribbean Slave revolts commonly suppressedHispaniola, French sugar colony, saw 40,000 whites in control of 500,000 black slavesSlaves escape brutality physically by maroonage (flight) and psychologically through vodoun (voodoo)Network of resistance begins in 1750s
Haiti: Slave Revolution & Overthrow of Colonialism
The Slave RevoltBegins in 1791 perhaps with inspiration from American and French revolutions
French revolution outlaws slavery, 1794
Toussaint L’Ouverture leads revolt to success
Napoleonic attempt to restore French control fails despite use of 20,000 troops
Final independence of Haiti declared in 1804
Abolition of Slavery and the Slave Trade
Fear of Haiti-style revolts leads British to abolish slavery, 1807
U. S. abolished international slave trade in 1808 but retains slavery until Civil War
Slavery abolished in Puerto Rico, 1876, in Cuba, 1886, & in Brazil, 1888
The End of Colonialism in Latin America, 1810-30
Independence MovementsRevolts led by creole elites, direct descendents of original Spanish settlers
• Helped Spain & Portugal put down Indian revolts
Creole fear of indigenous population helped spur drive to independence
Revolts led by creoles were for their control of countries & enjoyment of Enlightenment ideals
The End of Colonialism in Latin America, 1810-30
After IndependenceBolivar & the Challenge of Unification
• Led independence movements after French invasion of Spain
– Active in Venezuela, Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Columbia
• Hoped for a unified South America but got local caudillo rule
The End of Colonialism in Latin America, 1810-30
After Independence [cont.]Mexico
• Early Mexican movement opposed Creoles leaders• By 1821 independence creoles were in charge• Territory lost to U.S. and to breakaway nations
Brazil• Portuguese monarch fled Napoleon for Brazil• Brazil made co-equal with Portugal• Brazil became a monarchy
The End of Colonialism in Latin America, 1810-30
After Independence [cont.]Paraguay: The New Historiography
• Dictactor Francia strongly criticized by creoles and gained a bad reputation
• Revolution based on self-government & land distribution
• Efforts to defeat Paraguay as a source of inspiration for Argentines and others met with failure
The End of Colonialism in Latin America, 1810-30
Religious & Economic Issues
Political Revolutions: What Difference Do They Make?
Each Revolution has a clear outcomeBritish created constitutional rights, failed to extend them to America, but abolished slavery
Philosophes inspired subsequent revolutions
Americans promoted freedom but not for all
Lat. America: political but not econ. freedom
French Revolution is the exceptionIdea of revolution but prefigures 20th century