-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
1/38
Common mistakes intheses writing
(and 20 suggestions for how to write well)
Arild Angelsen
HH, UMB
08.01.2013Outline:
1. Some general rules
2. The structure of a thesis
3. The different chapters
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
2/38
The Master thesis ...
.... is your first piece of research
The rules for good research (writing)also applies to the Master thesis
Its that simple and difficult
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
3/38
Rule 1: Be Clear The one genuine rule, a golden one, is Be
Clear (McCloskey) Clarity:
Whats the point?
Test question: What is my main argument?Write it down in simple language!The Grandma test (or taxi driver test).
Be concrete & specific
Focus on the key point (argument) Test question: does this paragraph contribute to my main
point? If no: Delete!
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
4/38
What is unclear?
The completeness disease Side tracks & distractions
Data dumping & name dropping
(examiners dont get impressed) The risk averse approachPoverty and environment interact in a complex way
where the outcomes are highly context specific.
Ambiguous sentences, vague statements,e.g.: maybe, perhaps, might/could be
Too vague to be right or wrong(economic proverb)
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
5/38
But dont become a one
armed economist Often contradictory effects: State the effects
Can you quantify them? Under which conditionswill one of
them dominate?
Example: Higher education leads to higher
salary: type of education, economic
conditions, lifetime income?,
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
6/38
Rule 2: Simplicity
Science vs.journalism Tabloid journalism = simple without
understanding
Science= simple with understanding Example:
weak tenure => less deforestation
Dare to simplifyDo things as simple as possible,but not simpler (Einstein)
Simplicity is the ultimate sophistication
(Leonardo da Vinci)
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
7/38
Less is more!
Keep it short & simple
Keep it sensibly simple
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
8/38
II: A typical structure
1. Introduction
2. Background
3. Theory (framework; literature)4. Data and methods
5. Results and discussion (can split)
6. Conclusion
-> Get the thesis closer to the journal articleformat
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
9/38
Some practical hints
Use a good style sheet with outline format(e.g., numbered headings and subheadings)
Use subheadings (max 3 levels)
From the start: Get the bibliography right,
choose a standard format (Endnotes; coursesprovided by Library)
Use spell check from the beginning
Number tables and figures by chapter, e.g.,Table 5.1 (easier to add/delete later), or useautomatic numbering
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
10/38
The paragraph
Use paragraphs as the unit of composition
Each paragraph should have (only) one point Hint: Number the paragraphs in you first drafts
The classical paragraph:
Declaration: its cold in s .....
Elaboration: the temperature this morningwas 6 C .....
Conclusion: this is not unusual, although ...
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
11/38
Title
The first trigger Informative
Get the keyword in the title
A key result: Not:The effects of reduced impactlogging on water quality, but
Reduced impact logging maintainshigh water quality
Often very boring, can play with words.
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
12/38
Title (cont.) Have a short catchy title, and a more descriptive
subtitle:
Playing Games in the Forest: State - LocalConflicts of Land Appropriation
Ecuador Goes Bananas: IncrementalTechnological Change and Forest Loss
Or, it can be short and simple: Cocoa and Chaos in Ghana I just ran 4 million regressions The Little REDD book
How sweet is sugar? Or be very pointed question: Does inflation really lower growth? What makes local forest management
successful?
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
13/38
Abstract
For articles, most people only read thetitle and abstract: What do you want totell them? What was studied, the main finding,
and conclusion (policy implications?) The key argument
Limit description of methods Its the second trigger
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
14/38
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
15/38
1. Introduction A good introduction:
Why is the topic important? What is new? Focus on the main argument
Present the research question and what youll do Short (2-3 pages, or max 10 %) A bad introduction
Too long
Either toospecific or toogeneral Long description & background
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
16/38
Examples
No starters: This thesis discusses . Poverty is widespread in Ethiopia . + long
background of well-known facts .
Better ones are: Does market integration destroy community
management of forests? XX has argued In thisthesis I demonstrate, quite the contrary, that .
Poverty is commonly believed to be a majorcause of tropical deforestation. This thesis givesevidence from Sumatra that questions this view
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
17/38
Example (Arrow and Lind,
AER 1970)The implications of uncertainty forpublic investment decisions remain
controversial. The essense of thiscontroversial is as follows: . The issueis whether it is appropriate to discountpublic investments in the same way asprivate investments.
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
18/38
2. Background:Three types of information
1. Geographical: Community, district, country KISS, particularly for the country Whats special & relevant for your topic,
e.g., the sector working on2. Topic: The debate and issues: Ok, but explain
why relevant for your thesis
3. Theory: next sectionGeneral: Link it to the rest of your theses!Tables & figures & maps often useful
3 Th
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
19/38
3. Theory:a. The structured literature review
Structured and intelligent discussion Organize the discussion by arguments, not
authors
Use general theory, but make it relevant foryour problem
Define concepts
Use box and arrow diagram (flow chart)
1-3 overview articles/reports/books useful
Identify the 5 most important articles/books understand them well!
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
20/38
b. Mathematification of the
arguments Using math to present some keyarguments and hypotheses
Example: Based on the above discussion,the probability of starting agro-business (P)can be written as:
P = f(Income, Age, Education, Land, )
Then you have a discussion of expectedsigns and why (the economic mechanisms)
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
21/38
c. A (new) formal model
One possibility: a simple optimization model adaptedto the problem
Dont just replicate a standard textbook model, e.g.Chayanov or profit-max
A newformal model probably not appropriate formost theses
Note on references: Cite paper with original idea
Too much internet sources (use Wikipedia?)
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
22/38
Derive testable hypotheses
The theory section should normallyconclude with a set of hypotheses.
Its key to link theory and empiricalfindings.
Testable:
Defined and quantified all relevant variables Sufficient variation in data to permit testing
The following table is useful:
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
23/38
Tool
Variable Indicator/proxy Expected sign
Poverty Income per adultequivalent
Negative
Land holdingsper household
Negative(amongfarmers)
Forest access Distance fromhouse to forest
Positive
Forest cover (%)of village
Negative
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
24/38
4. Data and methods
Three parts: Methods for data collection:
describe data collection methods,sample, etc.
Data collected/used definitions, problems
Methods for analyzing the data
only descriptions of whats (to be) done,not the results
justify methods
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
25/38
Typical mistakes
Too much on basic methodologies
There are textbooks on OLS!
Too much on general problems in datacollection (validity, reliability,...)
Too little on the actual data collection
Too little on the empirical strategy (howhypotheses are to be tested)
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
26/38
5. Results and discussion
Focus on findings relevant to the topic& hypotheses
After a broad introduction (descriptive
stuff), organize the chapter based onthe research questions andhypotheses (and possibly also
methods used)
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
27/38
Example
CHAPTER 5: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Descriptive information about respondents
5.2 Factor analysis: Identification of developmentpathways
5.3 Econometric analysis of the determinants ofdevelopment pathways
5.4 Welfare implications of development pathways
M j i t k
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
28/38
Major mistake:Little economics,
lots of econometrics Start with a simple descriptive analysis:
tables, graphs, .... Get to know your data!
Example of a useful table (from a study
of determinants of forest income)
Total Forest Pct forest
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
29/38
Totalincome
Forestincome
Pct forestincome
Income 1. quintile
2. quintileLand holdings 0-0.5 ha
0.5-1 ha
Sex Male head.Female h.
Education Primary
Secondary
Age groups
Villages
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
30/38
Causation vs.correlation
Tables and simple statistics detectcorrelation
Regression triesto detect causation(if all relevant exogenous variablesincluded)
Distinguish between the two! Using theory necessary to identifycausation
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
31/38
Tables and figures
Tables are often overloaded Extract the big picture (trends, major
findings) and interpretations in the text people can read the details in the
tables Use appendices, particularly for large
tables Figures are generally better than tables
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
32/38
Interpretations
Avoid verbal math;Dont write whats already in the tablesThe variable CREDIT has value of 6.0567 and a t-statistic of
2.2876, and is significant at the 95 % level. The analysisshows that an increase in the CREDIT variable increases
maize production by more than 6 units. Economic significance
The findings suggest that providing credit to farmers increaseproduction by 24 %, and overall income by 17 %. Providing credit to all farmers will make the share of
population below the poverty line will drop from 56 % to 42%.
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
33/38
Discussion of results
The broader interpretations. What explainsthe findings?
Relate findings to hypotheses & theory!
Not doing so is a common mistake! Avoid ad-hocreasoning (its easy to
contradict oneself, and not linked to theory)
A new table comparing expected and actualsigns? Why different?
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
34/38
Look for alternativeexplanations (hypotheses)
The Wason card problem
4 cards on the table with a letter on one side anumber on the other
The cards show: A, B, 2, 3 Hypothesis: All cards with a vowel on one side has
an even number on the other
Question: Which 2 cards should you draw to test the
hypothesis?Falsification as a scientific method
look for evidence to prove yourself wrong
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
35/38
7. Conclusion
Main findings brought together Implications & recommendations
Research (but dont beg for moreresearch)
Policy Typical mistakes:
Repeat introduction & abstract
Unfounded conclusions and policyimplications
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
36/38
References
Paper with the original idea
Too much internet sources (use
Wikipedia?) Use standard format and reference
programme
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
37/38
Summary:The common mistakes
No clear research question (and testablehypotheses)
Lack of focus throughout the thesis on the
topic (irrelevance) Background: too general Theory: repeating textbooks Method: general and repeating textbooks Results and discussion: jumps to the
regression, and little link to theory
-
8/13/2019 Arild Angelsen Common Mistakes in Theses Writing 2014
38/38
The good thesis
has a research question
and answers that
using sound theory and methods and presents and discuss the results
in a clear and structured way!
Its that simple!