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(GreekpsycheLatinanimaFrenchameGermanSeele).

Thequestionoftherealityofthesoulanditsdistinctionfromthebodyisamongthemostimportantproblemsofphilosophy,forwithitisboundupthedoctrineofafuturelife.Varioustheoriesastothenatureofthesoulhaveclaimedtobereconcilablewiththetenetofimmortality,butitisasureinstinctthatleadsustosuspecteveryattackonthesubstantialityorspiritualityofthesoulasanassaultonthebeliefinexistenceafterdeath.Thesoulmaybedefinedastheultimateinternalprinciplebywhichwethink,feel,andwill,andbywhichourbodiesareanimated.Theterm"mind"usuallydenotesthisprincipleasthesubjectofourconsciousstates,while"soul"denotesthesourceofourvegetativeactivitiesaswell.Thatourvitalactivitiesproceedfromaprinciplecapableofsubsistinginitself,isthethesisofthesubstantialityofthesoul:thatthisprincipleisnotitselfcomposite,extended,corporeal,oressentiallyandintrinsicallydependentonthebody,isthedoctrineofspirituality.Iftherebealifeafterdeath,clearlytheagentorsubjectofourvitalactivitiesmustbecapableofanexistenceseparatefromthebody.Thebeliefinananimatingprincipleinsomesensedistinctfromthebodyisanalmostinevitableinferencefromtheobservedfactsoflife.Evenuncivilizedpeoplesarriveattheconceptofthesoulalmostwithoutreflection,certainlywithoutanyseverementaleffort.Themysteriesofbirthanddeath,thelapseofconsciouslifeduringsleepandinswooning,eventhecommonestoperationsofimaginationandmemory,whichabstractamanfromhisbodilypresenceevenwhileawakeallsuchfactsinvinciblysuggesttheexistenceofsomethingbesidesthevisibleorganism,internaltoit,buttoalargeextentindependentofit,andleadingalifeofitsown.Intherudepsychologyoftheprimitivenations,thesoulisoftenrepresentedasactuallymigratingtoandfroduringdreamsandtrances,andafterdeathhauntingtheneighbourhoodofitsbody.Nearlyalwaysitisfiguredassomethingextremelyvolatile,aperfumeorabreath.Often,asamongtheFijians,itisrepresentedasaminiaturereplicaofthebody,sosmallastobeinvisible.TheSamoanshaveanameforthesoulwhichmeans"thatwhichcomesandgoes".Manypeoples,suchastheDyaksandSumatrans,bindvariouspartsofthebodywithcordsduringsicknesstopreventtheescapeofthesoul.Inshort,alltheevidencegoestoshowthatDualism,howeveruncriticaland

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inconsistent,istheinstinctivecreedof"primitiveman"(seeANIMISM).

Thesoulinancientphilosophy

EarlyliteraturebearsthesamestampofDualism.Inthe"RigVeda"andotherliturgicalbooksofIndia,wefindfrequentreferencestothecomingandgoingofmanas(mindorsoul).Indianphilosophy,whetherBrahminicorBuddhistic,withitsvarioussystemsofmetempsychosis,accentuatedthedistinctionofsoulandbody,makingthebodilylifeameretransitoryepisodeintheexistenceofthesoul.Theyalltaughtthedoctrineoflimitedimmortality,endingeitherwiththeperiodicworlddestruction(Brahminism)orwithattainmentofNirvana(Buddhism).ThedoctrineofaworldsoulinahighlyabstractformismetwithasearlyastheeighthcenturybeforeChrist,whenwefinditdescribedas"theunseenseer,theunheardhearer,theunthoughtthinker,theunknownknower,theEternalinwhichspaceiswovenandwhichiswoveninit."

InGreece,ontheotherhand,thefirstessaysofphilosophytookapositiveandsomewhatmaterialisticdirection,inheritedfromtheprephilosophicage,fromHomerandtheearlyGreekreligion.InHomer,whilethedistinctionofsoulandbodyisrecognized,thesoulishardlyconceivedaspossessingasubstantialexistenceofitsown.Severedfromthebody,itisamereshadow,incapableofenergeticlife.Thephilosophersdidsomethingtocorrectsuchviews.TheearliestschoolwasthatoftheHylozoiststheseconceivedthesoulasakindofcosmicforce,andattributedanimationtothewholeofnature.Anynaturalforcemightbedesignatedpsyche:thusThalesusesthistermfortheattractiveforceofthemagnet,andsimilarlanguageisquotedevenfromAnaxagorasandDemocritus.Withthiswemaycomparethe"mindstuff"theoryandPanpsychismofcertainmodernscientists.Otherphilosophersagaindescribedthesoul'snatureintermsofsubstance.Anaximandergivesitanaeriformconstitution,Heraclitusdescribesitasafire.Thefundamentalthoughtisthesame.Thecosmicetherorfireisthesubtlestoftheelements,thenourishingflamewhichimpartsheat,life,sense,andintelligencetoallthingsintheirseveraldegreesandkinds.ThePythagoreanstaughtthatthesoulisaharmony,itsessenceconsistinginthoseperfectmathematicalratioswhicharethelawoftheuniverseandthemusicoftheheavenlyspheres.Withthisdoctrinewascombined,accordingtoCicero,thebeliefinauniversalworldspirit,fromwhichallparticularsoulsarederived.

Alltheseearlytheorieswerecosmologicalratherthanpsychologicalincharacter.Theology,physics,andmentalsciencewerenotasyetdistinguished.Itisonlywiththeriseofdialecticandthegrowingrecognitionoftheproblemofknowledgethatagenuinelypsychologicaltheorybecamepossible.InPlatothetwostandpoints,thecosmologicalandtheepistemological,arefoundcombined.Thusinthe"Timaeus"(p.30)wefindanaccountderivedfromPythagoreansourcesoftheoriginofthesoul.Firsttheworldsouliscreatedaccordingtothelawsofmathematicalsymmetryandmusicalconcord.Itiscomposedoftwoelements,oneanelementof"sameness"(tauton),correspondingtotheuniversalandintelligibleorderoftruth,andtheotheranelementofdistinctionor

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"otherness"(thateron),correspondingtotheworldofsensibleandparticularexistences.Theindividualhumansoulisconstructedonthesameplan.Sometimes,asinthe"Phaedrus",Platoteachesthedoctrineofpluralityofsouls(cf.thewellknownallegoryofthecharioteerandthetwosteedsinthatdialogue).Therationalsoulwaslocatedinthehead,thepassionateorspiritedsoulinthebreast,theappetitivesoulintheabdomen.Inthe"Republic",insteadofthetriplesoul,wefindthedoctrineofthreeelementswithinthecomplexunityofthesinglesoul.ThequestionofimmortalitywasaprincipalsubjectofPlato'sspeculations.Hisaccountoftheoriginofthesoulinthe"Timaeus"leadshimtodenytheintrinsicimmortalityevenoftheworldsoul,andtoadmitonlyanimmortalityconditionalonthegoodpleasureofGod.Inthe"Phaedo"thechiefargumentfortheimmortalityofthesoulisbasedonthenatureofintellectualknowledgeinterpretedonthetheoryofreminiscencethisofcourseimpliesthepreexistenceofthesoul,andperhapsinstrictlogicitseternalpreexistence.Thereisalsoanargumentfromthesoul'snecessaryparticipationintheideaoflife,which,itisargued,makestheideaofitsextinctionimpossible.ThesevariouslinesofargumentarenowhereharmonizedinPlato(seeIMMORTALITY).ThePlatonicdoctrinetendedtoanextremeTranscendentalism.Soulandbodyaredistinctordersofreality,andbodilyexistenceinvolvesakindofviolencetothehigherpartofourcompositenature.Thebodyisthe"prison",the"tomb",oreven,assomelaterPlatonistsexpressedit,the"hell"ofthesoul.InAristotlethiserrorisavoided.Hisdefinitionofthesoulas"thefirstentelechyofaphysicalorganizedbodypotentiallypossessinglife"emphasizestheclosenessoftheunionofsoulandbody.Thedifficultyinhistheoryistodeterminewhatdegreeofdistinctnessorseparatenessfromthematterofthebodyistobeconcededtothehumansoul.Hefullyrecognizesthespiritualelementinthoughtanddescribesthe"activeintellect"(nouspoetikos)as"separateandimpassible",butthepreciserelationofthisactiveintellecttotheindividualmindisahopelesslyobscurequestioninAristotle'spsychology.(SeeINTELLECTMIND.)

TheStoicstaughtthatallexistenceismaterial,anddescribedthesoulasabreathpervadingthebody.TheyalsocalleditDivine,aparticleofGod(apospasmatoutheu)itwascomposedofthemostrefinedandetherealmatter.Eightdistinctpartsofthesoulwererecognizedbythem:

therulingreason(tohegemonikon)thefivesensestheprocreativepowers.

Absoluteimmortalitytheydeniedrelativeimmortality,terminatingwiththeuniversalconflagrationanddestructionofallthings,someofthem(e.g.CleanthesandChrysippus)admittedinthecaseofthewisemanothers,suchasPanaetiusandPosidonius,deniedeventhis,arguingthat,asthesoulbeganwiththebody,soitmustendwithit.

EpicureanismacceptedtheAtomisttheoryofLeucippusandDemocritus.Soulconsistsofthefinestgrainedatomsintheuniverse,finereventhanthoseofwindandheatwhichthey

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resemble:hencetheexquisitefluencyofthesoul'smovementsinthoughtandsensation.Thesoulatomsthemselves,however,couldnotexercisetheirfunctionsiftheywerenotkepttogetherbythebody.Itisthiswhichgivesshapeandconsistencytothegroup.Ifthisisdestroyed,theatomsescapeandlifeisdissolvedifitisinjured,partofthesoulislost,butenoughmaybelefttomaintainlife.TheLucretianversionofEpicureanismdistinguishesbetweenanimusandanima:thelatteronlyissoulinthebiologicalsense,theformeristhehigher,directingprinciple(tohegemonikon)intheStoicterminology,whoseseatistheheart,thecentreofthecognitiveandemotionallife.

ThesoulinChristianthought

GraecoRomanphilosophymadenofurtherprogressinthedoctrineofthesoulintheageimmediatelyprecedingtheChristianera.Noneoftheexistingtheorieshadfoundgeneralacceptance,andintheliteratureoftheperiodaneclecticspiritnearlyakintoScepticismpredominated.OfthestrifeandfusionofsystemsatthistimetheworksofCiceroarethebestexample.OnthequestionofthesoulheisbyturnsPlatonicandPythagorean,whileheconfessesthattheStoicandEpicureansystemshaveeachanattractionforhim.SuchwasthestateofthequestionintheWestatthedawnofChristianity.InJewishcirclesalikeuncertaintyprevailed.TheSadduceeswereMaterialists,denyingimmortalityandallspiritualexistence.ThePhariseesmaintainedthesedoctrines,addingbeliefinpreexistenceandtransmigration.ThepsychologyoftheRabbinsisfoundedontheSacredBooks,particularlytheaccountofthecreationofmaninGenesis.Threetermsareusedforthesoul:nephesh,nuah,andneshamahthefirstwastakentorefertotheanimalandvegetativenature,thesecondtotheethicalprinciple,thethirdtothepurelyspiritualintelligence.Atallevents,itisevidentthattheOldTestamentthroughouteitherassertsorimpliesthedistinctrealityofthesoul.AnimportantcontributiontolaterJewishthoughtwastheinfusionofPlatonismintoitbyPhiloofAlexandria.HetaughttheimmediatelyDivineoriginofthesoul,itspreexistenceandtransmigrationhecontraststhepneuma,orspiritualessence,withthesoulproper,thesourceofvitalphenomena,whoseseatisthebloodfinallyherevivedtheoldPlatonicDualism,attributingtheoriginofsinandeviltotheunionofspiritwithmatter.

ItwasChristianitythat,aftermanycenturiesofstruggle,appliedthefinalcriticismstothevariouspsychologiesofantiquity,andbroughttheirscatteredelementsoftruthtofullfocus.ThetendencyofChrist'steachingwastocentreallinterestinthespiritualsideofman'snaturethesalvationorlossofthesoulisthegreatissueofexistence.TheGospellanguageispopular,nottechnical.Psycheandpneumaareusedindifferentlyeitherfortheprincipleofnaturallifeorforspiritinthestrictsense.Bodyandsoularerecognizedasadualismandtheirvaluescontrasted:"Fearyenotthemthatkillthebody...butratherfearhimthatcandestroybothsoulandbodyinhell."

InSt.Paulwefindamoretechnicalphraseologyemployedwithgreatconsistency.Psycheisnowappropriatedtothepurelynaturallifepneumatothelifeofsupernaturalreligion,

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theprincipleofwhichistheHolySpirit,dwellingandoperatingintheheart.Theoppositionoffleshandspiritisaccentuatedafresh(Romans1:18,etc.).ThisPaulinesystem,presentedtoaworldalreadyprepossessedinfavourofaquasiPlatonicDualism,occasionedoneoftheearliestwidespreadformsoferroramongChristianwritersthedoctrineoftheTrichotomy.Accordingtothis,man,perfectman(teleios)consistsofthreeparts:body,soul,spirit(soma,psyche,pneuma).BodyandsoulcomebynaturalgenerationspiritisgiventotheregenerateChristianalone.Thus,the"newnessoflife",ofwhichSt.Paulspeaks,wasconceivedbysomeasasuperaddedentity,akindofoversoulsublimatingthe"naturalman"intoahigherspecies.ThisdoctrinewasvariouslydistortedinthedifferentGnosticsystems.TheGnosticsdividedmanintothreeclasses:

pneumaticiorspiritual,psychicioranimal,choiciorearthy.

Toeachclasstheyascribedadifferentoriginanddestiny.ThespiritualwereoftheseedofAchemoth,andweredestinedtoreturnintimewhencetheyhadsprungnamely,intothepleroma.Eveninthislifetheyareexemptedfromthepossibilityofafallfromtheirhighcallingtheythereforestandinnoneedofgoodworks,andhavenothingtofearfromthecontaminationsoftheworldandtheflesh.ThisclassconsistsofcourseoftheGnosticsthemselves.Thepsychiciareinalowerposition:theyhavecapacitiesforspirituallifewhichtheymustcultivatebygoodworks.Theystandinamiddleplace,andmayeitherrisetothespiritualorsinktothehyliclevel.InthiscategorystandstheChristianChurchatlarge.Lastly,theearthysoulsareamerematerialemanation,destinedtoperish:thematterofwhichtheyarecomposedbeingincapableofsalvation(megareinaitenhylendektikensoterias).Thisclasscontainsthemultitudesofthemerelynaturalman.

TwofeaturesclaimattentioninthistheearliestessaytowardsacompleteanthropologywithintheChristianChurch:

anextremespiritualityisattributedto"theperfect"immortalityisconditionalforthesecondclassofsouls,notanintrinsicattributeofallsouls.

Itisprobablethatoriginallythetermspneumatici,psychici,andchoicidenotedatfirstelementswhichwereobservedtoexistinallsouls,andthatitwasonlybyanafterthoughtthattheywereemployed,accordingtotherespectivepredominanceoftheseelementsindifferentcases,torepresentsupposedrealclassesofmen.ThedoctrineofthefourtemperamentsandtheStoicidealoftheWiseManaffordaparallelforthepersonificationofabstractqualities.ThetruegeniusofChristianity,expressedbytheFathersoftheearlycenturies,rejectedGnosticism.Theascriptiontoacreatureofanabsolutelyspiritualnature,andtheclaimtoendlessexistenceassertedasastrictlydejureprivilegeinthecaseofthe"perfect",seemedtothemanencroachmentontheincommunicableattributesof

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God.ThetheoryofEmanationtoowasseentobeaderogationfromthedignityoftheDivinenatureForthisreason,St.Justin,supposingthatthedoctrineofnaturalimmortalitylogicallyimplieseternalexistence,rejectsit,makingthisattribute(likePlatointhe"Timaeus")dependentonthefreewillofGodatthesametimeheplainlyassertsthedefactoimmortalityofeveryhumansoul.Thedoctrineofconservation,asthenecessarycomplementofcreation,wasnotyetelaborated.EveninScholasticphilosophy,whichassertsnaturalimmortality,theabstractpossibilityofannihilationthroughanactofGod'sabsolutepowerisalsoadmitted.Similarly,Tatiandeniesthesimplicityofthesoul,claimingthatabsolutesimplicitybelongstoGodalone.Allotherbeings,heheld,arecomposedofmatterandspirit.HereagainitwouldberashtourgeachargeofMaterialism.Manyofthesewritersfailedtodistinguishbetweencorporeityinstrictessenceandcorporeityasanecessaryornaturalconcomitant.Thusthesoulmayitselfbeincorporealandyetrequireabodyasaconditionofitsexistence.InthissenseSt.Irenusattributesacertain"corporealcharacter"tothesoulherepresentsitaspossessingtheformofitsbody,aswaterpossessestheformofitscontainingvessel.Atthesametime,heteachesfairlyexplicitlytheincorporealnatureofthesoul.HealsosometimesuseswhatseemstobethelanguageoftheTrichotomists,aswhenhesaysthatintheResurrectionmenshallhaveeachtheirownbody,soul,andspirit.ButsuchaninterpretationisimpossibleinviewofhiswholepositioninregardtotheGnosticcontroversy.

Thedubiouslanguageofthesewriterscanonlybeunderstoodinrelationtothesystemtheywereopposing.Byassigningaliteraldivinitytoacertainsmallaristocracyofsouls,GnosticismsetasidethedoctrineofCreationandthewholeChristianideaofGod'srelationtoman.Ontheotherside,byitsextremedualismofmatterandspirit,anditsdenialtomatter(i.e.theflesh)ofallcapacityforspiritualinfluences,itinvolvedtherejectionofcardinaldoctrinesliketheResurrectionoftheBodyandevenoftheIncarnationitselfinanypropersense.Theorthodoxteacherhadtoemphasize:

thesoul'sdistinctionfromGodandsubjectiontoHimitsaffinitieswithmatter.

Thetwoconversetruthsthoseofthesoul'saffinitywiththeDivinenatureanditsradicaldistinctionfrommatter,wereapttobeobscuredincomparison.Itwasonlyafterwardsandverygradually,withthedevelopmentofthedoctrineofgrace,withthefullerrecognitionofthesupernaturalorderassuch,andtherealizationofthePersonandOfficeoftheHolySpirit,thatthevariouserrorsconnectedwiththepneumaceasedtobeastumblingblocktoChristianpsychology.Indeed,similarerrorshaveaccompaniedalmosteverysubsequentformofheterodoxIlluminismandMysticism.

Tertullian'streatise"DeAnima"hasbeencalledthefirstChristianclassiconpsychologyproper.Theauthoraimstoshowthefailureofallphilosophiestoelucidatethenatureofthesoul,andargueseloquentlythatChristalonecanteachmankindthetruthonsuchsubjects.Hisowndoctrine,however,issimplytherefinedMaterialismoftheStoics,

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supportedbyargumentsfrommedicineandphysiologyandbyingeniousinterpretationsofScripture,inwhichtheunavoidablematerialismoflanguageismadetoestablishametaphysicalMaterialism.TertullianisthefounderofthetheoryofTraducianism,whichderivestherationalsoulextraduce,i.e.byprocreationfromthesouloftheparent.ForTertullianthiswasanecessaryconsequenceofMaterialism.Laterwritersfoundinthedoctrineaconvenientexplanationofthetransmissionoforiginalsin.St.JeromesaysthatinhisdayitwasthecommontheoryintheWest.Theologianshavelongabandonedit,however,infavourofCreationism,asitseemstocompromisethespiritualityofthesoul.Origentaughtthepreexistenceofthesoul.Terrestriallifeisapunishmentandaremedyforprenatalsin."Soul"isproperlydegradedspirit:fleshisaconditionofalienationandbondage(cf.Comment.adRomans1:18).Spirit,however,finitespirit,canexistonlyinabody,albeitofagloriousandetherealnature.

NeoPlatonism,whichthroughSt.Augustinecontributedsomuchtospiritualphilosophy,belongstothisperiod.LikeGnosticism,itusesemanations.TheprimevalandeternalOnebegetsbyemanationnous(intelligence)andfromnousinturnspringspsyche(soul),whichistheimageofnous,butdistinctfromit.Matterisastilllateremanation.Soulhasrelationstobothendsofthescaleofreality,anditsperfectionliesinturningtowardstheDivineUnityfromwhichitcame.Ineverything,theneoPlatonistrecognizedtheabsoluteprimacyofthesoulwithrespecttothebody.Thus,themindisalwaysactive,eveninsenseperceptionitisonlythebodythatispassivelyaffectedbyexternalstimuli.SimilarlyPlotinuspreferstosaythatthebodyisinthesoulratherthanviceversa:andheseemstohavebeenthefirsttoconceivethepeculiarmannerofthesoul'slocationasanundividedanduniversalpresencepervadingtheorganism(totaintotoettotainsingulispartibus).ItisimpossibletogivemorethanaverybriefnoticeofthepsychologyofSt.Augustine.Hiscontributionstoeverybranchofthesciencewereimmensethesenses,theemotions,imagination,memory,thewill,andtheintellectheexploredthemall,andthereisscarcelyanysubsequentdevelopmentofimportancethathedidnotforesee.Heisthefounderoftheintrospectivemethod.NoverimTe,noverimmewasanintellectualnolessthanadevotionalaspirationwithhim.Thefollowingareperhapsthechiefpointsforourpresentpurpose:

heopposesbodyandsoulonthegroundoftheirreducibledistinctionofthoughtandextension(cf.DESCARTES).St.Augustine,however,laysmorestressonthevolitionalactivitiesthandidtheFrenchIdealists.AsagainsttheManichanshealwaysassertstheworthanddignityofthebody.LikeAristotlehemakesthesoulthefinalcauseofthebody.AsGodistheGoodorSummumBonumofthesoul,soisthesoulthegoodofthebody.Theoriginofthesoulisperhapsbeyondourken.HeneverdefinitelydecidedbetweenTraducianismandCreationism.Asregardsspirituality,heiseverywheremostexplicit,butitisinterestingasanindicationofthefutilesubtletiescurrentatthetimetofindhimwarningafriend

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againstthecontroversyonthecorporealityofthesoul,seeingthattheterm"corpus"wasusedinsomanydifferentsenses."Corpus,noncaro"ishisowndescriptionoftheangelicbody.

MedievalpsychologypriortotheAristoteleanrevivalwasaffectedbyneoPlatonism,Augustinianism,andmysticalinfluencesderivedfromtheworksofpseudoDionysius.Thisfusionproducedsometimes,notablyinScotusEriugena,apantheistictheoryofthesoul.AllindividualexistenceisbutthedevelopmentoftheDivinelife,inwhichallthingsaredestinedtoberesumed.TheArabiancommentators,AverroesandAvicenna,hadinterpretedAristotle'spsychologyinapantheisticsense.St.Thomas,withtherestoftheSchoolmen,amendsthisportionoftheAristoteleantradition,acceptingtherestwithnoimportantmodifications.St.Thomas'sdoctrineisbrieflyasfollows:

therationalsoul,whichisonewiththesensitiveandvegetativeprinciple,istheformofthebody.ThiswasdefinedasoffaithbytheCouncilofVienneof1311thesoulisasubstance,butanincompletesubstance,i.e.ithasanaturalaptitudeandexigencyforexistenceinthebody,inconjunctionwithwhichitmakesupthesubstantialunityofhumannaturethoughconnaturallyrelatedtothebody,itisitselfabsolutelysimple,i.e.ofanunextendedandspiritualnature.Itisnotwhollyimmersedinmatter,itshigheroperationsbeingintrinsicallyindependentoftheorganismtherationalsoulisproducedbyspecialcreationatthemomentwhentheorganismissufficientlydevelopedtoreceiveit.Inthefirststageofembryonicdevelopment,thevitalprinciplehasmerelyvegetativepowersthenasensitivesoulcomesintobeing,educedfromtheevolvingpotenciesoftheorganismlateryet,thisisreplacedbytheperfectrationalsoul,whichisessentiallyimmaterialandsopostulatesaspecialcreativeact.ManymoderntheologianshaveabandonedthislastpointofSt.Thomas'steaching,andmaintainthatafullyrationalsoulisinfusedintotheembryoatthefirstmomentofitsexistence.

Thesoulinmodernthought

Modernspeculationsrespectingthesoulhavetakentwomaindirections,IdealismandMaterialism.Agnosticismneednotbereckonedasathirdanddistinctanswertotheproblem,since,asamatteroffact,allactualagnosticismshaveaneasilyrecognizedbiastowardsoneorotherofthetwosolutionsaforesaid.BothIdealismandMaterialisminpresentdayphilosophymergeintoMonism,whichisprobablythemostinfluentialsystemoutsidetheCatholicChurch.

History

Descartesconceivedthesoulasessentiallythinking(i.e.conscious)substance,andbodyasessentiallyextendedsubstance.Thetwoarethussimplydisparaterealities,withnovital

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connectionbetweenthem.Thisissignificantlymarkedbyhistheoryofthesoul'slocationinthebody.UnliketheScholasticsheconfinesittoasinglepointthepinealglandfromwhichitissupposedtocontrolthevariousorgansandmusclesthroughthemediumofthe"animalspirits",akindoffluidcirculatingthroughthebody.Thus,tosaytheleast,thesoul'sbiologicalfunctionsaremadeveryremoteandindirect,andwereinfactlateronreducedalmosttoanullity:thelowerlifewasviolentlyseveredfromthehigher,andregardedasasimplemechanism.IntheCartesiantheoryanimalsaremereautomata.ItisonlybytheDivineassistancethatactionbetweensoulandbodyispossible.TheOccasionalistswentfurther,denyingallinteractionwhatever,andmakingthecorrespondenceofthetwosetsoffactsapureresultoftheactionofGod.TheLeibniziantheoryofPreestablishedHarmonysimilarlyrefusestoadmitanyintercausalrelation.Thesuperiormonad(soul)andtheaggregateofinferiormonadswhichgotomakeupthebodyareliketwoclocksconstructedwithperfectartsoasalwaystoagree.Theyregisteralike,butindependently:theyarestilltwoclocks,notone.ThisawkwardDualismwasentirelygotridofbySpinoza.Forhimthereisbutone,infinitesubstance,ofwhichthoughtandextensionareonlyattributes.Thoughtcomprehendsextension,andbythatveryfactshowsthatitisatrootonewiththatwhichitcomprehends.Theallegedirreducibledistinctionistranscended:soulandbodyareneitherofthemsubstances,buteachisapropertyoftheonesubstance.Eachinitssphereisthecounterpartoftheother.Thisisthemeaningofthedefinition,"SoulistheIdeaofBody".Soulisthecounterpartwithinthesphereoftheattributeofthoughtofthatparticularmodeoftheattributeofextensionwhichwecallthebody.SuchwasthefateofCartesianism.

EnglishIdealismhadadifferentcourse.Berkeleyhadbegunbydenyingtheexistenceofmaterialsubstance,whichhereducedmerelytoaseriesofimpressionsinthesentientmind.Mindistheonlysubstance.Humefinishedtheargumentbydissolvingminditselfintoitsphenomena,aloosecollectionof"impressionsandideas".TheSensistschool(Condillacetc.)andtheAssociationists(Hartley,theMills,andBain)continuedinsimilarfashiontoregardthemindasconstitutedbyitsphenomenaor"states",andthegrowthofmodernpositivepsychologyhastendedtoencouragethisattitude.ButtorestinPhenomenalismasatheoryisimpossible,asitsablestadvocatesthemselveshaveseen.ThusJ.S.Mill,whiledescribingthemindasmerely"aseries[i.e.ofconsciousphenomena]awareofitselfasaseries",isforcedtoadmitthatsuchaconceptioninvolvesanunresolvedparadox.Again,W.James'sassertionthat"thepassingthoughtisitselftheThinker",which"appropriates"allpastthoughtsinthe"streamofconsciousness",simplyblinksthequestion.Forsurelythereissomethingwhichinitsturn"appropriates"thepassingthoughtitselfandtheentirestreamofpastandfuturethoughtsaswell,viz.theselfconscious,selfasserting"I"thesubstantialultimateofourmentallife.Tobeinthissense"monarchofallitsurveys"inintrospectiveobservationandreflectiveselfconsciousness,toappropriatewithoutitselfbeingappropriatedbyanythingelse,tobethegenuineownerofacertainlimitedsectionofreality(thestreamofconsciousness),thisistobeafreeandsovereign(thoughfinite)personality,aselfconscious,spiritualsubstance

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inthelanguageofCatholicmetaphysics.

Criticism

TheforegoingdiscussionpartlyanticipatesourcriticismofMaterialism.ThefatherofmodernMaterialismisHobbes,whoacceptedthetheoryofEpicurus,andreducedallspiritseithertophantomsoftheimaginationortomatterinahighlyrarefiedstate.Thistheoryneednotdetainushere.LaterMaterialismhasthreemainsources:

Newtonianphysics,whichtaughtmentoregardmatter,notasinertandpassive,butasinstinctwithforce.Whyshouldnotlifeandconsciousnessbeamongitsunexploredpotencies?(Priestley,Tyndall,etc.)Tyndallhimselfprovidestheansweradmittingthatthechasmthatseparatespsychicalfactsfrommaterialphenomenais"intellectuallyimpassable".Writers,therefore,whomakethoughtamere"secretionofthebrain"ora"phosphorescence"ofitssubstance(Vogt,Moleschott)maybesimplyignored.InreplytothemoreseriousMaterialism,spiritualistphilosophersneedonlyreasserttheadmissionsoftheMaterialiststhemselves,thatthereisanimpassablechasmbetweenthetwoclassesoffacts.Psychophysics,itisalleged,showsthemostminutedependenceofmindfunctionsuponbrainstates.Thetwoordersoffactsarethereforeperfectlycontinuous,and,thoughtheymaybesuperficiallydifferentyettheymustbeafterallradicallyone.Mentalphenomenamaybestyledanepiphenomenonorbyproductofmaterialforce(Huxley).Theansweristhesameasbefore.Thereisnoanalogyforanepiphenomenonbeingseparatedbyan"impassablechasm"fromthecausalseriestowhichitbelongs.Thetermis,infact,amereverbalsubterfuge.Theonlysoundprincipleinsuchargumentsistheprinciplethatessentialor"impassable"distinctionsintheeffectcanbeexplainedonlybysimilardistinctionsinthecause.ThisistheprincipleonwhichDualismaswehaveexplainedit,rests.Merelytofindrelations,howeverclose,betweenmentalandphysiologicalfactsdoesnotadvanceusaninchtowardstranscendingthisDualism.Itonlyenrichesandfillsoutourconceptofit.ThemutualcompenetrationofsoulandbodyintheiractivitiesisjustwhatCatholicphilosophy(anticipatingpositivescience)hadtaughtforcenturies.Manistwoandone,adivisiblebutavitalunity.Evolutionismendeavourstoexplaintheoriginofthesoulfrommerelymaterialforces.SpiritisnotthebasisandprincipleratheritistheultimateefflorescenceoftheCosmos.Ifweaskthen"whatwastheoriginalbasisoutofwhichspiritandallthingsarose?"wearetolditwastheUnknowable(Spencer).ThissystemmustbetreatedasMaterialisticMonism.Theanswertoitisthat,astheoutcomeoftheUnknowablehasaspiritualcharacter,theUnknowableitself(assumingitsreality)mustbespiritual.

Asregardsmonisticsystemsgenerally,itbelongsrathertocosmologytodiscussthem.Wetakeourstandontheconsciousnessofindividualpersonality,whichconsciousnessis

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adistinctdeliveranceofourveryhighestfaculties,growingmoreandmoreexplicitwiththestrengtheningofourmoralandintellectualbeing.Thisconsciousnessisemphatic,asagainstthefigmentsofafallaciouslyabstractreason,inassertingtheselfsubsistence(andatthesametimethefinitude)ofourbeing,i.e.itdeclaresthatweareindependentinasmuchaswearetrulypersonsorselves,notmereattributesoradjectives,whileatthesametime,byexhibitingourmanifoldlimitations,itdirectsustoahigherCauseonwhichourbeingdepends.

SuchistheCatholicdoctrineonthenature,unity,substantiality,spirituality,andoriginofthesoul.ItistheonlysystemconsistentwithChristianfaith,and,wemayadd,morals,forbothMaterialismandMonismlogicallycutawaythefoundationsofthese.Theforegoinghistoricalsketchwillhaveservedalsotoshowanotheradvantageitpossessesnamely,thatitisbyfarthemostcomprehensive,andatthesametimediscriminating,synthesisofwhateverisbestinrivalsystems.Itrecognizesthephysicalconditionsofthesoul'sactivitywiththeMaterialist,anditsspiritualaspectwiththeIdealist,whilewiththeMonistitinsistsonthevitalunityofhumanlife.Itenshrinestheprinciplesofancientspeculation,andisreadytoreceiveandassimilatethefruitsofmodernresearch.

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Aboutthispage

APAcitation.Maher,M.,&Bolland,J.(1912).Soul.InTheCatholicEncyclopedia.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany.RetrievedJune6,2015fromNewAdvent:http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14153a.htm

MLAcitation.Maher,Michael,andJosephBolland."Soul."TheCatholicEncyclopedia.Vol.14.NewYork:RobertAppletonCompany,1912.6Jun.2015.

Transcription.ThisarticlewastranscribedforNewAdventbyTomasHancilandJosephP.Thomas.

Ecclesiasticalapprobation.NihilObstat.July1,1912.RemyLafort,S.T.D.,Censor.Imprimatur.+JohnCardinalFarley,ArchbishopofNewYork.

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