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01 Topics
- Technology of constructions, basic terms and definitions, management of constructions,
building processes
- Pre-building, building and operation preparations
- Construction technology processes and designing
- Time planning
- Site facilities
- Earth moving and utility lines
- Foundation of structures
- Brickwork and stonework
- Reinforced concrete structures, formwork, bracing
- Preliminary interior works, finishing works
Technology as a branch of science deals generally with productionprocesses. Construction
technology deals with production processes that resultin ready-to-use building products,
this means structures, buildingsand constructions.
Scope of the constructiontechnology and managementof construction
Mechanisation of constructionprocesses
Technology of basic constructionprocesses in shell construction
Technology of interior and finishing processes
Modelling of constructiontechnology for buildings and properties
Time schedulesand modelling ofa time course of works
Theory of designing and optimising site facil ities, incl. environment protection
Occupational safety and health principles in constructionworks
Quality in construction works
Methods and theory of construction technology design incl. computer-aidedtools
Theory of automated preparation of constructions
Theory of management of constructionproduction and construction
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Irreplaceable role in the construction process
Construction ofbuildings, building constructions, defects and reconstructions
Construction equipmentand stressanalyses
Building services
Management and economyof building industry
Basic terms
CONSTRUCTION i s notdefined in the building law. Within the context of products, the
constructionis an outcomeof constructionworks incl. deliveries of building and construction
materials, constructionequipment and tools. Works are typically carried out in a continuous
place in a continuous time where the objective is to create assets (new construction) or to
change existing assets (reconstruction,modernisation, adaptation,additional construction,
annexed building or constructionalternations).
GROUP OF BUILDINGS consists of mutuallyrelated structuresbuilt withininvestment
constructions ina continuous territory and/or for acommon purpose in various places (such
as residentialareas, industrial premises, transport and line constructions...).
CONSTRUCTION PROPERTY is an integrated or technically independentpart of a buildingthat
fulfills a special purpose.
OPERATION ASSEMBLY is a groupof equipment and machines, incl. installations, and
investment inventories used for independent technology or non-technology sub-processes
that is put into operation in a continuous time.
BUILDING UNIT consistsof oneor moreground structures and other utility or transport
facil ities that are connected with them inthe space and are needed for their operation.
BUILDING PART OF THE BUILDING UNIT comprises severalconstruction properties with the
same purpose or technology nature that will be used for constructionof the building unit.
BUILDING GROUP is a group of groundstructures, utility services, transportnetworksandoperation assemblies (incl.places needed for the constructions that form, after completion, a
separate part of the buildingunit thatcan be operated independently in that location and/or
that can be used independently for construction.
CONSTRUCION PROCESS comprisesactivities such as planning, designing, construction,
erection ofoperation assemblies and all related administrativeactivities and production
processes the outcome of which is the construction (project).
PRODUCTION PROCESS i s a systematic, progressivechange of a original material into a
desired product.
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BUILDING PROCESS i s a part ofthe productionprocess theoutcomeof which is a buildingor
a part ofa building.
PROCEDURE is a part of a building sub-process that consists of several technically related
operations. The outcome is a construction component.
BUILDING SUB-PROCESS comprisesone or moreprocedures carried out by a working team (a
gang of workers) with the same or variable manpower deployment. The outcomeis a building
structure.
STAGE PROCESS comprises severalbuilding subprocessesthat are related in space and in
terms of technology, that follow each other in the course of time and progress, typically, in
one direction. The outcome is a technology stage.
PROCESS OF VOLUME OF BUILDINGS UNDER CONSTRUCTION comprises inter-related stage
processes. The outcomeis the volume of buildings under construction.
CONSTRUCTION PROPERTY PROCESS comprises several inter-related processes of the
volume ofbuildings under constructions. The outcome is a construction property.
MANAGEMENT PROCESS is a stage building process or buildingsub-processthat influences
the speed of other processes and determines, inturn, in-timecompletion of thebuilding
work. This process typically creates by the constructions a production space or other sub-
processes in the property (upper structure).
TECHNOLOGY STAGE is a structurally integrated part of a construction propertythat needs,
or is desirable, to be produced jointly (suchas foundations, lower structureor upperstructure).
VOLUME OF BUILDINGS UNDER CONSTRUCTIONS is an integrated part, in terms of
production,of a constructionproperty thatconsists of several technology stages with an inter
-related purposes (such as a lower structure incl. earthmoving works and foundations).
Main features of stage processes for analyses
a) Work items(waterproofing material,scrapers, bolts)
b) Work tools (welding equipment)
c) Labourforce (insulation workers, ditchdiggers)
d) Working (production) area (min.600 mm)
e) Intermediate products (fillings, ducts)
f) External influence (ambient temperature, rain, snow)
Basic terms
From the point of view of technology, there are heterogeneous and homogeneousstructures:
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Homogeneous structures: i ndividualparts of decisive structures are evenly distributed, this
means labour consumption is also evenlydistributed (for instance, apartment buildings
where floors are same)
Heterogeneous structures: individual parts of decisive components are distributed unevenly
and labour consumptionvaries too (for instance, a structure with more complex solution, e.g.
a generation block in a power plant)
Complexbuilding process: can be modelled as a system consisting of elements (productsand
building processes) and linksdefined on thebasis of space, technology,time and law criteria
that need to be taken into account in the model.
PREPARATION OF CONSTRUCTION deals with links between individual elementsof the
process of constructionand property. The purpose is to develop and draft an optimum
procedure for the construction in certain conditions. This process comprises a draft of
building processes as well as methods for collection and processing of documents necessaryfor the construction.
Three phases of construction preparations
1. Pre-building preparations: Feasibility study, business intention, action area planning, building
procedure/building permit (so called Basic Design) and an offer are drafted.
2. Building preparations: Detail Design, rules for the Detail Design and production costing are
prepared.
3. Operation preparations: subjects and times are updated for the productionpreparation and
activities needed directly for the performance and construction are carried out (incl.
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operative plans, orders, invoices - all documents are updated depending on the progress of
workson site)
Relations and links in the construction and technology preparations
Investment process and parties involved
Construction and technology project (STP)
This is the outcome of constructionpreparations. A model of the constructionprocess is
prepared on thebasis of
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- a space analysis
- technology and time aspects of the buildingprocess
Basic documents in STP:
- Technology chart that analyses the spatial structure of the building process
- Technology analysis (normal) that analyses the technology structureof the buildingprocess
- Time chart that analyses the time structure of the buildingprocess
- Flow chart that models the technology, time and spatial structuresof the construction
process or facil ity
- Time-and-space chart that analyses the time and space structures ofthe building process
- Charts of resources needed in time (finances, labour force, materials)
- Operative and financial plan
- Inspection and testing plan
Description of site facil ities
Structure of the construction and facility buildingprocess
Structure of the process in general
This comprisesthe structure of individual components of theproduction processthat apply to
the propertybuilding processes too.
PROPERTY PROCESS: takes place
in a certain place
using a certainprocedure
in a certain time
The space, time and the property process has acertain division and layout. The internallayoutof the property processcreates certain structures. The structure ofthe property
process is thecomposition of specific components of the propertyprocess.
Following structures are used in construction and technology projects:
SPACE STRUCTURE
TECHNOLOGY STRUCTURE
TIME STRUCTURE
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The structure form the system of the productionprocess and should be analysed jointly, not
separately, whenproposing the property buildingprocess.
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02 Space structure - parametrs and description
The space structure consists of locations of production/working areas for a certain
production process. The space structurecomprises storage areas, transport routes, locations
of machines,equipment and distribution lines, and locations of employees in the space as
well as spatial relations between all those components.
The space structure changes in the progress of production for different products.The space
structure is inaccordance with the technology and time structures.
Following items are analysed within thespace structure of the constructionand propertyprocesses:
Division of the space for the buildingunit and construction propertyinto components, i.e.
into intermediate products (such as constructiongroups and parts of the construction
properties with the same technology,properties, operation assemblies, technology stages,
performance sections, parts and workplaces) from the point of view of production.
Sequence of the mentioned components in theflow of production, this meansthe direction
of construction, sequenceof construction groups,sequence of building processes for
properties and stages and sequence of buildingsub-processes.
Definitionof the minimum working space needed for major assemblies and related
technology stages.
Proposal and evaluation of the layoutin the space and operations tobe performed by liftingequipment
The space where the construction property is being constructed is divided into:
1. PERFORMANCE PART
This is the space defined for a specific construction of a constructionproperty, for instance a
compensation section of the property where all volumes of worksunder construction are
carried out.
2. SECTION
This is the space where a respective technology stage is carried out. Each section have
common borders for workplaces withinthe associated building sub-processes.
3. WORKPLACE
It is a part of a section inthe technology stage that is defined separately for eachbuilding
process. The border is definedby joints (bothstructural and working joints), and connections
of structures or by the completedstructure. The workplace is a basis for the minimum
working queue(the working space) because one group of workers can typically work in one
workplace.
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Technology stage: upper shell structure
4-floor building,monolithic reinforced concrete skeleton with two compensation parts: A and
B
The upper shell structure will be produced using 4 compensation building processes
(formworks, armouring, concrete work,formwork dismantling) with various bordersof
workplaces.
The formworksand formwork dismantling take place typically for entire spans of the skeleton,
while the connection of supportsand construction joints need to consider the static effects of
the structure. Therefore, the borders of workplaces are in locations with minimum bending
moments and internal forces in the structure.
The common borders of theworkplaces for those four buildingsub-processes are givenin the
horizontal direction by the compensation jointsor, once the structure is completed, by the
structural heightof the floor in theverticaldirection. Therefore, onesections corresponds
here to onecompensation part in one floor.
The flow of works describes the flow of buildingsub-processes and/or stage processes, this
meansthe flow of productionforces in the property under construction. The flow shows the
relocation of production forces from oneproduction space into another.
The building sub-processes in one stage processhave always the same direction of the flow
typical for that stage process.
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Stage processes and building sub-processes are typically performed in following directions:
1. Horizontal direction (H): This direction is typicalfor thesections and workplaces in followingstage processes: lower shell structure, upper shell structure (one-floor building), roofing and
landscaping.
2. Horizontal ascending direction (HV) This direction is typical for the sections and workplaces
mainly in the following stage process: upper shell structure (multi-floor building).
3. Vertical ascending direction (VV): This direction is typical for the sectionsmainly in multi-floor
buildings in theupper shell structure and for sections and workplaces in followingstage
processes: partition walls and primary wiring or internal plastering and coating.
4. Vertical descending direction (VS): This direction is typical for the sectionsand workplacesmainly in multi-floor buildings in following stage processes: interior floor, surface and
technology, interior assembling works and outdoor works on facades.
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The directions must be always in accordance with the structuraland stress parameters
Most importantparameters in the space structure:
- work queue coefficient
- number of spatial parts with the same complexity
Building with n floor
Example: primary installations - minimumworking space in the 2nd floor: this means the
minimumwork queue for the process is M. The total work space is C and covers n floors.
Work queue coefficient is fij (%)
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This coefficient describeswhat is the minimumpart of the product/property that needs to be
completed within the i process so that thefollowing j processcould start and so thatthe both
processes would not collide.fij is the basic indicator thatcharacterises theminimumworking
space needed for a process. fij is a space structure parameter for inter-relation of two
processes.
In general: eachprocess requires a different minimumwork queue.
For building construction properties,not morethan 3 various valuesof the main work queue
coefficients have proved to beenough for the space structureof the production process.Those values need tobe calculated from the main minimum work queues.
The technology chart describes the space structure of the property processand provides
some data about the technology structure.
Technology chartsare drafted only for more complex construction properties.Typically, they
consist of following parts:
1. Diagrammatic sectionand/or plane view of the propertywhere the propertyis divided into
parts with various production facil ities and technologies
2. Definitionof technology stages and technology sections
3. Determination of the flow of works for specific stage processes
4. Proposal and assessment of lifting equipment
Spatial zoning of the property and the flow of works is influenced mainly by:
- the stress and structuralanalyses (constructionand compensation joints)
- assessment ofstability of parts of the propertythat are under construction
- assessment of gradual loading of structures and foundation subsoil
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- selection of constructionequipment/cranes
Proposal and analysis of lifting equipment (tower crane)
- Graphical and numerical solutions are usedto prove thatparameters of the crane meet
dimensions of the construction propertyand parametersof components that will bel ifted.
- Proposal of a crane: as small and as cheap as possible (cranes are expensive)
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Typically, following aspects need to be considered:
- Working radius of thecranearm and distance of the components from the crane axis.
- The lifting height of the hookdecreased by the slinging equipment height,height of the
component to be lifted and handling height for installation of the component in respect of
the components in the structure of the property.
- Load-carrying capacity of the crane for the specific working radiusand lifting height - it must
correspondto the locationof the components in the structure of the property and weightsof
the components. Typically, a component with the maximum weight and most negative
position should be considered.
- Whether the crane structure does not jeopardise the operation and environment.
- Whether the position of the structure does notinfluence negatively the subsoil and
foundation structures.
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03 Technology structure, parameters and description
The technology structure of a buildingprocessexists in time and in space. Therefore,it must
be described inaccordance with thetime and space structures of the buildingprocess.
The technology structure of the building process comprises:
- division of a general process into property-related processes, divisionof a propertyprocess
into processes relating to the volume of buildingunder construction, stage processes, and
building sub-processes.
- sequence of propertyprocesses, processes relating to the volume of building under
construction, stage processes and building sub-processes.
- technology linksbetween processes.
- labour force and structure of the labour force.
- work tools and structure of the work tools.
- work itemsand structure of the workitems.
Most importantparameters in the technology structure:
1. Number of properties,volumes of buildings under reconstruction and technology stages
2. Number of buildingsub-processes
3. Scope of production
4. Labourconsumption
5. Labourproductivity
6. Number and composition of labour force
7. Number of machines and equipment
Number of properties is determined on the basis of a layoutdrawing, technology report of
projectdocumentation.
The volumes of buildings under constructionand technologystages is generally determined
in technology analysesof the propertyprocess depending on the space structureof the
building process.
The number of building sub-processes is determined using a technologyaggregation standard
for all procedures that are listed in the analysis sheet for the propertyor production
calculation.
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Scopeof production:Q Labourconsumption: P
This is the quantity of a product that is an outcomeof acertain process. It is expressed in
physical or financial units. This is the basis for calculation of the labour consumption, labourproductivity or for determinationof building materials or half-finished products that are
needed for the construction.
(m2, m3, Ks, Kg)
(K , thousand K )
This is the quantity of labour needed for production of a certainquantity of a product in a
certain process. Following types exist:
-
Standardised labour consumption measured in standard hours
PN =Q . N c(Nh)
- Real labour consumption measured in workinghours :
PS= (Q . Nc) / n (Ph)
- Standardised labour consumption measured in standard hours
PN =Q . N c(Nh)
- Real labour consumption measured in workinghours :
PS= (Q . Nc) / n (Ph)
Q = scope of productionexpressed in physical or financial units.
NC = labour unit,this means a standardised consumption of working time of one
worker/machine per a measure unit of a qualityproduce produced in a certain process. The
unit is standard time/measure unit of a product (the value is taken from time samples of
building processes on the site)
n = coefficient of standard intensity (the ratio between the realand standard labourconsumption ofa certain process)This is a corporatecoefficient determined using statistic
methods. It is expressed in % or dimensionless units
Labourproductivity: Pr
This is the scopeof production of a certain process produced by an employee per a unit of
time.
Pr = Q / T
Q scopeof productionmeasured in physical or financial units
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T time (in units of time) during which the scope of production, Q,
has been produced
Types of productivity: daily, weekly, monthly,yearly
Units: financial, physical
Attention is paid to the number of employees in:
HSV primary building operations
PSV secondary building operations
The technology structure of theproperty process is shown in analysis sheets and technology
norm.
Analysis sheet
An analysis sheet describes in detail the technology structure ofthe propertyprocess thatis
divided into procedures (inpast, the term "a preliminary technology norm" was used).
The analysis sheet is the basic technology document that analyses individual processes during
which the structural components are produced. The analysis sheet classifies them into stage
processes, technology procedures, labour consumption and buildingsub-processes based on the
manpower deployment for thespecific technology.
Once theanalysis sheet is drafted, a technology normneeds to be prepared. Itlists a
technology sequence of building sub-processes, this means processes allocated to different working
groups and/or determined by a specificmanpower deployment.
In order to aggregate the individual procedures into building sub-processes in a technology
norm, following rulesmust be followed:
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&.
1. The aggregatedprocedures are carried out by thesame working group (for instance,
150 mm and 100 mm partition walls are erected by the same groupof workers).
2. The aggregatedprocedures take placeshortly after eachother (e.g. theconstruction
of the partitions follows directly the construction of another partitions).
3. Thereare not any technology interruptionsbetween theaggregated processes.
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04 Time structure - parameters and description
The time structure of a building processresults from time links with the space and technology
analysis of the building process. The time structure cannotbe analysedapart from the space
and technology structures.
The time structure of a building process comprises:
1. Time sequenceand time schedule of all property processes, stage processes and buildingsub-
processes
2. Time evaluation of links between the processes (determination of time values for respective
links)
3. Sourcesneeded in time (finances, labour force, materials, machines)
Most importantparameters in the time structure:
1. Duration of a buildingsub-process
2. Time and durationof deployment of thestage processes
3. Time and durationof deployment of the property processes and processes relating to the
volume of buildings under construction
4. Time values of relations between the processes
5. Starting and endingdates for the buildingprocesses
The time structure parameters are expressed in units of time(days, weeks and months).
The starting and ending dates of thebuildingprocesses can be expressed relatively, this
means as a number of time units from the start of construction, or absolutely as a calendar
day.
Duration of a building sub-proces, can be calculated by one of two available methods
(depending on input datathat are available).
Natural method
Financial method
Natural method
The naturalmethod is based on the real labour consumption calculated from a physical
volume of production ofa certain building sub-process. Physical units are used. It is also
possible to use the real labour consumption specified in the operation costing.
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Maximum number of workers, d max, is givenby the size of theworking queue or by supplier's
capacity.
Different number of workers or machines in the range from d max todmi nresult in different
durations of the building sub-processes: fromt min to t max
Time of the i th stage process, this meanst i, in time unitscan be calculated as a time of
deploymentof the i th stage process,T i , and the time of the last building sub-process,t posl,
that takes place in the stage process (in time units).
t i= T i+ t posl ( .j.)
The time structure is shown in time charts (time schedules).
The time structure together with the space structure is shown in time-space charts(in past,
the term "cyclogram" was used). Activities are shown there depending on the time and space.
The horizontal axis is the time axis and thevertical axis is the space axis.
The time structure can be also described in flow charts thatare well suited for depictionof
complex building processes or propertyprocesses that are divided, as systems, into building
sub-processes.
Time structure charts include also charts describing the sources needed (workers, financial
costsor materials).
Stage process consists of buildingsub-processes: There are certain LINKS betweenbuilding
sub-processes, stage processes or processes relating to the volumeof building under
constructions (= components of the propertybuilding process).
- Information links
- Links resulting from the progress of construction: sequence of activities,distribution
of work,minimum working queue...
Links relating to technology are technology links .
Activities (building sub-processes) are organisational links .
- Technology link is the primary link.
- Organisational link is the secondary link.
Links between the processes are used tocalculate the starting and endingdates for the
building processes. The calculation is based on thestarting and ending dates of the previous
process and the starting and end dates of the next process need to be calculated.
Time and durationof deployment of the stage process is given by:
1. Integration of the building sub-processes in thetime-space or time chart
2. Calculation
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3. Using of thedatabase of technicaland economic indicators for the time of deployment of
stage processes and a group of networkcharts created for individual types of properties (NB:
a part of software)
Duration ofthe process relating to thevolume of buildings underconstruction and duration of
the property process is given by:
1. Integration of the stage processes or building sub-processes in thetime-space or time chart
2. Calculation
3. In-house methods
4. Modelling (software)
Duration of the propertyprocess (for preparation documentation in pre-production preparation
or FS)
(months)
Toduration of the propertyprocess (in timeunits)
Zobudget price of the property
Pr labour productivity per employee per time unit (month - based on classifications)
d average number of workers working in the property (in-house indicators)
There is a link between two building processes (sub-processes, stage processes, processes
relating tothe volumes of buildings under construction or property processes).
The previous process is i and the next process is j .
Following types of links are used typically for the time structure analyses:
End (K) - Start (Z) K - Z
Start (Z) - Start (Z) Z - Z
End (K) - End (K) K - K
Start (Z) - End (K) Z - K
Bui lding and te chnology l ink (STV) STV
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END -START (K-Z) link
K-Z link between two building processes iand j
The times for the related buildingprocesses are t i and t j and starting dates are Zi and Zj
Endingtimes are Ki and Kj
is the time valueof thelink. For this link, it is between the end of the previousactivity i Ki
and start of the next activity j Zj. The activity is described with a solid line representing the
situation when = 0. In this case, the activityj immediately follows after the end of the
previous activity i (the bothactivities are carried out by same groupsof workers).
Activity jis described with a dash l ine. It relates to i where > 0 . For instance, a technology
interruption after the end ofthe previous activity i.
Activity j is described with a dotted line. It relates to i where < 0. For instance: the two
following activitiesare carried out by different groups of workers but the productionspace is
big enough so thatj could start beforethe end of the activity that precedes i.
START START (Z-Z) link
The time valueof this link is defined by thestart of thepreviousprocess i Zi and start of the
next processj Zj .
If > 0, the next group of workers j starts working after a fixed time elapses from the start
of theprevious activity i.
If the both activities are inter-related and carried out in the same space and if technology
interruptions are not considered, then: + tj P t i ( .j.)
= time of the Start-Start link in time units
t j= time of the next process in time units
t i= time of the previousprocess intime units
In this link, it is generally possible that the next activity, j , ends before the previousactivity i.
The both activities should be carried out indifferent work spaces and must not depend on
each other. This link can also havea zero time value. For instance: two or moreactivities
start at the same time (start of construction, geodetic survey and overburden stripping). If
the value between two sub-processes in one stage process and/or propertyprocess is same,
it is recommended to change the order of the sub-processes.
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END - END (K-K) link
The time value of this link is defined by theendof the previous process i K iand end of the
next processj K j.
Situations when > 0 the next group ofworkers j finishes its work after a fixed time elapses
from the endof the previous activity i).
If the both activities are inter-related and carried out in the same space and if technology
interruptions are not considered, then: + t iP tj (timeunits)
= time of the Start Start link in time units
t j= time of the previousprocess intime units
t i= time of the next process in time units
START END (Z-K) link
The time valueof this link is defined by thestart of thepreviousprocess i Kiand endof the
next processj K j .
This link is usedseldom in building practice
Other links are preferred
This link is desirablei f zero or negative time values are used "d0and if the time values are
used for relating the two propertyprocesses or the last sub-process in the next property
process and first sub-process of the previous propertyprocess. This link describes the case
that thenext property, or at least the sub-process of the next property, must be completed
beforeor at the moment of start of works at the previousproperty.
Construction and technology link (STV)
STV is the link derivedfrom the space structure of the building process. The reason for this
link is that it is essential tohave an available minimumworking queue for start of the next
building sub-process j . The minimumworking queue must be releasedby the previous
process i in all places of the working space where activities are carried out in iand j
processes.
The time value is not defined for this link. We use a working queue coefficient f ij , that
represents a relation between the minimumworking space and total working space available
for the groupof workers.
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05Volumes of buildings under construction and technology stages
Construction property:a technical system consisting of systemcomponents = various types of
structures with differentfunctions (or severalfunctions) and link and functionrelations
between the structures.
Each property is built stepby step: intermediate products are created. The intermediate
products are referred to as the volumes of buildingunder construction. Each volume of
building under construction is divided into technology stages.
A part of the propertyprocess thatresults ina certain volumeof buildingunder construction
is named "a processrelating to the volume of building under construction".
Each process relating tothe volume of building under construction thatresults in a certain
technology stage is named "a stage process".
Building construction properties
There are typically 4 volumes of building under construction:
I. Lower structure
II. Upper structure incl.roofing
III. Preliminary interiorworks
IV. Finishing works
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Stage processes (typically 10 or 11)
0. Eearth moving works (+ demolitions)
Foundations
Lower structure
Upper shell structure
Roofing
Construction of partition walls and somewiring/installations
Interior plastering and coating
Floors, surfaces and technologies
Interior final assembly
Outdoor works
Quality control and acceptance
Main features of the stage processes
Work items
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Work tools
Labourforce
Activities
Working space
Intermediate products
External influences
Other important circumstances
Stage process 0 - Earth movingworks and demolitions
Workitems: soil, rock, structures to be demolished
Work tools: earth movingequipment, excavators, bracing equipment
Labour force: land surveyors, equipmentoperators, drivers
Activities: layout works, pumpingof water, soil excavation, supporting, timbering
Working space: at and under the landscapelevel
Intermediate products: foundationpi t, ditch
External influences: winter,weather
Other important circumstances: transport outof the site
Stage process 1 -Foundations
Workitems: dry mix and wet mix, aggregate, concrete, timbering,sand, insulation
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Work tools: cranes, pier equipment, concrete mix plant
Labour force: concrete layers,steel benders, carpenters, brick layers, insulation workers
Activities: steelworks, moulding, releasingof moulding, concrete casting,compaction
Working space: at and under the landscapelevel
Intermediate products: piers, foundations,horizontal insulation, float sewage systems
External influences: winter,weather
Other important circumstances: -
Stage process 2 -Lower shell structure
Workitems: dry mix and wet mix, aggregate, concrete, timbering,sand, insulation,
scaffolding
Work tools: cranes, scaffoldings
Labour force: concrete layers,steel benders, carpenters, brick layers, insulation workers
Activities: steelworks, bricklaying, releasing of moulding, concrete casting, compaction
Working space: at and under the landscapelevel
Intermediate products: vertical insulations, walls, columns, ceilings, staircases in the 1st floor,
heat insulation
External influences: winter,weather
Other important circumstances: -
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Stage process 3 -Upper shell structure
Workitems: dry mix and wet mix, aggregate, concrete, timbering,sand, insulation,
scaffolding, prefabricated components
Work tools: cranes, scaffoldings, lifts, hoists, concrete pumps
Labour force: concrete layers,steel benders, carpenters, brick layers, insulation workers,
crane operators
Activities: moulding, bricklaying, releasingof moulding, steelwork, concrete casting, assembly
Working space: above the landscape level
Intermediate products: bearing walls,ceilings, girders, staircases
External influences: winter,weather
Other important circumstances: transport of maximum weights of materials
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Stage process 4 -Roofing
Workitems: dry mix and wet mix, constructionmaterials, aggregate, concrete, timbering,
sand, insulation, scaffolding, prefabricated components,wiring components
Work tools: cranes, scaffoldings, lifts, hoists, concrete pumps
Labour force: concrete layers,steel benders, carpenters, brick layers, insulation workers,
crane operators, roofers
Activities: moulding, bricklaying, releasingof moulding, steelwork, concrete casting, wiring
installation
Working space: above the landscape level, max
Intermediate products: roof beams, heat insulation and waterproofing, roofing
External influences: winter,weather
Other important circumstances: -
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Stage process 5 - Construction of partition wallsand some wiring/installations
Workitems: dry mix and wet mix, constructionmaterials, doors and windows
Work tools: cranes, scaffoldings, lifts, hoists, concrete pumps
Labour force: bricklayers, carpenters, roofers, heating experts, joiners, wiring and cablingexperts...
Activities: bricklaying, masonry, glassing, insulation, gypsum plasterboard
Working space: above the landscape level
Intermediate products: partition walls, machine rooms, door casing, light-weigh external
cladding
External influences: -
Other important circumstances: -
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Stage process 6 - Interior plastering and coating
Workitems: dry mix and wet mix, heat insulation and soundinsulation
Work tools: c ranes, scaffoldings, lifts, hoists
Labour force: bricklayers, plasterers, insulation workers
Activities: brickworks, brick filling, timberwork
Working space: above the landscape level
Intermediate products: screed under flooring
External influences: -
Other important circumstances: -
Stage process 7 -Floor, surfaces and technologies
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Workitems: dry mix and wet mix, heat insulation and soundinsulation, construction
materials, locksmith components
Work tools: c ranes, scaffoldings, lifts, hoists
Labour force: bricklayers, plasterers, insulation workers, carpenters, joiners
Activities: tiling, painting, flooring, poured floors
Working space: above the landscape level
Intermediate products: t iles,floors, ceilings, painting
External influences: -
Other important circumstances: -
Stage process8 - interior final assembly
Workitems: fixtures and fittings, wood, boards, metal components, paint matters
Work tools: lifts, scaffoldings, small-size equipment
Labour force: bricklayers, plasterers, insulation workers, wiring and cabling experts
Activities: installation of fixtures and fittings, laminated and textile floors, gluing, wall
covering
Working space: above the landscape level
Intermediate products: finished installation, floors, surfaces, windowsand doors
External influences: -
Other important circumstances: -
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Stage process 9 - Outdoor works
Workitems: construction materials,insulation, painting matters
Work tools: lifts, scaffoldings, small-size equipment
Labour force: bricklayers, tile setters, facade workers, scaffolding worders, wiring and cabling
experts
Activities: outdoor treatment of surfaces, painting, plastering, tiling, wiring, heavy-current
cablers
Working space: above the landscape level - fasade
Intermediate products: final facade finish, water spouts
External influences: weather
Other important circumstances: -
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Stage process 10 - Qualitycontrol and acceptance
This process is carried out simultaneously with all buildingsub-processes that are included
into the stage processes (0 to 9)
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06Modelling of construction planning - Preparation of the
construction
This is a systematic process wherethe constructionof investment units and properties is
designed and decisions about the performance in existing conditions are made.
The preparation is divided into: 1) pre-building preparation
2) buildingpreparation
3) operation preparation
Pre-building preparations
Pre-building preparation is carried outby the investor.This comprisespreparation of a
business intention or feasibility study, preparation of zoning management documentation
and preparation of buildingpermit documentation.
The pre-building preparation comprises all negotiations with competent organisations,
authorities and state bodies.
The supplier of building works prepares an offer and fixed job contract withinthe pre-building
preparation.
Building preparation
Building preparation is carried out by the supplier. Key outcomes of supplier's building
preparation is the costing, detailed long-termed planof the construction for the
investment/property, controlplan and testing plan.
Operation preparation
Operation preparation is carried out by the site manager onthe site. Key outcomes include
operative plans, test protocols, quality records, operative records for work done, updated
time schedules...
Basics for preparation of the construction
The basis is BUILDING AND TECHNOLOGY DESIGN. This comprises the designing of building
processes for structures and properties as well as project planning and drafting of the project
documentation.
The outcome of thebuildingand technologydesign is the project for propertyand structure
processes (a model).
The buildingand technology design is carried outat the same time as the creation of the
projectdocumentation for the building permit until the detail design. This represents thebasics of thepreparations.
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Main documents of the building and technology design
Technology chartand analysis of the space structure of the buildingprocess, including a
proposal/analysis of hoisting equipment
Analysis sheet for technology
Time chart (time schedule, time-space chart, network chart)
Charts of resources needed (finances, labour force, materials)
Inspection and testing plan
Technology specifications(production regulations) incl. detailedprocedures for some
processes
Proposed occupational safety and protectionactions, fire prevention actions, environment
protection actions and security measures
Proposed site facil ities
Technical report
There are not any legal regulations now that would list obligatory documents that should be
created i n respective stages of the constructions (rules recommended by the Czech Chamber of
Authorised Technicians ( KAIT) are taken as a basis).
Utilisation of the constructionand technology design by the investor
Preparation of a model for the construction/investment in line with the building intention,
feasibility study or zoning plandocumentation.
(a concept, calculation of costs, optimised end of construction, necessary permits...)
Supplier of building works and the construction and technology design
Pre-building preparation - CONSTRUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY STUDY
A construction and technology study comprises activities and documents prepared by the
supplier beforeand within preparation of the offer.
The constructionand technology studyis based onthe business intention, zoning plan project
documentation and/or building permit project documentation (thepurpose of the pre-
building operation is to collect as many documents and as much information as possible from
the investor and designer).
The supplier uses also standards and database with data about building processes collected
during previous construction job.
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Building preparation - construction and technology design
The constructionand technology design is prepared withinthe building preparation after the
supplier of buildingworkssignedwith the investor a letter of intent or after the supplier isinformed thathis offer was chosen as the bestin the tender.
Typically, the building permit project is available in thisstage.
Main objectives of the building and technology design
- to clarify conditions for preparation of the detail design with a focus on operating stages of
the construction.
- to decide whether it is possible to manufacture the structure using the chosen building
processes (the product,stability, constructionjoints, continuity of works...)
- to define a reasonable progress of building processes.
Following documents are drafted and actions are performed within the constructionand technology
study:
Descriptions of the space structure of the building process in general, division of the
constructioninto constructionproperties, identification of mainstructural systems and
technologies, determination of supplier chains (supplier - sub-supplier) .
Division of the general building process into property-related processes, processes relating tothe volume of building under construction, stage processes, sub-processes and management
processes.
Characteristics of the site, utilisation of existing buildings for site facil ities,stocking for the
site, transportof materials, removal of excavated soil, spoil heaps, dumping sites,
intermediate storage places.
Analysis of thesite interms ofcompany's capacities near the site.
Principles for the progress of construction and selection of main constructionequipment.
Principles for site operation, connection to roads and resources (energy and water).
Technology standard (reserves should be considered).
Time schedule.
Charts of resourcesneeded in time (costsfor determination of the offer price in the budget).
Dates for documentation, progress of works, safety, and quality.
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Following documents are drafted and actions are performed within the constructionand technology
design:
- Detailed design of site facil ities (interms of operation and employees'sfacil ities)
- Time chart of sourcesneeded
- Production calculation
- Inspection and testing plan
Inspection plan - scope:
- name of activity (building sub-processes)
- supplier
- subject of inspection
- personwho carries out the inspection (site manager,supervisor, testing shop, expert)
- inspection documents (certificate,entry in the building journal, protocol)
- norms governing the inspection (ISI, SN, DIN)
- brief description of the inspection
- number of inspections during the activity
- dates of inspections
- evaluation of inspections
- signatures, dates of inspections, parties involved
Technology specification is a part of the constructionand technology design
- Continuity and synchronised performance of workingoperations.
- Working procedures for working activities.
- Use of equipment, machines and special tools.
- Types of auxiliary building structures(scaffoldings, platforms).
- Vertical and horizontal transportof materials and roads.
- Technical and organisational actionsaimed at protection of employees.
- Protection of sitefacilities if not in use.
- Emergency actions
- General description of the building process.
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- Validity of the technology specification.
- Readine ss for the process.
- Used materials, transport and storage in site facil ities.
- Workers in the group.
- Workingand protective equipment.
- Construction equipment and use of construction equipment.
- Quality control and environment protection.
- Related SN, source documents and specialised literature
Operation preparation
Operation preparation is carried out by the site manager onthe site. Key outcomes include
operative plans (week, month,three-month), test protocols, quality records, invoicesfor
works done (typically for one month), updated time schedules, information about compliance
with construction deadlines.
Construction and technology principles during the constructionof buildings
MAIN OBJECTIVES AND ACTIVITIES WITHINTHE CONSTRUCTION AND TECHNOLOGY
DESIGNING OF PROPERTIES
- to clarify conditions for the proposal of structures in terms of basic, preparatory,auxiliary and
transportprocesses.
- to clarify fabricability of proposed structures from the point of view of production of the
structures and structurecomponents (stability, joints).
- to define the frequency of operation technologies.
- to define the use of equipment.
- to define auxiliary structures.
- to define deployment of groups of workers/specialised groups).
Construction and technology principles during the constructionof buildings
Activities within theconstruction and technologydesigning
- to determine the construction and technology conditionsfor the proposal of the lower shell
structure, upper shell structure and some interior structures.
- to determine the construction and technology conditionsfor the proposal of buildingservices.
- to define conditionsfor installation of equipment and operation assemblies (depending on
the building readiness)
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- to determine the construction and technology conditions for the proposal of final works.
- to design a propertyprocess (the sequence of sub-processes and stage processes).
- to design the site facil ities for the property.
- to analyse structuraldetails in terms of the production process.
Shell structure and major interior structure
Technology aspect:
- Consistent production technology in the design of bearing structures for the lower shell
structure. Most important equipment.
- Unified components and shapes for scaffoldings,moulding. Rate of movement.
- Stability of thestructure, parts under construction, stabilisation of parts under construction.
Building services
Technology aspect:
- Prefabrication of individual types of lines.
- Assembled components - assembly - fast installation.
- Fastening - anchoring of the lines - usinge .g. scaffoldings, tools and other equipment.
- Focus on the sequence of verticaland horizontal parts- assembly.
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07 Time planning - Time structure
A proposal of a reasonable time structure of theprocess isamongkey tasks ofthe
constructionand technology design.
Individual components of the time structure need to be addressed: time behaviour (duration
and times) of lower-level components of the operation process as well as the total duration.
Considering the relations between the technical equipment, technology and organisation, the
processes can:
- follow each other directly or with interruptions,
- overlap,
- take place at the same time.
TIME SCHEDULE - CYCLOGRAM - NETWORK CHART
(each model consists of i dentification,calculation, graphic and evaluation party)
Deadlines and durations
Duration of a certain process is:
T = f (Q,V)
T = duration in time units
Q = volume ofproduction in financial costs, labour consumption,technical unitsor physical
units
V = performance of the working unit in production unitsper time unit (e.g. thousands/days)
Simply: T = Q / V
Other relations:
a) Relation between the durationof constructionand capital expenditures
b) Relation between the durationof constructionand total constructioncosts
Duration of constructiondepends on the volume of production (Q) and performance of the
working unit pertime unit (V).
Necessary information is taken from technical and economic indicators of structures and
buildings, projects, pricelistsof buildingworks, studies, budgets, production calculations,
direct measurements, comparisons and analyses.
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Duration Calculation of the duration of building activities (general relation for calculation of
the process duration):
- T - numberof time units
- P - labour productivity of one employee in CZK
- N - costs in CZK
- D - number of employees per unit
- T - numberof workingdays
- Nh - total number of hoursneeded for the required volume of works
- h - number of hours in a working shift
- D - number of employees
- k - coefficient of probability of full deployment and workingtime utilisation
Time schedule
A bar chart is the most simple time model that is used most often todescribe the progress of
activities in thecourse of time.
Scope of the timeschedule
- Name of the construction
- Identification of individual properties
- Names of properties
- Building work costs (,000 CZK or physical units)
- Average number of employees
- Calculated duration of a building process
- Time interval
- Comments (e.g. sub-suppl iers)
- It is recommended to list source data for preparation of the time schedule.
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Time schedule for the property
- Name of constructionand property
- Identification of technology stage
- Number of activity
- Identification of activities
- Unit of volume
- Volume of works (quantity)
- Labourconsumption
- Coefficient of probability of full deployment and workingtime utilisation
- Estimated number of ownand third partyemployees
- Estimated number of hoursin a workingshift
- Calculated duration of activity
- Activities carried out by sub-suppliers
- Time units for duration of activities
Cyclogram - time-space chart
Time units are on the horizontal axis.
Space units are on thevertical axes (workplaces depending on thedetail of the cyclogram,e.g.
properties, technologystages, floors - above/under ground...)
Space units are typically drawn from below upwards in volume units (e.g. ,000 K ).
Lines or broken lines indicate certain activities in a specific place and time.
Following information is shown:
- continuity of operations the line isuninterrupted
- speed of progress of works a steep linemeansa fast progress of works, a flat linemeans
a slow progress
- mut ual descriptionof acti vities - parallel acti vities have the same speed, crossing line: the
act ivi ties occur in the same t ime in the same place
-
The sequence and dir ect ion of act ivi ties and mutual rel at ionsare calculated there.
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Network charts
Operation analysis
Chart theories
Each chart is a system that consists of points and connecting lines
Points are nodes and connecting lines are edges
Mathematic equation G = (U, H), where
- U is a set of all nodes (i = 1 &..n)
- H is any part of all connecting lines
If the number of nodes is definite: a definite chart
If the number of nodes is indefinite: an indefinite chart
If the edges are oriented: an oriented chart
If the edges havecertain values: a chart with valued edges
NETWORK CHART- DEFINITE CONTINUOUS CHART
From thepoint of view of the chart theory, each network chartis: definite, continuous, oriented
with one start and one end.
Types of network charts:
Stochastic charts use probability to determine a duration of activities
Deterministic charts: a) with definededges
b) with defined nodes
Duration of activities is determined by mathematic methods
Basic terminology
Project: a set of activities thatform the work process. A network chartis a model of a project.
Activity: a basic component of thenetwork chart. It represents a pre-defined part of the
projectand shows the needed time and/or sources. It has a dynamic character.
Network chart: graphic representation of the project (model). It shows dependencies
between the activities.
Network chart with defined edges: activities are identified with the edges
Network chart with defined nodes: activities are identified with the nodes
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Node: one of basic components of the network chart.In the network chart with thedefined
edges, a noderepresents a starting or ending momentof one or more activities. It does not
pose requirements for time or resources. It is a static component. In the network chartwith
the defined notes, a node represent an activity.
Edge: the connecting line between two nodes.
Path in the network chart: the sequenceof activitiesthat passes from the starting node to
theending nodein thenetwork chart.
Cycle: the path that starts and ends in the same node.
Loop: the edge that starts and endsin the same node.
Milestone: the node that represents a decisive situationof the project.
Network chart topology: the mutual relation of activities and nodes in the network chart.Itrepresents mutual links between theactivities and nodes.
Resource: employees, equipment, materials and finances needed for the performance of
activities.
Time reserve: the number of time units thatare available for the performance of an activity
in addition to thedefined duration.
Soonest possible start of activities: the soonest moment when the activity can start
ZM ti(0)
Soonest possible end of activities: the soonest moment when the activity can end
KM tj(0)
Latest acceptable start of activities: the latest moment when the activity must start
KP ti(1)
Latest acceptable end of activities: the latest momentwhen the activity must end
KP tj(1)
Network chart with defined edges
A network chartwith defined edges is a definite directed chart thatshows a model of a
specific project. The edges represent project activities, while the nodesrepresent the time.
This means, the duration of each activity is givenby the value of thenetwork chart edge. For
activities in one path: once one activity ends, another activity can start.
Following typesof activities exist:
- Real activity: it is performed and has a specific scope (for instance: placing of concrete for
shallow foundations/footings or erectionof a steel structure...). It can be valued by means of
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resources and time. A solid linein the chart describesthe realactivities.
- Dummy activity: it representsthe relation between the activities.Duration is zero. No
resources are needed. A dash line describes the fictive activities.
- Distance activity: it represents the relation between the nodes and activities(leading times
and delays). It poses requirements in termsof the time. Resources are notconsidered. A dot-
and-dash linedescribes the distance activities.
Network chart with defined edges
If severalactivities are in the node input and/or nodeoutput:
1. - eachnode (except for the start of thechart) is performed after allactivities that end in the
nodehave been completed. This is the conjunctivity of the node input.
2. - performanceof any node (except for the end of the chart)meansthat all activitiesthat start
in the nodeare started. This is the determination of the node output.
Creation of the network chart:
1. Determination ofthe breakdownof the project into specific activities (the progress ofworks
and technology need to be considered)
2. Creation of theprimary network chart
3. Gradual changes in the networkchart
Relations and links of the activities can be logically derived:
- by forward operations
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- by backward operations
- by combined operations
Each network chart must fulfil 3 basic conditions:
1. It must have one start and one end.
2. It must be free of cycles.
3. It must be free of multi-graphs.
The soonest possible times are determined by the forward calculation.
The latest acceptable times are determined by the backward calculation.
When there are severalactivities in the node input/node output, it is necessary to take into
account theconjuctivity of the node input or determination of the nodeoutput.This means: Ifthere are severalactivities in thenode input/node output,i t is necessary to consider higher
values for the soonest possible times (in theforward calculation) and lower values for the latest
acceptable times (in the backward calculation).
For each node, ineach edge there are two time stamps.
In the input edge of the node, above and under the edge, thereare the soonest possible endof
the activities and the latest acceptable end of activities.
In the output edge of the node, above and under the edge, there are the soonest possible start of
the activities and the latest acceptable start of activities.
The longest path represents the total duration of the project
In the end node: Tn (0) = Tn (1)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
This means: In thenetwork chart there is at least one path when thesoonest possible start
and the latest acceptable end merge. This path represents the total durationof the project -
this is a critical (decisive) path .
Therefore, themethod is named CPM (Critical PathMethod).
All other pathsare shorter with certainreserves.
Calculation and types of reserves:
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Comparions between the deadlines:
Soonest possible start and latest acceptable end of activities
ti(0) tj(1)
Mutual relation: tj(1)- ti(0)- tij
The mutual relation is zero for points on the critical path. For other points, it is greater than
zero. In paths out of the critical path, thereare differences- reserves. Each reserve has its
name:
- totalreserve
- free reserve
- independent reserve
Graphic representation of the total reserve
Total reserve (Rc): i s the number of time units that can be used tomake the durationlonger
or postpone the start of the activity withoutchanging the calculated durationof the entire
project (Tn).
Rc = tj(1) - ti(0) - tij
ti(0) - thesoonest possible start of the activity
tj(1) - the latest acceptable end of the activity
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tij - duration of the activity
Free reserve (Rv): is the number of time units that can be used to make theduration longer
or postpone thestart of the activity withoutchanging the soonest possible startsof all
directly following activities
Rv = max ti(0) - tj(1) - tij
It is created in theactivities beforethe node. It can appear only if twoor more activities enter
the node. It balances the performance ofthe activities and expects that the soonest possible
starts of further activities will be maintained.
Independent reserve(Rn): is the number of time units that can be used to make theduration
longer or postpone the start of the activity withoutchanging the soonest possible starts of all
directly following activities and the latest acceptable ends of the directly preceding activity.
Rn = max tj(0) - max ti(1) - tij
It can appear only if twoor more activities enter the node and two or moreactivities leave
the node.
Utilisation of reserves: When reserves are utilised, first the independent reserve must be
used up (this reserve can be utilised always). Then, the free and total reserves should be used
up. The total reserve can be usedup in one path for one activity only.
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08 Site facilities - Basic terms
Construction property
Construction
Building land
Site facilities
Site facil ities - requirements
Security of site facil ities, fences, entrance, gates
Protection and safety
Safe buildings withinsite facil ities
Due storage of materials and products
Undeground, energy, telecommunication, water and sewage networks for site facil ities must
be identified, in terms of positions and levels, before the handover of site facil ities at the
latest.
It must be possible to lock all entrances to the site facil ities.
Sidewalks: min. 0.75 m. Two-direction sidewalks: 1.5 m. If inclination is greater than 1:3,
there must bea one-side handrail up to 1.1 m. Clearance: 2.1 m (in exceptional cases: 1.8 m +
lighting and marking)
Built-up area: fencing up to 1.8 m.
Types of site facilities
Types of sitefacilities - division by the purpose:
- operation site facilities
- production site facil ities
- site facil ities for employees
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Site facilities (SF) - division by the location and main function:
- Property-related SF - for a specific property
- Section-related SF - for a specific sectionof the site
- Central SF - for the entire site with severalproperties:
Approximatesize of the area for SF is:
Pc = Pi + Ps + Pt + Pmd + Po (m2)
This comprises areas needed for:
Pi investment properties
Ps SF for the supplier ofconstruction works
Pt SF for the supplier oftechnology
Pmd temporary heaps(top soiland excavated materials)
Po other partsof SF
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Site administrative offices: (thefollowing information is approximate only)
- Site manager: 15-20 m2
- Technical staff, supervisors: 2-12 m2 per employee
- Other workers: 5-8 m2 per employee
Typology principles
- Site manager: view to the site
- Supervisory and stockkeepers should have a view to roads (transport and acceptance of
materials).
- There must be sanitation in the building.
- Telecommunication equipmentmust be in the supervisor's and administrationbuildings.
- It must be possible to use the building in winter.
Site roads and supporting facilities
Roads and paths
Railway sidings, narrow-gauge lines and single-track railways
Crane railways
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Supporting facil ities in roads
Temporary site roads and paths
The temporary road should be close to the railway site crane.
If possible: one-way straight road withoutany crossings.
One lane width - min. 3 m. Two-lane width - min. 5 m. Marginal strips - 0.5 m wide at least.
Lay-byes will be provided for long one-lane roads.
Min. distance from the edge of the road from fixed parts of thestructures willbe 0.6 m in the
horizontal direction (0.3 m for ramps).
Longitudinal inclines of roadsshould not exceed 15%. If the gradient exceeds 8%, theroad at
the end must be straight and must ends with a horizontal section with min. 30 m length.Max.
inclination of panel roads: 8 %.
Cross gradient of the road: 2-4%.
Recommended minimum radii of curves
For standard trucks: radius= 10 m
For trucks with trailers/semitrailers: radius = 15 to 20 m
For cars: radius=6 m
Maximum permitted speed of vehicles on thesite: 10 km/h, in placeswhere works are
carried out: 5 km/h
Composition of roads:
- Local materials if possible (gravel sand from excavations, waste quarry stone, recycled
building debris...)
- Coarse gravel, crushed slag and other aggregate
-
Reinforced concrete road panels laid ingravel sand beds
- Not so often: monolithic concrete or stabilised soil.
- Top soil must be removed under the body of theroad. The landscapeneeds to be graded,
inclined, compacted and drained.
Paths
Min. width: 0.75 m
Two way path: 1.5 m.
Typicalwidth: 1 m
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If hand-heldtransport vehicles are usedin the path, the width should be by 0.6 m biggerthan
that of the vehicles. Gradient = 1:5.
Gradients of paths for pedestrians= 1:3.
Staircases near site path must be available if the gradient exceeds 1:2. The maximumpermitted gradient is 1:1, but a one-side handrailmust be available.
Composition of the paths: cinder, stone, crushed materials, concrete tiles, reinforced
concrete panels
Crane railways
Rail mountedcranes move on the crane railways.
Top soil must be removed. The landscapemust begraded, compacted and properly drained.
Composition: subbase, bearing layer, timbersleepers and rails with facil ities
End switches and earthed bumpers must be provided
Bearing layer is made from crushed gravel or crushed gravel combined with road panels
Subsoil, compositionof the crane railway and load-carrying capacity must be analysed in
strength analyses.
The crane railways have the gauge below or above5 m.
Following principles should be followed for the proposal of the railway track
The track must be built on a horizontal subbase with sufficient bearing capacity and
recommended properties. The bearing capacity must be proved by a geological surveyand
weather must not change the bearing capacity.
The track must not be placed on uncompacted subsoil, suboil from uncompactedmake-up
groundor otherfloating earthor near excavations.
Protective zones for overheadpower cables are (from the outer cable on each side):
- 10 m for the voltage below 60 kV
- 15 m for the voltage from 60 kV to 110 kV
- 20 m for the voltage from 110 kV to 220 kV
The side distance of the crane from fixed structures must be,during the traveland/or
rotation,0.6 m at least. The clearance should be 2 m at least from the running surface.
Crossing of the cranerailways isnot permitted.
It is recommended to drain the entire body of the crane track (in particular, if wetting is
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likely).
Project documentation must be draftedfor each crane railway. The project documentation
will include followinginformation: information aboutthe bearing capacity and properties of
soil and drawings (groundplan, axialsection and crosssection ofthe railway track and body,
wiring), technical report
Storing of materials
Loose materials in heaps will be stored with a natural inclination in order to avoidcollapsing.
If the material is taken manually, the maximum height of the heapis 2 m. If equipment is
used, the height is not limited.
Loose materials in bags will be stored in closed storage rooms (cement, lime, dry plaster
mixes). The floor and walls must be waterproofed. If the materialis taken manually, the
maximum storage height is 1,5 m. If equipment is used, the maximum height is 3 m.
Storage in silos - manufacturer's recommendations must be followed.
Liquid, if sealed ina container, is stored as a loose material. If stored in open containers, only
3/4 volume can be filled up. Liquid containers are stored in one layer.
Bulk materials of regular shapes can be stored up to 1.8 m. Bulkmaterials of irregular shapes
can be stored up to 1 m. Materialson palettes must be stored up to2 m.
Prefabricated components are placed on hard wood plates.
Wall panels are stored in a verticalposition and are supported with supports. Passagesbetween the prefabricated items must be 0.75 m wide.
Steel materials are stored under a shed.
Hazardous liquid substances must be stored in sealed containers - in linewith manufacturer's
recommendations.
One-off supply and consumption of materials
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One-off supply and step-by-step consumptionof materials
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Regular supply and step-by-step consumption of materials
Site facilities project
Technical report for site facil ities
Drawing documentation
Budget for sitefacilities
Time schedule for constructionand removal of site facil ities and plan for use of main types of
constructionequipment
Site facil ities costs include following costs:
- Preparation of SF documentation
- Rent relating to leased land/property for SF
- Renovation and additional modificationof properties to be used as SF
- Installation and removal and wear of removable properties
- Energy
- Maintenance of SF
- Site guarding
- Removal of SF after the construction is completed
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Site facil ities costs for standard constructions should be between 2-5% of total constructioncosts.
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09 Works at lower building shell
1. Earth moving
2. Construction of roads and utility lines
3. Preparation of site facilities
4. Foundation of structures
Performance of earthmoving works
The earth moving works are divided as follows:
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- General landscaping: overburden stripping and general grading of landscape
- Earth moving works: ditching, dredging and trenching
- Final earthmovingworks: landscaping and spreading of arable land
Every earth movingwork consists of following basic operations:
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- disintegration of soil
- loading of disintegrated soil
- transportof soil
- moving of soil
- loading, reloading, unloading
- levelling of ditches and surfaces
- soil compaction
Earth moving equipment
Excavators: disintegration, loading, transport, moving, unloading, reloading
Dozers: disintegration, moving, unloading and depositing
Scrapers: disintegration, loading, transport, depositing, levelling
Graders: disintegration, moving, levelling
General-purpose finishers
Compactors: compaction
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Loaders: loading, reloading, unloading
Earth moving equipment
Excavators: disintegration, loading, transport, moving, unloading, reloading
Dozers: disintegration, moving, unloading and depositing
Scrapers: disintegration, loading, transport, depositing, levelling
Graders: disintegration, moving, levelling
General-purpose finishers
Compactors: compaction
Loaders: loading, reloading, unloading
Applications of constructionequipmentdepending on the typeand locationof a ditch
Examples:
1. Diggingthe ground: front-shovel excavator, loading shovel excavator, wheel loader, crawler
loader
2. Excavation pit: backhoeor front shovel loader, grapple loader
3. Trenching: - // -
4. Trench: backhoe loader, grapple loader, ditch excavator
5. Shaft: grapple excavator
6. Fine grading: grader
7. Grading and backfilling: wheeled dozer or crawlerdozer
Soil structures
Required thickness of layers and used materials
It is recommended to use loose soil (sand or gravel) for earth works.The loose soil is difficult
to compress. It is permeable, does not freeze in, is rather easy to compact and has a high
volume stability. Cohesive soil (clay, loam or dust deposits) is less recomended. With a higher
moisture it has a lower strength, is easy to freeze in and difficult to compact. Backfilling
around footingsand under floors need tobe carried out in layers, cca.300 - 500 mm.
Compaction method and level of compaction
Level ofcompaction: in line with the project.
Controlsample
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Loose soil - 1 sample per 1,000 m3. Cohesivesoil: 1 sample per 500 m3 of backfilled soil.
Required inclination of side walls
If thereare not earthwork supports in excavations, the inclination ofside must correspondto
soilstability
Heavily grouted sand
Muddedoff gravel
Dry, solid clay - depth < 1.5 m
Dry, solid clay - depth < 5 m
Plastic clay - depth < 1 m
Plastic clay - depth < 3 m
Dry dust deposits
1 : 0.5
1 : 0.25
vertical
1 : 0.60
vertical
1 : 1.5
Vertical
Following needs to be observed:
Accurate bottom and walls of foundation pits: +/- 3 mm from the designed shape of walls and
bottoms in foundation pits, di tches and shafts.
Footing bottom must be protected: manual treatment of cca. 100 mm.
Winteractions must betaken: The footing bottom must be protected with mats against
freezing-up.
Ditches mustbe protected against waterintake: reasonable inclination and prevention of
surface water inflow.
Records in the building journal
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10 Works at upper building shell
Example:
CONSTRUCTION OF A DOUBLE FRAME ROOF ON A MULTI-DWELLING HOUSE
Basic information:
- Property: reconstruction/new construction
- Truss: double frame roof - specification of principal rafters, penetrations, roof place
inclinations
- Installation of tie beams- backing
- Timber joints and other connections
- Project for works to becarried out by carpenters, tinsmiths and roofers
Site facilities
Crane
Elevator
Site barracks
Steel lockedstorage room
Utility lines
Other connecting areas
Handling areas
Shed for a circular saw incl. service lines
The storage area depends on the size and type of the truss
Used materials, transport and storage in site facil ities
Square timber- dimensions are listed in the technology norm
Connecting materials, timber clamps, bolts, washers,nails and wood screws
Transport:
tractors and long load trailerwill transportlong components
drop-side trucks will transport shortcomponents
drop-side trucks will transport tools and supporting materials
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Following principles should be following when storing trusscomponents (in order not to damage,
destroy or deform the trusscomponents)
Storage in open space: square timber up to 2.0 m. Passage betweensquare timbers: min.
0.75 m
In case of long-termed storing: the timber will bestored in supporting square logs,min. 300
mm high (to protect the timber against weather)
The storage area should be as close as possible to theverticaltransport(crane)
Connecting components should be kept in closed lockedstorages
Battens will be stored in bundles
Readiness for constructionof the truss
The entire loft level and eavesboard are ready. The backing, chimney body,masonry and
piers for erectionof the truss structure should have a sufficientbearing capacity.
In the loft area, the reference level and longitudinalaxis must be shown.
Plaster floor must beavailable in the loft and must be hard enough.
Expansion tanks and elevator equipment are transported onto the loft level in advance.
Workers in thegroup
Head of the group,carpenter
Truss carpenters
Helpers (2 on the ground - storageand 2 on the truss)
Working tools and aids
Tools per 1 worker:
- 1 hack saw
- 1 small axe
- 1 chisel
- 1 rule (folding rule,measuring tape)
- 1 lead pencil
Tools per group of workers:
Electric power saw, handsaw, power drill, set of wood dri lls,rasp file, pliers,tightener, angle
piece, power plane,hand plane, ladders, metal mallet,wooden mallet,hammer, band, spiritlevel, rope.
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Erectionof the truss - sequence of steps
The wall beamis installed onto backing piers. Connectionsare fastened and anchoring iron
pieces are installed.
A tie beam is placed on impregnated underlying boards.
The frame is erected.
Frame sections are liftedand placedonto tie beams, fastened and provided with temporary
bracing.
Ridge purlins and central purlins are lifted,placed on colums and strips. Connectionsare
fastened.
Rafters are erected between the frames. Other rafters are erected.
Anchoring iron pieces are cast in concrete.
Battens are nailed.
The truss is checked.
Site facilities
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Example: interior white coat finish
Basic information:
- The plastering willbe carried out manually. A mortar pump only will be used to transportthe
mortar from the mixer to the site.
Sequence of works:
- Scaffoldings and workingtools are supplied onto the site.
- Working scaffoldings are erected.
- Surfaces are prepared for the coating.
- Mortar is transported ontothe site.
- The structure is sprayed with a cement mortar.
- The core layer is set and wiped out.
- The white coat is set and wiped out.
- The scaffoldings are disassembled.
Used materials, transport and storage in site facil ities
Cement for preparation of thecement mortar that will besprayed ontoceiling and wall
structures
Lime for preparation of the lime mortar for the core and white coats
Sand for preparation of thecore coat mortar
Water
Transport:
- Cement and limeare transportedin bags loadedon trucks or loosely on pressureair
conveyors.
- Cement and limeare stored in dry storages: loosely in steel tanks or in plastic containers.
- Sand is supplied by trucksand stored in outdoor storage yards next to mixing stations/mortar
center
Preparation of the site
Load-bearing structures and roof of the building must be ready. Partition walls must be
erected. Door frames must be available. Surfaces (tiles) mustbe available and dry. Wiringand
installations must be available and tested.Installation channels must be bricked up. Brackets
etc. must be installed.Window boards are installed only after the plaster core is set.
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Workers in thegroup
3 plasterers + 1 helper
the 1st plasterer preparersscreeds and corner lining boards, the 2nd plasterer sets the
plaster core layer, the3rd plasterer strips, levels and corrects the plaster
Working tools and aids
Bricklayer tools: trowel, spoon, hammer, plumb
Wide wooden float, narrow woodenfloat
Plastic float
Feltfloat
Smoothing beams
Bounding beams
Bricklayer hooks
Steel screeds
Shovels
Hods
Working scaffoldings
Spirit level
Mason's cord, wash bruch, bucket
Technology procedure
Two-layer white coatplastering:
- Cement mortaris sprayed on. The bricks are coated only after the masonry settles down and
is dry. Dust is removed from the subrface and jointsare scratched out to 10 - 15 mm from themasonry face in order to ensureproper cohesion between the masonry and plaster. The dry
brick surface must be wettedand set with cement mortar that creates a solid plaster layer
that connects the core layer with the plasterring subbase. Then, thin mortar(made from river
sand and cement) is plastered