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Sociology 2140: Social Problems
Introduction
What Is a Social Problem?
Social problems are interrelated
Debate in society centers on: the causes of social problems who is responsible for the problem solutions to the problem
Definitions vary…
What is a Social Problem (cont.)?
A condition (e.g., poverty)A pattern of behaviour (e.g.,
violence) that people believe warrants
public concern and collective action to bring about change
Social problems are conditions that: affect the quality of life of a large number
of people affect cherished values
What is a Social Problem (cont.)?
Social problems can also be discrepancies between ideals and achievement
For example, between rights guaranteed by the Charter and discrimination: actions or practices of dominant group members that have harmful effects on members of subordinate groups
The discrimination could be acted out in the form of violence, a hate crime, an act of violence motivated by prejudice against people on the basis of racialized identity, religion, gender, or sexual orientation.
Why Study Social Problems?
To understand social forces that shape our lives on personal and societal levels
To gain new insights into ourselves and connections between our world and that of other people, and
To make more effective decisions about these concerns
Index of Social Health
To measure “social problems” The need for “a single quantitative measure of social
well-being resulted in the development of the Index of Social Health (ISH) in 1986 by Marc Miringoff at Fordham University in the United States. The Index focuses on specific social problems, to determine if there has been an improvement or a decline over time.”
Retrieved from http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/en/cs/sp/sdc/pkrf/publications/bulletins/1997-000006/page03.shtml May 12, 2007
The Index of Social Health Measures sixteen major social problems in the
U.S. including: Unemployment Percentage of children in poverty Average weekly earnings Levels of child abuse Health Insurance Coverage
In Canada, this index was revised in 1997 by HRSDC to look at 15 “Canadian” social problems and a comparison was done between GDP and the index for both the US and Canada (see http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/en/cs/sp/sdc/pkrf/publications/bulletins/1997-
000006/page03.shtml for more detail)
US Index compared to US GDP
Modified Can. Index compared to Canadian GDP
Crosscultural Look: Social Problems from a Canadian Perspective (text): Poverty and Economic Inequality Crime and Violence Drugs and Alcohol Abuse Racial and Ethnic Relations Sexism and Gender Inequality Sexual Orientation and Homophobia Aging and Ageism Family Work and Unemployment Health and Health Care Population, Urbanization, and Environment War and Terrorism
Social Problems from an Indian Perspective: (http://www.khoj.com/Society_and_Culture/Social_Problems/)
Adoption and Child Support Poverty Sati Social Work Unemployment Women's Rights Child Labour Child Marriage Consumer Rights Crime and Enforcement Dowry Female Infanticides Homelessness Illiteracy
History of Social Problems Theory Early: medical model used, did not take
complexities of a diverse society into account
1920s-1930s: focused on the conditions of society that fostered social problems
Past few decades: sought the sources of
deviation within the social structure and focused on the role of society in creating deviance through labeling people viewed as abnormal
Recent: subjective nature of social problems
Creating A Comprehensive Definition of Social Problems
Objective reality Subjective factors will always be present The study of social problems can never be
value-free Tepperman, Curtis, and Kwan define a social
problem as both an objective and a subjective dimension: A condition that can be empirically observed A process by which society comes to define the
problem
Types of Social Problems
Acts and conditions that violate the norms and values present in society
Societal-induced conditions that cause psychic and material suffering for any segment of the population
C. Wright Mills (1959):The Sociological Imagination
The ability to see the relationship between an individual’s experiences and the larger society (C. Wright Mills)
For example, the relationship between personal unemployment, and technological change and economic cycles that cause it
The task of sociology is to realize that individual circumstances are inextricably linked to the structure of society.
The Sociological Imagination
For Mills the difference between effective sociological thought and that which fails rested upon imagination. The sociological imagination is simply a "quality of mind" that allows one to grasp "history and biography and the relations between the two within society.”
Sociological Imagination (cont.)
Connections between personal and socioeconomic levels is made through:
Microlevel analysis focusing on small-group relations and individual interaction, and
Macrolevel analysis focusing on large-scale institutions, e.g., government and the economy
Examining the historical circumstances that link the two levels.
Main Elements of a Sociological Imagination A willingness to view the social world from the
perspective of others Focusing on the social, economic, and historical
circumstances that influence families, groups, and organizations
Questioning the structural arrangements that shape social behavior and seeing the solutions not in changing problem people but in changing the structure of society
Read an excerpt of C. Wright Mills’ Sociological Imagination (1959) at: http://www.lclark.edu/~goldman/socimagination.html
Private Troubles and Social Issues
One main distinction to keep in mind when using the sociological imagination is the distinction between private troubles and social issues.
Mill uses this example: when 1 person in a city of 100,000 is unemployed, that is a private trouble, but when 5 million in a nation of 150 million are unemployed, it is a social issue…we need to focus on the larger issue, not that one person who is unemployed, blaming him/her for his/her) situation
The Sociological Imagination
"What I am suggesting is that by addressing ourselves to issues and to troubles, and formulating them as problems of social science, we stand the best chance, I believe the only chance, to make reason democratically relevant to human affairs in a free society, and so to realize the classic values that underlie the promise of our studies" (1959: 194).
Why are Social Structure and Culture Important? Social problems are rooted in both the
structure and culture of society In order to use “the sociological imagination”
we need to understand the basic elements of both social structure and of culture
Macro-level theories (functionalism, conflict and feminist theory) focus their attention on social structure while micro-level theories tend to focus more on culture and the creation of meaning
Elements of Social Structure
1. Institutions patterns of social relationships Family, media, religion, etc.
2. Social groups Members have common identity Primary and secondary
Social Structure (cont.)
3. Statuses: position in group Ascribed, achieved and master status
4. Roles Associated with status rights, obligations, and expectations
Elements of Culture
Culture = the meanings and ways of life that characterize a society
1. Beliefs: what is assumed to be true
2. Values: agreements about good and bad
3. Norms: socially defined rules of behaviour Folkways, laws, mores
Culture (cont.)
4. Sanctions: social consequences for conforming to, or violating norms positive, negative, formal and informal
5. Symbols: language, gestures, and objects The meaning commonly understood by group
members They form communication
Another View: Culture as Stories
According to George Gerbner’s (1986) “cultivation theory” culture is a set of stories passed through generations
Stories about: 1. What things are 2. How they work 3. What to do about them
Gerbner believes the media now tell our stories Heavy exposure (esp. to TV) “cultivates” our beliefs,
attitudes and values
Person-Blame vs. System-Blame
Person-Blame: The assumption that social problems result from
the pathologies of individuals System-Blame:
The assumption that social problems result from social conditions
The sociological imagination recognizes that large-scale social problems originate with the system, are formed through historical circumstances, and can then affect individual’s lives adversely.
Ideology of Cultural Deprivation
A loaded ethnocentric term Implies that the culture of the minority is
inferior and deficient in comparison to the culture of the majority
Examples: children in a low-income area school, ex-convicts, inner-city poor.
Ideology of Social Darwinism
Social Darwinism was developed by Herbert Spencer (1860’s)
Coined the term “survival of the fittest” Has its origins in Charles Darwin’s work on
natural selection (1859) in nature which was applied to society
The belief that the place of people in the stratification system is a function of their own ability and effort.
Consequences of the Person-Blame Approach
Frees the institutions of society from any blame and efforts to change them
Controls “problem” people in ways that reinforce negative stereotypes
Legitimizes person-control programs Justifies the logic of Social Darwinism
Danger of System-Blame Approach
It is only part of the truth It presents a rigidly deterministic explanation
of social problems It suggests that people are merely robots
controlled by their social environment
Reasons to Use the System-Blame Approach
A need to balance the perspective of the average citizen, police, and legislators who typically use a person-blame approach
The system is the subject matter of sociology, not the individual
The institutional framework of society is the source of many social problems
Sociological Perspectives
Perspectives are an overall approach toward a subject. Four main perspectives are:
Functionalist Conflict Interactionist Feminist (not in text)Theory is a set of logically related statements
that attempt to describe, explain, or predict social events
Functionalist Theory
Assumption: Society is a stable, orderly system composed of interrelated parts that perform functions to keep society stable
Concepts: Manifest functions are intended and
recognized consequences of social processes
Latent functions are unintended; and Dysfunctions are undesirable
Functionalist (cont.)
Dysfunctions can create• Social disorganization: conditions in
society that undermine the ability of traditional institutions to govern behaviour
Which cause breakdowns in• Values: collective ideas about what is right
or wrong and norms are established or standards of conduct
Application: Violence occurs when institutions become disorganized. To solve problems regenerate institutions
Conflict Theory
Assumption: Groups in society are engaged in continuing power struggles for control of scarce resources
Two types: Value conflict: problems come from
incompatible group values, e.g., liberty and group values
Critical-conflict: problems come from contradictions in the organization of societies, e.g., class and gender inequalities.
Conflict (cont.)
Concepts: Ideal vs. Real Culture, e.g., people claim
they support liberty, but not with issues of ethnic relations
Capitalist class controls working classApplication: Violence occurs because of
conflict between groups’ values and relations of capitalist domination and subordination
Interactionist TheoryAssumption: Society is the sum of the
interactions of individuals and groupsConcept:
self-fulfilling prophesy: a false definition of the situation that evokes a new behaviour that makes the original conception become true, e.g., labelling behaviour as delinquent may cause more delinquent behaviour
Application: Violence is a learned response, not an inherent characteristic, to rewarded behaviour or inappropriate socialization
Interactionism (cont.): Labeling and Self-fulfilling Prophecies
Social problems as conditions, behaviors and situations that are defined and labeled as social problems
Labeling and deviance Secondary deviance-stems from
adapting to the effects of the label and taking on the self concept and roles associated with it
Deviance as a Social Problem
Deviant Individuals (Norm Violators): Norm violators are symptoms of social
problems, not the disease itself Most deviants are victims and should not be
blamed entirely The system should also be blamedInstitutionalized Deviance: When a society is organized in such a way When a society is organized in such a way
that it is not meeting the needs of individuals.that it is not meeting the needs of individuals.
Interactionism (cont.): The Social Construction of Social Problems
Social problems are created through the actions of others which raise our consciousness to issues in society
The media and the creation of social problems
Universities and colleges Government agencies Civic voluntary organization
Moral Entrepreneurs Those who have or develop the power to “label”
problems or problem behaviour in society Often members of elites or interest groups Malcolm Spector and John Kitsuse (1977) saw
social problems as Claims-Making activity Stage 1: Problem Definition
- gaining public recognition Stage 2: Legitimacy
- acceptance by official agencies Stage 3: Reemergence of demands
-reasserting demands Stage 4: Rejection and institution building
- forming new organization to solve the problem
Moral Panics and The Media
Modern mass media aids in “claims-making” Mass media allows for the rapid spread of
new information The media is often the vehicle by which the
public becomes aware of social problems Create intense public concern about and
issue – a “moral panic” Two factors help:
Media and the need for news Public demand for sensational news
stories
Feminist Theory
Assumption: Theorists should look at differential impacts of social phenomena on men and women, and emphasize power relationships. Every issue is a feminist issue and interlocking oppressions, e.g., sexism, racism, and homophobic are addressed
Concept: Patriarchy is control by menApplication: Violence comes from power
differences especially between men and women and is a means of reinforcing patriarchy
Population Health Perspective (used by text authors)
A comparatively new theory that emerged due to the observation that many social problems are associated with health consequences.
Is a broad approach whose goals are to improve the health of the entire population and to reduce health inequalities among social groups.
Reducing Social Problems through Social Change
Social change: alteration, modification, or transformation of public policy, culture, or social institutions over time
Efforts can be: Short-term, middle-term, or long-term Micro-level, mid-range, or macro-levelFor most problems, a combination of
strategies is required
Micro-Level Attempts to Solve Social Problems
Micro-level attempts focus on how individuals operate within small groups to solve problems
Example: people turn to primary groups: small, less specialized groups in which members engage in face-to-face interactions, for help, e.g., getting a job
Limitation: Fails to consider that secondary groups and institutions play a major part in creating, maintaining, and exacerbating many social problems
Mid-Range Attempts to Solve Social ProblemsMid-range attempts focus on how secondary groups
and formal organizations deal with problems such as drug addiction
Example: Self-help groups, like AA (Alcoholics Anonymous)
and NA (Narcotics Anonymous) often work to change an individual’s behaviour and…
Grassroots groups, started by people with a problem in their territory, sometimes grow to social movements
Limitation: Local efforts usually lack the capacity to produce the larger changes needed at the national or international levels
Macro-Level Attempts to Solve Social Problems
Macro-level attempts focus on how large-scale institutions (e.g., government and media) may become involved in remedies
Limitations: This approach may Overemphasize structural barriers in
society, making them appear insurmountable
De-emphasize the importance of individual responsibility
Politics and Social Policy
Debate on policies often focuses on how best to address the social problem
Opinions range from neo-conservativism to left-wing liberalism
Conservatives - limiting governmental involvement in the solution to social problems
Private enterprise as a solution Focus on individual responsibility
Liberals - government intervention in social-welfare institutions as the solution to social problems
Politics (cont.)
Emancipatory Politics: Involve liberation of people from
adverse conditions through eliminating exploitation, promoting justice
Life Politics: Involve lifestyles, particularly issues
pertaining to the self, sexuality, reproduction, and the body
Looks at global concerns such as ecological survival
Special-Interest Groups and Social Change in Solving Social Problems
A political coalition composed of individuals or groups sharing a specific interest
Types of pressure groups: Issue focus: Single issue, e.g., gun control,
versus multiple demands, e.g., better schools View of the present system of wealth and
power:people have a range of demands
Beliefs about elites: Whether to influence them or replace them
Type of political action: Working through the system
Social Movements and Social Change in Solving Social Problems
Collective behaviour: Voluntary Often spontaneous Engaged in by large number of people Typically violates group norms and valuesCivil disobedience: Non-violent action that seeks to change a
policy or law by refusing to comply with it
Types of Social Movements:
Reform movements: Seek to change some aspect of the social structure
Revolutionary movements: Seek to bring about a total change in society
Religious movements: Seek to renovate people through “inner change”
Alternative movements: Seek limited change in some aspects of behavior
Resistance movements: Seek to prevent or undo change
Research on Social Problems
Ethnography (field studies) - the close observation of interaction among people in a social group or organization
Provides in depth understanding of the nature of a problem
Demographic Studies - how social conditions are distributed in human populations
How many people are affected Characteristics of the people that are
affected
Research (cont.)
Survey Research – way of gathering information from a large population
Sample-representative part from the population to be studied
Cross-sectional data – data collected at one point in time
Longitudinal data – data collected at different points in time
Interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample
Research (cont.)
Social Experiments – are studies that are conducted in a controlled setting
Random assignment of subjects to two groups
Experimental group Control group
Test the effect of a treatment on the experimental group
A Humanist Agenda
Criteria include: Improving most of the world’s people’s lives Corresponding to widely held common interests Providing handles for action at a variety of levels Including elements that can be implemented
independently but are compatible Making it easier to solve non-economic problems,
such as environmental protection Growing out of social movements in response to
the needs of diverse peoples
To Conclude:
Each perspective involves different assumptions and thus provides a different analysis of social problems
Also need a means to solve them Strategies are short-, middle- and long-term Remedies are found at the micro-, mid-
range-, and macro-levelCanadians do have a number of pressing
social problems to address, and it is our responsibility to work together for a better world