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GENERAL AGRICULTURE STUDY MATERIAL
WEATHER AND CROPS
The areas of heavy rainfall exist in the windward side of WesternGhats and Khasi Hills and the Himalayas.
Rajasthan receiving < 500mm rainfall annually. The average rainfall of1,050 mm is highest in any part of the
world. 85-90% of the rainfall over the country occurs mostly during
southwest monsoon. North East monsoon is the main contributor to the amount of
rainfall over the Southeast portion of peninsular. The conditions in the State, where the tracks of depression
terminate ex: - In Gujarat & Rajasthan tend to be erratic veryviolent & destructive storms Kalbaishaki of Bengal & Duststorms/Andhis occur over Northwest India. Hailstorms occur
one/two occasions in the year, and pose a potential Hazard toRabi crops.
Cyclonic Storms: On an average 2-3 storms may be expected ina year.
Western disturbances: -
These disturbances result in light rains which benefit the Rabicrops.
The cold waves are sometimes injurious to vegetables and fruitcrops.
Variability of rainfall
The areas with low/scanty rainfall are generally the areas of thehigh variability in rainfall.
S.d C .V. = -------- X100
X
C V is 60-80 % in Western Rajasthan.Drought
Drought is taken to have occurred over an area where annualrainfall is less than 75 % of the normal.
When the annual rainfall is 50% of the normal it is called severedrought.
The palmer drought index which takes in to account rainfallevapo-transpiration and soi l moisture is considered as acomprehensive approach in the problem.
Floods: Rainfall exceeding 40-50 cm within 24 hours results inFloods.
Evapo-transpiration and water balance. The areas of high annual potential evapo-transpiration are
extreme in Rajasthan (Jaisalmer) and the exterior South of T N
(Tuticorn). Frosts: The forest hazard is greatest in Punjab. Sunshine: High Humidity and warm temperature are conducive
to most plant diseases.1
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Weather modification & crop production
The technique of cloud seeding aims at correcting thedeficiencies of nuclei in the cloud.
Silver iodide - cold cloudsSodium chloride - warm clouds
In India the cloud seeding experiments were conducted in Jaipur,Agra & Delhi in the monsoon season during the period rangingfrom 4 9 years.
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SOILSIgneous rocks: - mainly contains feldspars, marphic minerals &quartz. The rocks containing high proportion of quartz Acidic (60-75 %
quartz)Ex: granite The rocks containing less proportion of quartz Basic (
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2. Capillary water: - continuous film- Held by surface tension
0.3 - 31 atm.3. Gravitational water: - held at below 0.3 bars
- Influenced by gravity. F.C.: - held at 0.3 bars to 15 bars
It is generally recognized that the capillary water held attension greater than 15 atm is not available to crops. At this theplants shows the wilting symptoms hence 15 atm is cal led aswilting point.Soil Structure: -Granular structure (spheroidal) is considered very favourable toplant growth.Clay fractions: -1. Kaolinite: - - 1: 1 layer silicate
-Held together by mutually held oxygen
2.Montmorillonite: - 2:1 (silica to aluminia)- Held together through weak oxygen linkages
3. Illite: - 15 % of silica in silica sheet is replaced by aluminiumand potassium atoms.
Principle minerals of earthcrust: -
Minerals approximate (%)
Feldspars 48
Quartz 36
Micas 10
Clay CEC (me / 100g)
Kaolinite 3-10
Illite 10-30
Montomorillonite 80-150
Soil having >15% ESP - Alkali soil
C: N ratio of O.M. 10:1
Average value of C: N ratio of Indian Soils - 14:1
Micro flora - Bacteria, Actinomycetes, Fungi & Algae
Micro fauna - protozoa & nematodes
NH3 NO2NO3
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Nitrosomonas Nitrobacter
Nitrosofication-
1----------------------------------nitrification----------------------1
Protozoa are unicellular organisms.
Land capability classification
Arable land
Class - I - productive & suitable for intensive cropping.
II - used for raising many cultivated crops.
III - need careful management
IV - the cultivation of crop is restricted to once in 3-4years.
V - restrict their use to pasture/adoptable tree species.
VI - restricted to pasture & silvicul ture.
VII - restrict their use for grazing.
VIII - use is restricted to recreation / wild life.
Alluvial soils: -
This is the largest & most important soi l group of Indiacontributing the largest share to its agricultural wealth.
Two types
1. Khadar - newer alluvium of sandy.
2. Bhangar - older alluvium of more clayey.
Black soils; -
Maharastra has maximum black soil area in India.
Red soils: -
Tamil Nadu has maximum red soil area in India. (2/3rd ofcultivated area)
Clay fraction is rich in Kaolinite.
Colour is due to Hydration of the ferric oxide in them.
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Lateritic soils: -
All Laterit ic soi ls are very poor in l ime and magnesia and aredeficient in Nitrogen.
Desert soil -
Most predominant component of the desert sand is quartz
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Acid tolerant crops: -
Cereals Legumes miscellaneous
Maize Groundnut Sugarcane
Rice Soybean Potato
Wheat Berseem Tea
Barley Lentil
Oats
Saline & alkali soils:
7 m ha area has gone out of cultivation.
Saline soils are also called as- white alkali soils
Sodic soils are also called as - black alkali soils
Reclamation
Acid soils - lime
Basic soils - gypsum
Saline soils - sulphuric pyrite and also gypsum
WATER RESOURCES
Average annual rainfall is about 120 cm (India) and that of globalis 99 cm.
Water source of the country - 178 M Ha M
Ground water runoff is roughly assessed at about - 45 mham
The utilizable flow has been estimated to be 66.6 mham
Ground water recharge in the country as a whole works out at10%of the total rainfall.
Total volume of surface water presently utilized for irrigation isabout - 23.5 mham.
The total volume of ground water presently used for irrigation is
estimated about 10.5 mham. The present total utilization of surface water for irrigation may
then be taken as - 23.31 (23.50) mham.
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As regards the net area sown - 142mha
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LAND UTILIZATION
Total geographical area - 328 mha, the land use statistics isavailable only for 306 mha constituting 98% of the total.
Technical committee in co-ordination of agricultural statistics
set up in 1948 by Ministry of food & agriculture.
Arable land = net area sown + current of allows + other ofallow land
Potential land available = available land+ cultivable waste +permanent postures & grazing land
Net area sown
% Potential land exploited = --------------------- x 100
Potential land
Net area sown
% Arable land = ------------------- x100
Arable land
65.9 mha (21.6 %)
Net area sown - 141.16 mha (46.1%)
Gross cropped area -167.4 mha
Reporting area: -
MH has highest net sown area in the country.
The gross cropped area is highest in UP followed by MP & MH.
UP has largest gross irrigated area in the country which is about
21.6 % of the country as a whole, followed by Punjab - 11.0and AP - 10.95
In case of food grains - UP has highest irrigated area - 22.3% followed by AP (11.7%) and Punjab (9.7 %)
Non food grains - irrigated area UP 19.2% and Punjab -16.1 %
State producing highest agricultural produce - UP (21.6%)
Total geographical area (highest) - Rajasthan
Area under forest (highest) - Madhya Pradesh
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Land put to non cultural uses (highest) - Andra Pradesh
Barren & uncultivated land (highest) - Rajasthan
Net area sown (highest) - Madhya Pradesh
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION
Extent of soil erosion
It is estimated that out of 305.9 mha of reporting area 145 mha isin need of conservation measures.
Gullies are the most spectacular evidence of the destruction ofsoil.
Wind erosion
Saltation: the major portion of the soil carried by wind ismoved in a series of short bounces called Saltation. The soilcarried in a Saltation consists of fine particles ranging from0.1 0.5 mm in diameter.
Mechanical measures of erosion control: -
1. Basin listing: Bas in l isting consists in making of smallinterrupted basins along the contour with a special implementcalled a basin -lister.
2. Subsoiling: This method consists in breaking with a subsoilerthe hard and impermeable subsoil to conserve more rainwaterby improving the physical conditions of a soil.
3. Contour Bunding: This consists in making a comparativelynarrow based embankment at intervals across the slope of theland on a level that is along the contour. It is an importantmeasure that conserves soil and water in arid & semiarid areas.Slope - 3-6 %
4. Bench terracing: It consists of a series of platforms having
suitable vertical drops along contours or on suitable gradedlines across the general slope of the land. The vertical dropmay vary from 60 180 cm depending upon slope and soi lcondition. Slope - 16 33%
Water sources: -
The southwesterly monsoon contributes over 80 % to the totalprecipitation.
Shallow well derive their water supply from the surrounding
area through seepage, percolation, high water table etc.
Deep wells depend for their water on aquifers.
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Salt tolerance crop:
1. Tolerant sps (>5000 ppm): Barley, sugarcane, date- palm,grape, kale, cotton, rhodes, grass, sesbania
2. Semi tolerant sps (< 2500 ppm 5000): Rice, sorghum, maize,Barley, sunflower, Lucerne, berseem/guar, safflower, onion,
wheat, bajra.
3. Sensitive sps (< 2500 ppm): peas, cabbage, grapes, orange,potato, tomato
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Boron toxicity tolerant:
1. Tolerant sps: (2-4 ppm): - datepalm, sugar beet, Lucerne,onion, turnip, cabbage, and lettuce
2. Semi-tolerant (1-2 ppm): - wheat, maize, barley, cotton,
sunflower, potato, tomato, peas & sweet potato
3.Sensitive crops (0.3-1 ppm): - Apple, apricot, grape, orange,cherry, walnut
Water requirement = consumpt ive use of water +application
Losses+ special needs
1 cubic foot of water - 62.4 lb
1 cubic foot /sec = one cusec = 448.83 gallons
= 0.99 acre. inch/hr = 100 tons
1 Acre inch of water = 101 tons = 12.8 cubic meter = 22,660gallons
Sprinkler method: can be adopted in the case of almost all cropsand is specially suited to shal low sandy soi ls of uneventopography, where leveling is not practicable.
Drip irrigation: - first initiated in Israel.
Critical stages of rice: - till ering and flowering
Water need for rice: Conditions
1000 1500 mm heavy soils, high water table, kharif
1500 2000 mm medium soils, kharif
2000 2500 mm light soils, long duration varieties.
WHEAT: -
Optimum moisture range - 100 60 % of availability.
Critical stage - crown root initiation (CRI) - 3 weeks after sowing(21-25 days)
- Flowering
- Grain development
Maize: -
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Critical stages: - Early vegetative period - 30-40 weeks afterSowing
- Tasselling - 45-50 weeks after sowing
Maize is highly sensitive to excess water
Sorghum: -
Critical stages: - pre-flowering and grain development
Kharif legumes - kidney bean -Green gram (Mung), pigeonpea.
-Black gram (mash)
Rabi legumes: - gram, lentil, pea and Indian bean.
Critical stages of pulses: - early vegetative growth, flowering,pod development.
Sunf lower and mustard are relat ively hardy crops and canwithstand more unfavourable conditions that other.
Cotton: - extremely sensitive to excess moisture and lack ofaeration. Optimum soil moisture is necessary during the stages offlowering and ball formation.
Sugarcane: - on ly vegetative growth is the economic
importance. (Formative stage)
Tobacco: - water with a high chloride content, affects theleaf, burning quality and hence is unsuitable for irrigation.
Potato: - stolonization and tuber formation stages during 20-60 days growth are critical.
Onion And Garlic: - bulbing is most important critical stage.
Tomato, watermelon & Muskmelon: - excessive irrigation
during ripening results in fruit cracking and hence it shouldbe avoided.
SOIL FERTILITY AND FERTILIZER USE
Cations form of uptake by plants
K K+
Ca Ca++
Mg Mg++
Fe Fe+++
Zn Zn++13
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Anions
N NO3-, NH4+
P H2Po4-
S SO4-
Cl Cl -
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3 mechanisms of absorption of nutrients: -
1. Mass flow / convection
2. Diffusion
3. Contact exchange and root interception.
Mass f low /convection is considered to be important of nutrient uptake.
Nutrient ions such as nitrate, chloride & sulphate are not absorbedby the soil colloids and remain mainly in solution. Such nutrientions area absorbed by the roots along with soil.
Diffusion: This mechanism is predominant in supplying most ofthe phosphorous and potassium to plant roots.
Plant Nutrients & Their Functions.
Source
Carbon - CO2
Oxygen - air & water
Hydrogen - water
Nitrogen - air, soil & both
Others - soil
Primary nutrients - N, P, K
Secondary nutrients - Ca, Mg, S
Trace elements / micronutrients - Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B Mo, Cl
Primary and secondary elements are known as major elements.
Nitrogen: -
Excess _ lodging in cereals
-Delays maturation of plant.
Deficiency - reddening of leaves in cotton.
Phosphorus: -
Function; - formation of grains.
Offsets harmful effects of excess nitrogen in plants.
Deficiency: - purplish / reddish discoloration of the stem
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- Abnormal increase in the sugar content and the
Formation of anthocynin
Potassium: -
Function:
1. Enhance ability of a plant to resist pest, diseases and otherabnormal condition
2. Formation of starch and in the production and translocationof sugars and is thus of special value of water rich crops.
Plants can take-up and store potassium in much largerquantities than what is needed for optimum growth. This iscalledluxury consumption.
Deficiency: - firing along the edges in maize leavesCalcium: -
Function: - Constituent of cell wall (calcium pectate
- Involved in cell division
Excess - favours scab in potato
Deficiency - commonly associated with acidity.
Magnesium -
Function: - constituent of chlorophyll
- Necessary for formation of oil.
Deficiency: - in maize intraveinal chlorosis.
Sulphur: -
Function: - Important constituent of straw and plant stalk.
- Constituent of AAS - methionine and cysteine.
Fe: -
Deficiency: - gray speck - maize
Marsh spot - sugarcane (sugar beet)
Yellow diseases - spinach and beans
White streak - field peas
Dry spot - field peas
Leaf spot - field peas16
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Cu: -
Deficiency - dieback in citrus
Zn: - is taken up by the plant in the ionic form/ complex withchelating agent. Ex: EDTA.
Deficiency: - white bud - maize
Khaira - rice
In calcareous soi ls and soi ls with high P content the Zndeficiency is commonly observed.
Boron: -
Deficiency: - Yellow and resetting - Lucerne
Snakehead - walnutPitting of fruits - tomatoes
Die back & corking of fruits - apples
Hollow stem and bronzing of curd in cauliflower
Brown heart - table beets and turnip
Molybdenum:
Deficiency: - whip tail in cauliflower, broccoli and other Brassicaspecies.
Chlorine : - In 1954 chlorine was proved as essential micronutrient.
Deficiency: - bronze discoloration in tomatoes.
Na: - not an essential element but the presence is considered tobe beneficial.
Most commonly used organic manure in India - FYM - 0.5 %
N
Sewage, sludge and activated dry contains N 4-7 %
P2O5 2.1 4.2 %
K2O 0.5 0.7%
Tree leaves of pongamia, (Karanj/Honge) N 3.69 %
P2O5 2.41%
K2O 2.42 %
Crop Synonyms
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Cowpea chavli, lobia
Cluster bean guar
Horsegram Kulthi
Mothbean Mutki, moth
Greengram mung, mug
Blackgram urd, urid (mush)
Redgram arhar
Calcium sulphate /gypsum and supper phosphate have provedmost promising in preventing the escape of ammonia.
Folding 7,000 sheep for on night is said to add equivalent of149.3 quintals of cattle dung.
Calcium nitrate - also known as Chilean nitrate.
Ammonium sulphate widely used fertilizer in the country.
Nitrochalk: - is the trade name of a product formed by mixingammonium nitrate with 40% lime stone /Dolomite.
Non- proteinaceous organic nitrogen Urea.
CROPPING PATTERNS
Among post monsoon crops (rabi) wheat, sorghum & gram
Largest area under Kharif maize is in UP
The area under the Kharif Jowar in India is highest in Maharashtra.
Ragi is mainly concentrated in Karnataka.
Bajra is drought resistant crop. The Rajasthan has maximum area(4.6 mha) of Bajra (2/3 of total area of India).
G/N - Gujarat is producing maximum G/N (24.4 %)
Cotton - Maharashtra shares 36% of the total cotton area followedby Gujarat.
Hot water treatment for seed borne diseases - 54o c for 1 min.
Bordeaux mixture - CuSO4 + CaCO3 Millardet
Burgundy mixture - CuSO4+ Na2CO3 Mason
Systemic fungicides
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Oxanthin derivatives - plantavax - oxycarboxin -for rusts
Vitavax - carboxin - for smuts
Agrimycin 100 is the mixture of streptomycin + tetracycline
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Diseases and Causal organisms
Rice
Brown spot - cochliobolus miyabeanus
Stem root - Leptosphaeria salvini
Sheath blight - Rhizoctonia solani
Foot rot/ bakanae - Gibberella fujikuroi
Bunt - Neovossia horrida
False smut - Ustilaginoidea virens
Leaf smut - Entyloma Oryzae
Ultra disease - Ditylenchus angustus
Bacteria blight - Xanthomonas Oryzae
Yellow dwarf - Mycoplasm
Leaf yellowing -Virus
Pan sukh (dry leaf disease) -Physiological
Khaira -Zn def
Wheat:
Black mould -Cladosporium herbarum
Pythium root rot -Pythium graminicolum
Foot rot -Helmisthosporium sativum
Hill bund -Tilletia foetida & T caries
Karnal bund -Neouossia indica
Flagsmut -Urocystis tritici
Loosesmut -Ustilago tritici
Stemrugt -Puccinea graminis tritici
Stripe rust (yel low rust ) -Puccinia glumarum
Leaf / Brown rust - Puccinia recondita
Powdery mildews - Erysiphe graminis
Earcocle -Anguina Triti ci
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Molya/cereal cyst nematode -Heterodera avenae
Insecticidal property of DDT in 1939 by Paul Muller
Two breeding seasons of Lucusts 1) winter spring
2) Summer Monsoon
Ectoparasitic nematodes
Spiral nematodes - Helicotylenchus, Rotylenchus
Lance nematodes - Hoplolaimus
Ring nematodes - Cericonemoides,Hemicriconemoides
Stunt nematodes - Tylenchonemoides
Sheath nematodes - Hemicycliophora
Semiendoparatic nematodes:
Citrus nematode - Tylenchus semipenctrans
Reniform nematode - Rotylenchus reniformis
Endoparasites:
Roof knot Nematode (RKN)-Meloidogyne sp
Cyst nematode - Heterodera, Globadera
Roof lesion nematode - Pratylenchus
Seed parasites nematode - Anguina tritici
Foliar nematode - Aphelenchoides sp
Stem & Bulb nematode - Ditylenchus sp
SL-120 RKN resistant tomato variety released from IARI
Bladed harrows are also called as Bakharas/guntakas.
Agricultural produce Grading and Marketing Act (APGMA)
Central Agmark lab Nagpur & there are about 16 regionallabs.
1878 - Sea customs Act.
1955 - Essential Commodity Act.
NAFED - National Agricultural Co-operative Marketing Federation.
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Differed liabilities
Debt equity ratio = ------------------------
Net worth
AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION EDUCATION
Community development programme 1952
The word extension was first used in USA
Extension education is - Informal education
National Extension Service (NES) - 1953
Community development and extension Service in India
Stage I - pre-independence Era: - (1886-1974)
Sevagram - Mahatma Gandhi
Shantiniketan - Rabindranath Tagore
Marthandam - Spencer Hatch
Gurugaon - F.L. Brayne
Department of Agriculture 1871 June
1905 IARI PUSA Bihar
Royal Commission on Agriculture 1928
Stage II : post independent Era ( 1947 53 )
Etawah Pilot project - (1948-52) - Albert Mayer
Community development project (1952 Oct 2)
Stage I II : community development and National ExtensionService Era (1953 60 )
National extension service was inaugurated on 2nd Oct 1953
In 1958 panchayat raj was introduced as recommended by theBalwant Rai Mehta Committee.
IADP - Intensive Agriculture Development Programme
First Agriculture University - GBPUAT - 1960 pantnagar
(Rudrapur)
SFDA - Small Farmers Development Agency started under 4 th
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Bhoodan & Gramdhan Acts: started in early 1950s AcharyaVinobha Bhave initiated this movement.
The first attempt to prevent further fragmentation was made inMaharashtra (1947)
Minimum Wages Act - 1948
Insecticide Act - 1968 & Insecticide Rules - 1971
Karnataka Cotton control Act - 1974
Seeds Act -1966 seed rules - 1968
Karnataka land improvement Act - 1966
Karnataka Agriculture pests & Disease Act - 1974
Fertilizers order - May 1973
Destructive insect pest act - 1914
Agricultural produce act - 1937
Taccavi loans - started in 1973
National co-operative development corporation act 1962
Wheat
Common bread wheat - T. aestivum
Macaroni wheat - T. durum
Indogangetic plains form the most important wheat area
Soil - well-drained clayey loam.
Spacing - 22.5 cm between rows.
Varieties - medium long duration - kalyan sona Shortduration - sonalika
Most critical stage - CRI stage
Weedicide 2-4 D
Phalaris minor - graminaceous problematic weed.
Storage - < 10% moisture content
RICE
Oryza sativa - cosmopolitan (Asian rice)
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Ooryza glabarima - confined to Africa
Fruit - caryopsis
Rice is considered as short day plant
West Bengal has highest rice area
PH - 5- 8.5
Spacing 20-25 cm
Nursery area 10% of main field (1/10 th of total area)
Seed rate - 40-50 kg/ha
In calcareous soils - Fe is deficit, so FeSO4 is added.
Dapog nursery - used especially in place where there isassured water supply & when early transplanting is needed & 30-40 m2 area is required to raise enough seedlings to transplant 1ha area.
Water requirement is high than any other crop of similar duration.
About 37-75 acre-inches of water is needed.
Maize
Native to America
Highest production- UP
With the average yield maze ranks first among cereals
Nutritionally superior opaque 2 composites - Shakti RattanProtina
These opaque 2 composites are rich in essential AAS life lysine & Tryptophan
Pulses are deficit in methionine & Tryptophan
Cereals are deficit in Lysine & Tryptophan
Used in the manufacture of Beer & Whisky
Oats
Grown in Rabi - mostly for fodder
Black gram - Urd, mash
Bengalgram
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Germinated seeds are recommended to cure scurvy.
Malic and oxalic acids collected from green leaves are prescribedfor intestinal disorders.
Greengram
Highest production MP
Horsegram Highest production AP
Lentil Highest production MP
Moth bean Highest production Rajasthan
Peas Highest production UP
Pigeon pea (Red gram/ arhar) Highest production MH
Potato
Native South America
Occupies largest area under any single vegetable in the world
Kufiri Jyothi.
Best method of starting potato is cold stores at 2.2 C at 75-80 %RH
Tea
Popularly known as health herb
Soils - acidic pH 4-6
Spacing - 120x75 cm - 10000 plants / ha
1 1 year old nursery seedlings are used for planting in the
field.
Shade trees - oak (Gravelea robusta ) Erythrina lithosperma(dadapa)
Acacia
Albizzia
State: Assam
UPASI: United Planters Association of Southern India
Chinchona P O., Coimbatore dist., T.N.
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State - Karnataka
Cocoa : Theobroma cocoa, Theobrama means The food ofgods
Coconut
Tree of heaven - coconut
India ranks 2nd w.r.t. Coconut production.
Groundnut
Native - Brazil
Oil content - 44-50%
Oil is extensively used as cooking medium - both as refined oil
and vanaspati ghee.Groundnut is predominantly self-pollinated crop.
Peg which later swells to become the pod.
Groundnut is raised mostly as rainfed Kharif crop.
The application of 500 kg gypsum / ha at the pegging stage willenhance pod formation.
Safe moisture content is not more than - 5 %
Damp nuts of stored will ferment and allow the development ofpoisonous moulds
Ex:- Aspergillus falvus - produce Aflatoxin in Kernels
Indian mustard - Brassica Juncea - commonly called as rai /raya/ laha
Origin of B.juncea - China
Taramira is native to - North Africa & Europe
Oil content of rape seed & mustard - 30 48 %
India occupies first position w.r.t. Area & production.
Sesamum Primary center of origin. - Africa India ranks first.UPranks first
Linseed MP ranks first
Castor India ranks first AP ranks firstSaf flower MH ranks first
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Sunflower Native USA Country _ Russia
Niger State MP Country _ India
Sugarcane UP have largest acres under sugarcane (57%) Yield/ha- TN
Ek sali - Dec Feb -MH
Oct - Nov - AP
Adsali - July - Aug - 18-month crop
Water requirement - 200 300 cm
Cotton
AICRP on cotton 1967, Short staple - 9.5 mm 25.4 mm
Medium staple - 13mm 40mm
Long staple - 25.4mm 63mm
The group now recognized in India is
Superior long staple - 27mm & above
Long staple - 24.5 26
Superior medium staple - 22 24
Medium staple - 20- 21.5
Short staple -
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Topping & Sucker ing
Removal of flower head alone/ along with some of the top leaves ofthe plant is known as topping.
After topping, the axillary buds grow and their removal is known asSuckering.
Banana: State - TN Desuckering - removal of daughter suckers.
Mango:
Veneer graft ing has been found to be best method of mangopropagation.
The graft joint should be at least 15cm above the ground.
The application of Ethrel (200 ppm) from September onwards has
been found to induce f lowering in Mango in Karnataka by theIndian Institute of Horticultural Research.
Harvesting - June to Aug in Northern India.
Guava UP has largest area L 49 (Allahabad safeda) - seedlessvariety
Pomegranate _ MH
Avocado - rich in protein & Fat
Apple Rootstock Use M. IX dwarfing rootstock for propagatingdwarf apple trees.
- Malling Merton - rootstocks are recommended where
Vegetables
Daily minimum requirement of veg - 284 g/ day / head
Veg gardens are classified into 6 types.
Spices
King of spices - pepper
Queen of spices - cardamom
Fruits of cardamom - small trilocular capsules.
Hoshomin the queen of China first introduced sericulture in China
Outbreak of pebrine disease - 1857 to 1895
The cocoons of erisilkworm cannot be ruled as they produce cocoonwith small opening.
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Entomology (General Agriculture)
Per hectare consumption of pesticides in India 440 gm/ha
Pesticides consumption is maximum in Andhra Pradesh(19%)
Per hectare consumption is maximum in Tamil Nadu
Consumption of pesticides in India
1994-95 (metric tons)
Imported 6266
Indigenous 55191
Total 61357
Maximum consumption of pesticides
Imported Carbaryl followed by Chlorpyriphos
Indigenous B H C followed by Monocropophos & Endosulfon
Export of Agro Chemicals:
Maximum (in terms of Rupees) Cypermethrin followed byEndosulfon, Aluminium Phosphide & Lindane.
The top Agro-business company Novartis (Ciba + Sandoz)
Production of Agro-Chemicals 1995-96 (000 tons)
B H C - 25
Monocrotophos - 9
Endosulfon - 6.8
Total Production of pesticides in India 88,890 tons (1994-95)
82,000 tons (1995-96)
No. of pesticides registered in India 143 (as on 31.3.95)
No. of Technical grade pesticides manufactured in India 66
Pigeon Pea: - 2nd most important pulses after Chickpea.
Origin India Maximum area and Production M H
Groundnut: - Critical stage Pegging Origin Brazil
Rice: - Area -43.2 million hectare
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Production 82 mt Origin Hindustan
India ranks first in area and 2nd in production
Maximum area and production West Bengal
Rice grain in known as caryopsis
Rice is short day plant
Dapog method Introduced from Phil iphines 30-40 m area isneeded
Nitrification inhibitors N-serve, ST, DCA
Slow release N fertilizers S coated/neem coated/Lac coated useful
Critical stage Tillering to floweringWater requirement 100-120 cm
Herbicides Propanil @ 1-1.5 kg/ha Butachlon @ 1-2 kg/ha
Father of Hybrid rice Prof. Long Ping Yuan
First rice hybrid COH R-1/MGR-1
WHEAT:
Bread wheat T.Aestivum
Club wheat Tritium compactum
Macaroni wheat -T.durum
Einkorn wheat T. monococcum
Emmer wheat -T.dicoccum
India area -25 mha
Production -65 mt
India is 2nd largest producer only after China
Wheat is Worlds leading cereal
Maximum area & production of wheat Uttar Pradesh
Critical stage CRI stage
Operations
Topping & Suckering - Tobacco
Nipping -Gram (Bengal gram)30
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Tripping -Lucerne (Alfalfa)
Xanthomonas
Bacterial Blight of rice Xanthomonas Oryzae oryzae
Bacterial leaf streak of rice Xanthomonas oryzae oryzicola
Bacterial blight of cowpea Xanthomonas axonopodisvignicola
Citrus canker Xanthomonas oxonopodis c itri
Black rot of crucifers Xanthomonas Campestris Campestris
Sugarcane gummosis Xanthomonas axonopodisvascularum
Angular leaf spot of cotton Xanthomonas axonopodismalvacearum
Leaf spot & Blight of beans Xanthomonas axonopodis phaseoli
Leaf spot of Tomato Xanthomonas axonopodisVesicatoria
Leaf spot of red gram Xanthomonas campestries ca jani
Leaf spot of Bajra Xanthomonas campestrisannamalaiensis
Leaf blotch of Bajra Xanthomonas campestris Penniseti
Bacterial blight of Banana Xanthomonas campestris musarum
Leaf spot of pomegranate Xanthomonas axonopodis punicae
Leaf spot of cluster bean Xanthomonas compestriscyamopsidis
Bacterial pustule of soybean Xanthomonas axonopodis
phaseoli - sojens
Bacterial bllight of sesamum Xanthomonas campestris sesami
Pseudomonas
Brown rot of potato Ralstonia solanacearum (= pseudomonassolanacearum )
Bacterial wilt of Brinjal Ralstonia solanacearum
Bacterial wilt of Tomato Ralstonia solanacearum
Moko disease of Banana Ralstonia solanacearum
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Wild fire of tobacco pseudomonas syringae tabaci
Bacterial stalk rot of maize pseudomonas lapsa
Leaf stripe of sorghum pseudomonas lapsa
Leaf spot of mango pseudomonas mongiferae indicae
Angular leafspot of tobacco pseudomonas anguluta
Leaf spot of grape pseudomonas viticola
Erwinia
Stalk rot of maize Enterobacter dissolvens ( = Erwiniadissolvens )
soft rot of vegetable Erwinia caratovora caratovora
fire blight of apple Erwinia amylovora
Black leg of potato Erwinia caratovora abroseptica
Clavibacter
Yellow ear of wheat Rathayibacter tritici
Ring rot of potato Clavibacter michiganensisspidonicum
Stem & fruit canker of tomato Clavibacter michiganensismichiganensis
Agrobacterium
Crown gall of stone fruits Agrobacterium tumefacines
Streptomyces
Potato scab streptomyces scabis
Herbicides
2-4 DB - can be used in pulse crops
Propanil - selective contact herbicide (used in Rice)
Paraquat - non-selective contact herbicide used in non-croppedareas.
Glyphosate - non-selective translocated herbicide
Rice - propanil, 2-4 D, Butachlor
Wheat - Isoproturon, sulfosulfuron, clodinofos
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Weight of top 15 cm soil 2.25 x 10kg/ha
STATISTICS
Probability of an event any number lying between 0-1
Positive Binomial distribution Variance< mean
Negative Binomial distribution Variance> mean
Binomial distribution variance < mean
Poisson distribution variance = mean
Normal distribution mean, median & mode are equal
(Coincide at a single point)
Limiting value of correlation coefficient -1 to =1
Limiting value of multiple co-relation coefficient 0 to 1
S.E = ------
n
CV = -------- -- x 100
X
CRD (completely randomized block design) is mostly used forlab experiments.
Nipping: - is the process of plucking the apical buds of the crop at30-40 DAS. It is done in Gram safflower, which promotes lateralbranching, more flowers & pod yield.
No. of soil orders 12
Short day plants - soyabean, s/c, rice, tobacco
LDP - wheat, oats, sugarcane, raddish, lettuce
Day neutral - tomato, bulk wheat , maize & sun flower
True seeds of s/c are called as FLUFF
Artificial s/c ripeners polaris, sodium metasylicate, cycoul.
TMO - technology mission on oilseeds -May 1986
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ultimate irrigation potential - 148
irrigation potential created - 92
Irrigation potential utilized - 82
Net irrigated area - 55
Irrigated area (%) - 35 %
Igneous rocks - granite , Basalt
Sedimentary rocks - l imestone, quartz, sandstone shale,conglomerate
Metamorphic rocks - gneiss, quartz, marble, slate
1. True/particle density - 2.5 - 2 .7 g/cc
2. Apparent/bulk density - 1.4 - 1.8 g/cc
3. First hybrid rice WHR 1/ MGR 1 (1994)
4. Density of water is highest at - 4c ( 1.02 g/cc )
5. 1959 60 Urea was first produced at Sindri ( Bihar)
6. ICPH 8 first pigeon pea hybrid
7. 1 km = 100 ha
8. 1 ft = 28.32 lbs
9. 1 ban = 10 dynes/cm = 0.1 Mpa
10. C.N ratio 0.M = 10:1
11. Indian soils = 14 :1
12. Most of I ndian soils are deficit in N & contains about 0.05%
13. Taking in to account the total land resources ( 328mha) , the availabi lity of land / head in India = 0.58 ha
14. Australia - 59 ha
Graded bunding - if rainfall is - 780 cm
Zing terracing - 3- 10% slope
Bench terracing - 6-33% slope
1871 - Department of Agriculture
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1963 - N S C
1972 - I C R I S A T
1995 - Insti tutional Village Level Programme
1998 - Nationa l Agricu ltura l Technology Project
1976 - N C A (National commission onAgriculture)
1926 - R C A (Royal Commission on Agriculture)
Project Directors - 10
A I C R P - 78
N R C - 10
National Bureaus - 4
During 2001-02
1. GDP (Agricultural Share) 25.00% (27.00%)
2. (Exports) 16.18% (15.30%)
3. Distribution of certified seeds 100 lakh tons
Cloud Seeding:
Silver iodide cold clouds
Sodium Chloride Warm
Crumb and granular structure (Spheroidal ) of soi l are
considered as favourable to plant growth.
Percentage of forest area to geographical area is highest inJapan (69%), while that of India is 22%
Water erosion: 3 forms, sheet, Rill, Gully erosion
Wind erosion: There are 3 types of soil movement
Particle Size
1) Saltation 0.1-0.55 mm in diameter Major process2) Suspension < 0.1 mm
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3) Surface creep > 0.5 mm
DAP 18% N, 46% P2O5 OR 16% N 48% P2O5
CAN 25-28% N
Ammonium nitrate 33-35 % N It is explosive
Statistics (1994-95)
Geographical area - 328.73 mha
Forests - 68.39 mha (22.40%)
Net area sown - 142.82 mha
Gross area sown - 188.15 mha
Cropping intensity - 131.70 %Net irrigated area - 55 mha
Gross irrigated area - 82 mha
Fertilizers: N P K Total
10.3 mt 2.97 mt 1.02 mt 14.3 mt
Average ha consumption of fertilizers
India - 86 kg/ha
World Avg. - 86 kg/ha
Punjab - 158 kg/ha (Highest with respect to statesexcluding UTs (Union Territories))
Netherlands - 542 kg/ha
Gross capital formation in Agriculture 9.4 %
Uttar Pradesh Contributes maximum food grain production(42 mt) and has maximum area and production of wheat, maize,sugar cane, potato, mango
West Bengal has maximum area and production of Rice, Juteand Mesta
Maharashtra has maximum area and production of warsecereals, jowar, pigeon pea and cotton
Madhya Pradesh maximum area and production of pulses,
chickpea, oilseeds and soyabean
Groundnut highest area Andhra Pradesh
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Production Gujarat
Sugarcane area & production West Bengal
Productivity Tamil Nadu
Rice and Wheat Productivity is highest in Punjab
Water requirement Rice 100-120 cm
Sugarcane - 200-300 cm
Sugarcane
Origin - Thincane - India
Thickcane - New Guinea
Area 4mha
Production 279 mt
Seed rate 30.35 thousand setts 3 buded 2 buded 75,000 1single 1,25,000
Herbicides 2-4 D (75-80 gt)
Atrazine
Brix nad refactometer 17-18 ideal stage for harvest
GENERAL
Fibrinogen is the precursor of Fibrio
Fertilizin is an (hormone) chemical substance produced by theegg during fertilization which attract the sperm
First geneticist who had received Nobel Prize T H Morgan
Agroclimate Zones - 15
Agroecological Zones - 21
Agroclimatic regions - 126
Fobrinogen - Fibrin
Trypsinogen - Trypsin
First enzyme crystalized urease by Sumner
Metallovitamin B12 (Cobalamine)
First aromatic hybrid Rice Pusa basmati 1
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First Basmati Pusa RH 10
Stomata less (Astomatal) plant potamogaton & submergedplants
Central molecule controlling cell division aquatic plant cycline
Father of Physiology Stephan Hales
Pollination by bats Chiropterophylly
Most of the Indian soils are deficit in Nitorgen and Zn
India is the largest producer of Mango, Banana, Sapota andCauliflower
Elements absorbed in complex form Na
Plant uptake maximum amount of K from soi l amount a llelements (Luxury consumption)
Indian soils are usually poor in OM & nitrogen
White Revolution - Milk
Blue Revolution - Fishery
Round Revolution - Potato
Silver Revolution - Eggs & Poultry
Brown Revolution - Biomass (fertilizer production)
Orange Revolution - Onion
Yellow Revolution - Oilseeds
Green Revolution - Wheat & Rice
Grey Revolution - I T in Agriculture Fertilizer having explosive nature Ammonium nitrate
50 % of Indian soils are deficit in Zn(among micro nutrients)
Neutral fertilizer CAN Calcium Ammonium Nitrate
Crop State (%)
Sugarcane West Bengal (51.00)
Tobacco Andhra Pradesh (48.00)
Potato Uttar Pradesh (33.60)
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Jute West Bengal (60.00)
Coconut Kerala (68.30)
Rubber Kerala (92.80)
Cashew Kerala (67.40)
Tea West Bengal
Coffee Kerala
Onion Maharashtra (18.50)
Chillies Andhra Pradesh(26.90)
Coriander Andhra Pradesh(36.00)
Weed Control
The crops like sudangrass, sorghum and cowpea are goodcompetitors while crops like linseed, groundnut and lentil arepoor competitors
Prickly pear opuntia spp
Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes
Grass carp feed on guatic weeds
Eradication of prickly pear by using the cochineal insectsDoctylopius tomentosus in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu is bestexample of Biological Control in India
Parthenium - Compositae family
Cyperus - Cyperaccae
Echinochloa - Graminae
Orobanchae - Orobanchaceae
Argemone mexicana Papaveraccae
Striga - Scrophulariaceae