Download - Cells [part 1]
Part 1
Dr. M. Azzopardi
Syllabus Requirements:
3.2 Cell structureand function
3.2.1 The cell as the basic unit of living things.
Comparison of the principal features of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.The structure of a generalised plant and animal cell as revealed by both light and electron microscopy. Organelles should include the nucleus and nuclear envelope, nucleolus, centrioles, basal bodies, eukaryotic flagella (undulipodia), endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria, chloroplasts and cytoskeleton.
TOPIC OUTLINE
A)THE CELL THEORYB) PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTUREC) CELL FUNCTION LIMITS CELL SIZED) EUKARYOTIC CELLS E) THE ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
The cell theory has three key points:
1. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
2. Each cell is a basic living unit.
3. A new cell arises only from cells that already exist.
Amoeba
Cells can be cultured to produce more cells:
In vivo – inside organism
In vitro / Ex-vivo – outside organism
Cell line: cells grown in tissue culture and representing generations of a primary culture.
Cells can be:Prokaryotic Eukaryotic
10 m
A eukaryotic cell is generally 10x greater
i) Prokaryotic very primitive include the bacteria lack:
a nucleus membrane-enclosed internal compartments
ii) Eukaryotic
more advanced include protists, plants, fungi and animals
What about viruses?
Viruses have no cellular structure but however, depend upon cells for reproduction
Tobacco mosaic virus causes disease in plants
All cells have 4 features in common:
1. Genetic material (DNA)2. Cytoplasm:
a semifluid matrix containing organelles3. Ribosomes
synthesise proteins4. A plasma membrane
DNA
TOPIC OUTLINE
A) THE CELL THEORY
B) PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTUREC) CELL FUNCTION LIMITS CELL SIZED) EUKARYOTIC CELLS E) THE ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
The Kingdom Prokaryotae:Includes the bacteria
Strepto - chains
Shapes and arrangements of bacteria
Staphylo - clusters
Curved
Spiral
Rod-shaped Spherical Diplo – in pairs
Prokaryote Cell Structure
Prokaryote Cell Structure
Cell wall is strong and rigid due to peptidoglycan /murein
Peptidoglycan is: unique to prokaryotes made of polysaccharide chains cross-linked at
regular intervals by short chains of amino acids
Functions of the cell wall:
1. Protects the cell
2. Maintains shape
3. Prevents the cell from bursting when the cell absorbs water
Two natural groups of bacteria due to differences in their wall structure depending
on whether they take up Gram’s stain:
Gram positive[purple]
Gram negative[red]
Gram positive bacteria
Gram negative bacteria
take up the stainhave a thick cell wall
do not take up the stain have a thin cell wall a membrane covers
peptidoglycan
Hans Christian Gram developed the stain in 1883
e.g. Staphylococcus, Bacillus, Lactobacillus
attacked by: penicillin lysozyme (enzyme in tear
fluid)
Gram positive bacteria:
Gram negative bacteria: e.g. Salmonella, E. coli,
Azotobacternot attacked by
penicillin & lysozyme
How does penicillin kill Gram positive bacteria?
Penicillin: interferes with the cross-
linking in the peptidoglycan of growing cells
makes the walls: weaker more likely to burst
when water enters by osmosis
Lysozyme attacks bonds in peptidoglycan wall
Bond between NAM and NAG
breaks
Explain why penicillin and lysozyme have no effect on
gram-negative bacteria.
Attacked by penicillin & lysozyme
G + G - Not attacked by penicillin & lysozyme
The outer membrane protects bacteria
from lysozyme and attack by penicillin
Penicillin has no effect on plant and animal cells. Why?
No peptidoglycan wall present.
Plant cellAnimal cell
Plasma membrane in bacteriaregulates movement of materials into and
out of the cell
Cytoplasm is an aqueous substance containing
organelles various substances
Cytoplasm & Cytosol compared
consists of: organellescytosol
makes up of about 70% of the cell volume
composed of water, salts & some macromolecules such as protein enzymes
Functions of infoldings of the cell membrane
an artifact
nitrogen fixation
contain photosynthetic pigments e.g. bacteriochlorophyll
mesosome
No infoldings in eukaryotes.
Mesosomes: infoldings of the cell surface membrane
produced by the chemical fixation techniques used to prepare samples for electron microscopy
in the 1960s: several functions were proposed for these structures
by the late 1970s: they were recognized as artifacts nowadays: no longer considered to be part of the
normal structure of bacterial cells
Genetic materialbacterial DNA is: is a single circular molecule, 1mm long usually coiled attached to the plasma membrane
Bacterial DNA is: concentrated in a region of the cell called
nucleoid not physically separated from the cytoplasm
by a membrane
Nucleoid
Bacteria reproduce:
Asexually by Binary Fission
Ribosomes (70S)are the site of protein synthesis
are complexes of : RNA & proteins
smaller than those of eukaryotes
A svedberg unit (symbol S) is: a unit for sedimentation rate technically a measure of time, and
is defined as exactly 10−13 seconds
Capsules are slimy or gummy secretions of
certain bacteria function:
1. unite bacteria into colonies2. offer protection against white
blood cells3. prevent cells from drying out
Rigid capsule
Slime layer
Electron micrograph of a colony of
Staphylococcus aureus
Sporessome bacteria form
endospores (spores produced inside cells)
are: thick- walled long lived resistant to particularly: heat drought short-wave radiations
Flagella (singular flagellum)
some are rigid, though shaped into a wave
a single flagellum is a made of a protein called flagellin
one or more are present for motility
Differences between a flagellum in prokaryotes and in eukaryotes:
much simpler in structurenot made of microtubules
Flagellum in a eukaryote: beats
Flagellum in a prokaryote: rotates
Flagella propel the cell along by:
rotating at the base, providing a corkscrew-like motion rather than a beat
Pili (singular pilus) are fine protein rods:
shorter & thinner than flagella
are concerned with adherence
Bacterial pili have long been recognised as mediators of initial host–pathogen
interactions important for the progression of Gram-negative bacterial diseases.
project from the walls of Gram negative bacteria
Diagram shows how bacteria:
with pili may resist being flushed out with urine
without pili are flushed out with urine
Sex-pili help bacteria join to each other
to exchange genetic material
‘sex’ in genetic sense NOT directly linked to reproduction as in most eukaryotes
Transfer of plasmid
A pilus projecting from surface of a
Gram negative bacterium
Fimbriaesimilar to pili but shorter
help cells to adhere to surfaces e.g. animal cells for:
food protection
Plasmids tiny circles of self-replicating DNA found in some
species of bacteria in addition to the circular DNA
a bacterium may contain: dozens or hundreds of copies of a plasmid
A plasmid possess a few genes which give extra survival advantage
plasmid genes are known to:1. produce an enzyme which breaks down
penicillin, thus bacterium is resistant to penicillin
2. confer resistance to disinfectants3. confer ability to use complex chemicals as
food, such as hydrocarbons, with potential applications in clearing oil spills
When a bacterium dies, the plasmids liberated into the environment may transform
other bacteriaBacterial transformation is the process by which
bacterial cells take up naked DNA molecules.
Transformation occurs:Naturally in some species of bacteria
By artificial meansin other cells
[by genetic engineering]
QUESTION: [SEP, 2002]
Which type of cell is evolutionarily more primitive, eukaryotic or prokaryotic? Briefly give reasons for your answer. (2)
Prokaryotic. Lacks membrane-bound organelles.DNA is not wound around histones – not organised.
TOPIC OUTLINE
A) THE CELL THEORYB) PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE
C) CELL FUNCTION LIMITS CELL SIZED) EUKARYOTIC CELLS E) THE ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
Why are cells small?
Volume determines the amount of chemical activity in the cell per unit time.
Surface area determines the amount of substances that can pass the cell boundary per unit time.
because they need a high surface area-to-volume ratio
As size increases, SA:Vol ratio decreases
Why do large organisms consist of many cells rather than one
large cell?
exchange would be limited by the:1. distance from the centre of the
cell to its surface 2. surface area of the cell
TOPIC OUTLINE
A) THE CELL THEORYB) PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTUREC) CELL FUNCTION LIMITS CELL SIZE
D)EUKARYOTIC CELLS E) THE ENDOSYMBIOTIC THEORY
Eukaryotic cells have membrane-bound organelles
the evolution of compartments was an important development:
enabled eukaryotic cells to specialise, forming the organs and tissues of complex multicellular organisms
Compartamentalisation makes it possible to have an
environment within the organelle which is biochemically distinct from the cytoplasm
metabolic pathways & processes are containedby having the enzymes & cofactors together: it makes for a more energy efficient process by keeping them within a membrane it can ensure
that metabolic processes can occur safely that would otherwise be harmful or interfere with the activity within the cytosol
If there were no compartmentsthe free-floating molecules would basically
wander around the cell until they bumped into the right reactants works only for
small cells
BUTas cells get bigger, the chance of two particular molecules
meeting goes way down
protoplasm = nucleus + cytoplasm
cytoplasm
nucleus
Plasma membrane
is a transparent semisolid or gelatinous fluid
contains:1. organelles 2. cytosol
Animal Cells Plant Cells
CentriolesLysosomes
Cell membraneRibosomes
NucleusEndoplasmic reticulum
Golgi apparatusVacuoles
MitochondriaCytoskeletonPeroxisomes
Cell WallChloroplasts
Central Vacuole
Venn Diagrams
Animal Cell
Microvilli: only in animal cellsare finger-like extensions of the cell surface
membrane form a fringe called a brush border
Role of microvilli:increase the surface area by
as much as 25 x
absorption or secretion at base of microvillus
microvillus
Microvilli can contract as they have actin filaments within them
What is the importance of
microvilli being able to contract?
To facilitate absorption
An
a specialised subunit within a cell that has a specific function, and it is usually separately enclosed
is:
although certain structures e.g. ribosomes do not have a membrane, they are still considered as organelles
Organelles with membranes
1. Nucleus2. Endoplasmic
reticulum3. Golgi apparatus
[Golgi complex]4. Lysosomes5. Mitochondria6. Chloroplasts7. Peroxisomes8. Vacuoles
1. Ribosomes2. Cytoskeleton3. Centrioles
Non-membranous organelles
QUESTION: [MAY, 2003]List three advantages of eukaryotic organisation over prokaryotic organisation.
(3)a) Can reach larger sizes thus provides protection
from predators;b) Division of labour (each organ has its own role and
each cell can perform a different function) leads to greater efficiency;
c) Allows compartamentalisation for example membranes surrounding different organelles allow each organelle to have its own set of chemicals and chemical reactions.
Organelles with membranes1. Nucleus2. Endoplasmic reticulum3. Golgi apparatus [Golgi complex]4. Lysosomes5. Mitochondria6. Chloroplasts7. Peroxisomes8. Vacuoles
Nucleus: largest organellecontrols the activities of the cell as it contains
DNAfound in all eukaryotic cells
except:
red blood cells
phloem sieve element
The nucleus is surrounded by:a nuclear envelope
has pores to allow communication between the nucleus & the cytoplasm
The outer membrane of the nuclear envelope is continuous with:
the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) may be covered with ribosomes
The nucleus contains:
[one or more nucleoli]
chromatin
NUCLEUS
nucleolus
What does ‘chromatin’ mean?
“coloured material” & refers to the fact that it is easily stained
Neutrophils in a blood smear
Chromatin is composed of mainly:nucleolus
chromatin
1. coils of DNA
2. bound to basic proteins called histones
chromatin
Nucleosomes: bead-like structures which are in turn regularly packed in the chromatin
DNA is wound around the histones which form nucleosomes:
one nucleosome is composed of 8 histone
proteins
How much DNA in each nucleus?
Chromatin organisation of eukaryotes
stains intensely
is seen as dark patches near the nuclear envelope
stains lightly
located towards the centre of the nucleus
HeterochromatinEuchromatin
Heterochromatin: tightly coiled chromatin
Euchromatin: loosely coiled chromatin
During nuclear division, chromatin
Because chromatin condenses into more tightly coiled threads called chromosomes
stains more intensely becomes more
conspicuous
WHY?
Nucleolusappears as a rounded, darkly stained
structure inside the nucleus
stains intensely as it contains large amounts of: DNA & RNA
manufactures ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
Organelles with membranes
1. Nucleus
2. Endoplasmic reticulum3. Golgi apparatus [Golgi complex]4. Lysosomes5. Mitochondria6. Chloroplasts7. Peroxisomes8. Vacuoles
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)consists of flattened cavities – cisternae:
made up of parallel membranes two types of ER:
Rough ER lined with ribosomes
Smooth ERno ribosomes
Role of the rough ER
RER is concerned with the transport of proteins which are made by the
ribosomes on its surface
Proteins:enter into the ER via a channel are transported through the cisternaeare usually being modified en route
Proteins from the RER commonly travel to the Golgi apparatus:
Flow of proteins :
Proteins from the Golgi apparatus can be:
1. secreted from the cell 2. passed on to other
organelles in the same cell
Smooth ER is made up of tubular
cavities occupies a smaller area
compared to the rough ER
Smooth ER
Rough ER
[occurs away from the nucleus]
Functions of the smooth ER:
1. lipid synthesis e.g. in the epithelium
of the intestine, the smooth ER makes lipids from fatty acids and glycerol absorbed from the gut and passes them to the Golgi apparatus for export
Functions of the smooth ER:
2. makes steroids (a type of lipid) some steroids are hormones e.g.
testosterone
3. site for the hydrolysis of glycogen
4. chemically modifies small molecules taken in by the cell this is especially true for drugs and
pesticides
5. proteins synthesised on the rough ER are chemically modified within the lumen of the smooth ER
Organelles with membranes
1. Nucleus2. Endoplasmic reticulum
3. Golgi apparatus 4. Lysosomes5. Mitochondria6. Chloroplasts7. Peroxisomes8. Vacuoles
GOLGI APPARATUS /GOLGI BODY /
GOLGI COMPLEX
The Golgi apparatus consists of two components:
2. Golgi vesicles
1. Cisternae
Lumen
[stack of flattened, membrane-bound sacs]
Functions of the Golgi apparatus: 1) it receives proteins from the ER and
chemically modifies them e.g.:
carbohydrate is added to proteins to form glycoproteins
the slime, wax, gum & mucilage secretions of many cells are released by the Golgi apparatus
1) it receives proteins from the ER and chemically modifies them e.g. in hormone secretion
New cisternae are constantly formed at one end of the Golgi & pinched off at another
Functions of the Golgi apparatus:2) proteins are concentrated, packaged, and
sorted before being sent to their cellular or extracellular destinations
3) forms lysosomes
Organelles with membranes
1. Nucleus2. Endoplasmic reticulum3. Golgi apparatus [Golgi complex]
4. Lysosomes5. Mitochondria6. Chloroplasts7. Peroxisomes8. Vacuoles
Lysosomes originate from the Golgi apparatus:
Golgi apparatus
LYSOSOME A lysosome is surrounded by a single membrane
Lysosomes are:
simple sacs that contain digestive enzymes such as:
ProteasesNucleasesLipases
carry out hydrolysis reactions (splitting by adding water)
work best in an acid environment
Enzymes in the lysosome:
Question: SEP, 2006Explain the following observations regarding cell organelles.
The interior of a lysosome (pH 4.8) is more acidic than the surrounding cytosol (pH 7). (2)
A lysosome is full of degrading enzymes whose optimum pH is acidic.
Four Functions of lysosomes:1. phagocytosis 2. autophagy – unwanted structures within the cell
are digested3. release of enzymes outside the cell (exocytosis)
1 23
Four Functions of lysosomes:
autolysis – self-digestion of a cell
1
2 3
Golgi apparatus
LYSOSOME
4
autophagy exocytosis
phagocytosis
Organelles with membranes
1. Nucleus2. Endoplasmic reticulum3. Golgi apparatus [Golgi complex]4. Lysosomes
5. Mitochondria6. Chloroplasts7. Peroxisomes8. Vacuoles
Mitochondria occur in all eukaryotic cells large organelles with a double membrane function: aerobic respiration
inner membrane is folded forming cristae
inner membrane
outer membrane
matrix
crista
MITOCHONDRIA have :
DNA
ATP synthase
70S ribosomes