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AppendixVI.ResultsoftheNationalScopingExerciseMAC01WATERQUALITYDEGRADATION1.1.Alterationofnaturalriverflowandchangesinfreshwaterinputandsedimentload
Comoros:The islandshaveveryvariabledrainage systems; therenopermanentwater systems in
GrandeComorebecause of the highpermeability of the soils, but there are complex anddense
drainage systems onAnjouan,Mayotte andMoheli. There has been a reduction inquantity and
qualityofflowintheseriversandstreamsoverthepasttwodecades.Thishasresultedindifficulties
in theprovisionofwater fordomesticusesand irrigation,hydroelectricgenerationand increased
prevalenceofwater andvectorbornediseases(asaresultofstagnation)(ComorosMEDA,2012).
Kenya:There are twomajor river systems, the Tana andAthiSabaki rivers,whichdrain into the
IndianOcean inthenorthernregionoftheKenyacoast,andnumerousothersmallsemiperennial
rivers draining into the Indian Ocean (Ramisi, Umba,Mwache,Mkurumuji, Rare and Kombeni).
Modificationoffreshwaterriverflowandsedimenttransportbudgets,haveimpactedcreeks,deltas
andestuariesandcontributedtowardsthedegradationofcoastalhabitatsandcoralreefassociated
ecosystems(KenyaMEDA,2012).
Madagascar:Therearenumerousriversandstreamsthatflow intotheseaontheeast(Mananara
andMangoro,Maningory,andtheBemarivo, IvondroandMananjary)andwestcoast (Sambirano,
Mahajamba, Betsiboka,Mania, south and northMahavavy,Mangoky and Onilahy) (Madagascar
MEDA, 2012). The largest riveron the island is the IkopaRiver,which crossesAntananarivo and
feedsintoBetsibokaRiverintheeast.FlowsintheMandrareinthesouth,whichisthedriestpartof
the island,are intermittent.Flood flowsof theseriversareusuallyveryhighbecauseof thesteep
topography and sedimentation is common. In the Betsiboka estuary, huge quantities of reddish
orangesiltaretransportedanddepositedinlargequantitiesastheflowslowswhentherivermeets
thesea.Changesinsedimenttransportpatternshavecontributedtowardsboththemodificationof
shorelinesandsiltingofreefflatsandmangroveforests(Bemiasa2009,MadagascarMEDA,2012).
Mauritius:OnMauritiusthereare25majorriverbasinsand21minorones,whereasonRodrigues
thereare20majorriverbasinsand10minorones.Almostall riversonboth islandsareperennial
withmostofthestreamshavingtheirsourcesinthecentralhigherareas.Onbothislands,baseflow
rates of these rivers are typically low due to low levels of infiltration, due to the low retention
capacityofthesoilandporousbasalticrock.Flowsratescanhoweverincreasefromafewlitresper
secondtomorethan500m3/sduringfloods.Duringfloodssedimentsarecarriedouttoadistanceof
over5kmtosea.
Mozambique:Thereare100principal riverbasinsand anumberof international rivers (Rovuma,
Zambezi,Save,LimpopoandImcomati).Riverrunoffhasdecreasedandtherehasbeenmodification
ofstreamflowleadingtofreshwatershortage/reductionorexcessiverunoffandfloodingincertain
periodsoftheyear.Theriversarethemainsourceofsedimentsanddissolvedinorganicnutrientsin
coastal zones. Shoreline stability in the estuaries and adjacent coast ismostlydependenton the
inputofsedimentsfromrivers.Freshwatershortagesandreducedriverflowshasledareductionin
sedimenttransportandresultedincoastalerosion.
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Seychelles:ThereareseveralfreshwatersourcesonMah(38catchments),Praslin(11catchments)
andLaDigue(8catchments),andthecatchments interconnectwithnumerousriversandstreams.
Theriversaretypicallyephemeralwithveryfewperennialones.The islandssteeptopographyand
thelowretentioncapacityofthesoilmeansthatstreamaretypicallyswiftflowing,duringtherainy
season and low flow volumes during the drought season. Although rainfall is high (average
2,362mm/yroverthelast37years),onlyasmallpercentageisretained(2%).Despitethisriverrun
off and siltationofdrainage systemshas increaseddue to increaseddevelopment (areasofhard
standingandhouses).Thesiltationofdrainagesystemshasreducedtheircapacityandresulted in
floodingincoastalareasduringheavyrains.Thissituationislikelytoworsenifrainfallincreaseswith
climatechange(SeychellesMEDA,2012).
Somalia:Thecountry issemiaridbuttherearetwomajorriverscontributingtoperennialsurface
flowinsouthernSomalia:theJubaandtheShabelle,whichoriginatefromEthiopianHighlands.The
restofthecountry iscrossedbyephemeralstreams,whichremaindryformostoftheyearexcept
duringmajorrainfallevents.AbouttwothirdsoftheJubaShabellecatchments lieoutsideSomalia,
mostly in Ethiopia, and part of the Juba catchment lies in northern Kenya. The Laag Dheera
catchment isanothertransboundarycatchment,threequartersofwhich is inKenya.Thisjoinsthe
Juba catchment in the lower reaches through a natural depression. In the central and northern
regionsofSomalia, there isvery littlesurface runoff sincemostof rainwatereitherevaporatesor
infiltrates into theporous soil.Most of the other rivers only flow after flash floods during rainy
seasons.Siltationoftheriversasaresultofpoorlandusepracticeshasledtothemodificationinthe
configurationofcoastalhabitats,shiftingaccretionanderosionpatternsandassociatedecosystems
arechanging(UNEP2009).
SouthAfrica:TherearenumerousriversandestuariesthatfeedintothecoastofSouthAfrica.Theserivers deliver large sediment loads to the coast.Modified river flows have however resulted in
changesinestuarinemouthdynamics,withnegativeconsequencesformangrovesandsaltmarshes
and fisheries. Increased sediment loadshave also caused theestuaries tobecome shallower and
havealteredthecharacteristicsofrivermouths(SouthAfricaMEDA,2012).Tanzania: The coastal regionofTanzaniahas several rivers thatdischarge into the IndianOcean,withadrainagesystemwhichcoversabout20%ofthecountry.TheRufijiisthelargestriver,which
contributes50%of the total freshwaterdischargestothesea.Other importantrivers includethe
Ruvuma,theWami,theRuvuandthePangani.OtherriverssuchastheMatandu,Mbwemkuruand
Lukuledi are considered to be relatively less important in terms of freshwater discharges to the
IndianOcean.Riverflowshavereducedovertheyears,andthequalityofwaterhasalsoreduced,
withsubsequentenvironmentandsocioeconomicimpactsincludingsocialconflictsinsomeregions
(TanzaniaMEDA,2012).
1.2.Degradationofgroundandsurfacewaterquality
Comoros: InGrandeComore,thetotalabsenceofsurfacewatermeansthatpotablewatercomes
fromgroundwaterandcisterns.Groundwaterishoweverbeingaffectedbysaltwaterintrusionand
atriskofpollutionduetohighsoilporosity(ComorosMEDA,2012).Otherwatersourcesarelocated
in themountains of the Grid andMbadjini, while these have low water storage capacity, they
providegood
quality
potable
water.
The
crater
lakes
at
high
altitude
fill
with
fresh
water,
but
those
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inthewaterwithinthechannelneartheInfuleneRiverwerehigh(460,000bacteriacountsper100
ml)andvaluesexceeded2,400bacteriacountsper100ml intherivermouth.ThebacteriaVibrio
parahaemolyticusandV.mimicushavebeenfound inclamsatthe IncomatiRivermouthandnear
Matola in the Maputo estuary. Vibrio spp. is the cause of severe gastrointestinal illnesses
(Fernandes1996).HighlevelsofmicrobialpollutionhavealsobeenfoundatBeiraandNacalaBays,
althoughtheconcentrationsare lowascomparedtothoseobserved inMaputoBay (Mottaetal.,
1998).
Seychelles:CoastalwatersofSeychellesaregenerallygoodquality,exceptduringtherainyseason,whenareaswithsignificantriverinflowshavehighermicrobialquantities.Effluentfromwastewater
treatmentplantsdischargeddirectly intotheoceanwas foundtocontainbetween2000and5000
totalcoliformcountsper100ml,farabovetherecommendedstandardsof500per100ml(Antoine
et al. 2008). During a monitoring survey conducted during 2007, high microbial counts were
recordedatBeauVallonBayduringtherainyseason.Theseweremostlyassociatedwithrunofffrom
nonpointsourcessuchasriversandsmallstreams (Antoineetal.2008).Outbreaksofwater and
insectbornediseasesusuallyoccurduringtherainyseasonandaremainlyassociatedwithdefective
onsite wastewater disposal systems (UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat, CSIR and WIOMSA,
2009).
Somalia:OnlyonepartofMogadishuhasaseweragesystem.AllothertownsandcitiesinSomaliatypically use septic tanks as the most common mode of human waste disposal. Coastal
municipalities also lack the capacity to treatwastes. Sewage and solidwastes containingorganic
materials, nutrients, suspended solids, parasiticworms and benign and pathogenic bacteria and
virusesarediscardeddirectlyintotheocean(SomaliaMEDA2012).
SouthAfrica:Sinceabout1985,thedesignofoffshoresewageoutfallsinSouthAfricahasfollowedthereceivingwaterqualityobjectivesapproachwhereeffluentquantitiesandcompositionmustbe
withinlimitsthatmeetsitespecificEnvironmentalQualityObjectives,asrecommendedintheSouth
AfricanWaterQualityGuidelines forCoastalMarineWaters (SouthAfricaMEDA2012).Longterm
environmental monitoring programmes at these outfalls have indicated no detrimental impact
relatedtochemicalandmicrobiologicalcontaminationonthemarineenvironmentor itsbeneficial
uses.Thereishoweverarapidincreaseindischargestolessdynamicandsensitiveareassuchassurf
zones and estuaries,where effluents frommalfunctioning or overloaded treatment facilities are
adverselyaffectingthemarineenvironmentanditsbeneficialuse,albeitinalocalisedmanner(RSA
DWAF 2004a, b ,c). In Cape Town (South Africa) an extensive monitoring programme for
microbiological contamination (usingE. coli as an indicatororganism) found that80%of stations
sampledcompliedwiththeSouthAfricanguidelinesforcontactrecreation.Thestationsthatdidnot
comply(E.coliexceeded200countsper100mlin80%ofsamplesinone,and2000countsper100
mlin95%ofsamplesintheother)wereinhighlydevelopedandurbanisedsectionsofthecoastline
(CityofCapeTown2005).
Tanzania:Rawsewage isdirectlyreleased intoestuariesandothercoastalhabitatsandawayfrom
coastaltowns.Highcountsoffaecalcoliformandtotalcoliformbacteriaofuptoseveralthousand
permlofseawaterwerealsorecorded inZanzibar,Tanzania(Mohammed2001).Highcountshave
promptedhealthconcernsandwarningsofhealthriskstoswimmers,andsomebeachesonZanzibar
and themainland inDar es Salaam (e.g.Ocean Road and Banda beaches) have been closed for
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swimming and other recreational activities due to microbial contamination (Mohammed et al.
2008).WIOLaBmonitoring conducted in 2007 showed contamination of waters around Dar es
SalaamaswellasStoneTown.
1.3.2 Nutrient enrichment from landbased (domestic, industrial, agriculture, livestock) and
marine(mariculture)
sources
Comoros:Theislandsaresituatedinonethemostprolific"upwelling"regionsoftheWesternIndianOceanwhichnaturallyenhancesnutrient levelsanddrivestrongbloomofphytoplankton.Nutrient
patternshaveyettobedeterminedinthewatersaroundComoros(ComorosMEDA2012).
Kenya: Coastal waters in Kenya receive nutrient inputs from agricultural runoff (fertilizers),untreatedwastewateror sewageand fromatmospheric sources from theburningof fossil fuels.
Nutrientenrichmenteventshavebeen reported to triggermassivealgalblooms.Along theKenya
coast,studieshavereportedan increasegrowthofepiphyticalgaeonseagrassandthedominance
of the green algae (Ulva and Enteromorpha sp.), and in areas adjacent to dense tourism
developmentsepiphytic
cover
reached
60
%
(Uku
1995,
2005,
Uku
and
Bjrk,2005,
UNEP/Nairobi
ConventionSecretariat,CSIRandWIOMSA,2009).This isacommon impactofnutrientenrichment
onseagrassbedswhichcanleadtoaphaseshift,asthealgaesmothersthebladesoftheseagrass,
blockingthelightnecessaryfortheseagrasstophotosynthesize,andultimatelyresultinginmortality
orashiftinspeciescomposition.
Madagascar: The rivers draining the Madagascan Highlands are important sources of nutrients
brought to the coast, and some lagoons have variable but high concentrations of nutrients
(ammonium,nitrateandnitrite)throughouttheyear(Lope2009).Nutrientenrichmentisduetothe
use of fertilizers in agriculture and accelerated soil erosion within the river basins due to
deforestation(Mozambique
MEDA
2012).
Flooding
of
the
Ifaho
River
in
Madagascar
results
in
apeak
in nitrate concentrations, 200 400 times higher than the minimum values in the lagoons
(MozambiqueMEDA2012).TheperiodicdrainingofwastewaterpondsinfishfarmsinMadagascar
isanother sourceofnutrientenrichmentas thiswater is rich inphosphates,nitratesandorganic
mattersandmayalsocontainpathogens,antibioticsandpesticides,andcancauseeutrophication
andharmfulalgalblooms(HABs)(MozambiqueMEDA2012).
Mauritius:Over use of fertilizers in agricultural practices (both intensive and small scalemarket
gardening,andlivestockrearing),posesaseriousthreattocoastalecosystemsandgiverisetoalgal
bloomsandredtides.Mass fishmortalityeventshavebecomequitecommon inrecentyearsand
thishas
been
attributed
to
discharge
of
untreated
effluents
as
well
as
pesticides
and
uncontrolled
use of fertilizers from coastal agricultural activities. High nitrate concentrations introduced into
lagoonsystemsthroughagriculturalreturnflowshavebeenassociatedwithalgalproliferationinthe
lagoons of Belle Mare/Palmar, and many hotels have had to remove algal deposits from the
shorelineonaweeklybasis(Dulymamodeetal.2002).AtFlicenFlac,blackanoxicsands,smellingof
hydrogen sulphide, have been observed at the lowwatermark and are associatedwith organic
enrichment fromwastewaterdischarges (Prayagetal.1995).High levelsofnitrateandphosphate
andassociatedproliferationofalgalgrowthhavebeenrecordedatbothBelleMareandFlicenFlac
(Prayagetal.1995,Botte2001).Nutrientenrichmentoflagoonwatersalsoresultsinincreasedalgal
growth
over
corals,
affecting
their
biology
and
the
coral
reef
ecosystem
as
a
whole
(Botte
2001).
Highconcentrationsofphosphates(relativetootherWIOcountries)wereconfirmedfromsampling
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conductedaspartoftheWIOLaBproject(UNEP/NairobiConventionSecretariat,CSIRandWIOMSA,
2009).
Mozambique:ThemainsourcesofthedissolvedinorganicnutrientsincoastalzonesofMozambique
aretherivers(Hoguane,2007;GammelsrdandHoguane,1987,1996andStreandSilva,1979).
TheSofala
Bank,
which
is
influenced
by
the
discharges
from
the
Zambezi,
Pungu,
Buz
and
Save
rivers,isoneofthemostproductiveshelfregionsofMozambique(Lutjeharms2006,Barlow,2007,
2008). However agricultural activitieswithin the coastal region and in the hinterland areas also
contribute contamination of the coastal andmarine environment, through sediments anduseof
pesticidesand fertilizers.High levelsofBODandCOD,and low contentofdissolvedoxygenhave
beendetecteddownstreamofthefactoriesandthepresenceofwaterhyacinthandPistiaisaclear
evidenceofnutrientrichwater(MozambiqueMEDA2012).
Seychelles:The coastalwatersofSeychellesaregenerally low innutrients,with theexceptionof
areaswhichreceivesignificant inputsfromfoodprocessingfactories inthevicinityofPortVictoria
(SeychellesMEDA
2012).
In
the
rainy
season,
areas
where
there
are
significant
river
inflows
influence the microbial quality and community structure in the coastal waters. Department of
Environment (DoE)hasanutrientmonitoringprogramme.There ishoweverasignificantgapwith
regards understanding the effects of rapid coastal and upland development on nutrient loading,
includingtheimplicationsforwaterqualityandcoastalhabitats(seeLittleretal.,1991;Grandcourt,
1995,SeychellesMEDA2012).
Somalia: The coastal waters of Somalia are subject to intense upwelling during the southwest
monsoon as the 'Southern Gyre' and 'Great Whirl' moves northwards up the coast. Nutrient
enriched water brought to the surface with the upwelling, increases primary and secondary
productivityand
is
the
main
driver
in
terms
of
the
fisheries
productivity
along
this
coast.
In
addition
tothistheriversalsocontribute largeamountsofnutrientsandfreshwater(Ngasaruetal.,2004).
Phosphorous andothernutrients are introduced to theocean from the Juba and Shebelle rivers
during the rainy season andphosphorous concentrations show apeakjust after the startof the
Southeastmonsoon(SomaliaMEDA2012).Coastalmunicipalitieslackthecapacitytoprocesswastes
andhumanactivitiesrelatedto foodandenergyproductionhavegreatly increasedtheamountof
nutrient pollution entering the marine environment, causing localised eutrophication of coastal
watersanddegradationoffisherieshabitats.Increasinglevelsoffertilizersusedalongrivercourses
alsoresult ineutrophicationof lower reachesandexcessnutrientsbeingreleased intotheoceans
(SomaliaMEDA2012).
SouthAfrica:Riverineinputofnutrientspeaksinmid tolateaustralsummer,andismaximalinthenortheast of the country (SouthAfricaMEDA 2012). Estuaries act as nutrientpurifying systems,
wherenutrientsfromcatchmentsareabsorbed,resulting incleanerwaterenteringthesea.This is
particularlyevidentduring lowflowperiods (dryseasons)whenriverrunoffenteringtheestuaries
mayhavehighernutrients levelsduetoagricultural irrigationreturnflows.Highnutrients levels in
estuariescanalsoresultfromlongerresidencetimesduringweakneaptideswhentidalexchangeis
reduced(Taljaardetal.2006).UrbanestuariesontheKwaZuluNatalcoastareincreasinglyshowing
signs of excess nutrient and organic loading from surface drainage and, possibly,malfunctioning
sewage reticulation systems. This has contributed to recent fish kills in several estuaries in the
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Thekwini municipality and the Port of Durban (UNEP/Nairobi Convention Secretariat, CSIR and
WIOMSA,2009).
Tanzania:Rawsewage isdirectlyreleased intoestuariesandothercoastalhabitatsandawayfrom
coastal towns; nutrients also enter the marine environment as fertilizer runoff from areas of
intensivefarming
through
mouths
of
major
rivers
and
streams
(Tanzania
MEDA
2012).
In
the
Tanga
areaofTanzania,macroalgaehasproliferateddue tonutrient loading frommunicipalwastewater
and industrialdischarges,particularly from a fertiliser factory (Munissi1998).Munissi (2000)also
demonstratedtheassociationofUlvaspp.andEnteromorphaspp.withnutrientinputfromsewage
pipes. InZanzibar,thereleaseof inorganicnutrients fromdomesticsewagehasbeen identifiedas
oneofthemaincauses foradecrease incorallinealgaewhicharesensitivetophosphateandare
disappearingfromphosphateenrichedareas(Bjrketal.1996,TanzaniaMEDA2012).
1.3.3 Chemical contamination (excluding oil spills)from landbased (domestic, industrial and
agricultural)andmarine(shipping,dumpingatsea)sources
Comoros:TwotypesofPersistentOrganicPollutants(POPs)werereportedin2006:polychlorinatedbiphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins/furans. PCBs were used as heat exchange fluids and insulators
(dielectric) inelectricaltransformersusedbypowercompanies.Althoughonly6%oftransformers
onComoroshad PCBs, 84%were contaminatedwith PCB (National Implementation Planof the
UnionofComoros,PNM,2004).Dioxinsandfuransareproducedduring incompletecombustionor
some industrial processes. Over 77% of dioxins and furans emissions come from uncontrolled
combustionprocesses,andonComorostheseoriginateprimarilyfromtheuncontrolledburningof
householdwaste.Thenational contribution to theglobalemissionsofdioxinsand furans in2006
amountedto24.196gTEC/year(PNM,2004).Noquantitativestudyhasyetbeenmadeofpersistent
inorganic
pollutants,
but
it
is
known
that
this
pollution
consists
of
plastic
bags,
batteries,
electronic
waste, glass,motoroil andmetals thatmostoften endup in the sea (UNEP/NairobiConvention
Secretariat,CSIRandWIOMSA,2009).
Kenya:Somesignificantconcentrationsofpesticideresidueshavebeen reported inKenya (SabakiandRamisiRiver) (Wandiga2005;Wandigaetal.,2002)and from fish samples (Tana,AthiSabaki
rivers andestuaries) (Lalahetal.,2003;Mugachiaetal.,1992;Munga,1985).Studiesalso found
elevated levels of copper, cadmium, iron and zinc heavymetals (in Kilindini andMakupa Creeks
Mombasa,Kenya)althoughthelevelsweresubstantiallylowerthanthoserecordedinotherpolluted
coastalareas(Kamau2001).Monitoringofsedimentconcentrationsofcadmium,copper, leadand
zinc
in
the
Sabaki
estuary/Malindi
Bay
complex
and
Kilindini/Port
Reitz
Creek
were
found
to
be
aboverecommendedWIOguidelines(UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme/NairobiConvention
SecretariatandCSIR2009).Madagascar: Chemical contamination occurs due to industrial, agricultural, port and miningactivities. Most pollutants are biodegradable but there are also persistent organic pollutants
includinghighlytoxicinsecticidessuchasDDTandphenolsfromwoodindustries(MadagascarMEDA
2012). Effluents from the oil refinery at Toamasina and the shipyard at Antsiranana contain
naphthenicpollutants,sulphidesand thiophenolsandpollutants fromminingzones (mica,quartz,
iron, chromium, and graphite) are made up of solid waste and sludge mineral suspensions
(Madagascar
MEDA
2012).
WIO
Lab
surveys
found
that
sediment
heavy
metals
concentrations
were
the highest reported for the WIO region (United Nations Environment Programme/Nairobi
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chemicalsarevery low inSeychelles (UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme/NairobiConvention
SecretariatandCSIR2009).
Somalia: Fish factories, tanneries and slaughterhouses contribute to pollution of the marine
environment inSomalia.Maritimeactivitiesalsocontributetopollutionthroughthereleaseof (oil
andballast
waters
and)
soluble
PCBs
(UNEP
2009).
Noxious
oils,
organic
and
inorganic
chemical
wastes are also dumped into the sea on a regular basis and seepage from dump sites contain
significant amounts of dissolved toxicmetals and organic chemicals (SomaliaMEDA 2012). The
leachates frommunicipalwaste disposal sites pose a serious pollution problem during the rainy
season(UNEP2009).
South Africa: Municipal and industrial wastewater discharges are regulated and licensed, andmonitoringandassessmentstudiesconductedinandaroundtheoffshoreoutfallsappeartoindicate
thatthesesystemsarehelpingtoreducetheamountofcontaminantsenteringmarinewaters(CSIR
2004, McClurg et al. 2007). Persistent organic and inorganic pollutants have however been
measuredin
fish
(e.g.
Grobler
et
al.
1996),
sharks
(e.g.
Watling
et
al.
1981),
seals
(e.g.
Stewardson
et
al.1999,Vetteretal.1999),dolphins (e.g.Cockroftetal.1991;deKocketal.1994,Vetteretal.
1999)andbirds (e.g.Evans andBouwman2000) fromSouthAfrican coastalwaters (SouthAfrica
MEDA2012).Persistentorganicpollutantshavebeenfound inthetissueofmusselscollectednear
stormwaterdischargesandposeapotentialhumanhealthrisk(e.g.CSIR2008a).
Tanzania:Alarming levelsofPCBswere found in theDaresSalaamharbourareas (Machiwa1992
andMwevuraetal.2002).Heavymetalssuchaslead(Pb),zinc(Zn),cadmium(Cd),chromium(Cr),
mercury(Hg)andcopper(Cu)havealsobeenfoundinsedimentssamplesandassociatedbiotafrom
waterswithinDar es Salaam harbour and nearby coastal areas (Machiwa, 1992; Kondoro 1997;
Muzuka,1997).
Concentrations
were
three
fold
higher
than
in
other
areas.
Monitoring
conducted
as
part of theWIOLaB project in 2007 found high concentrations of copper in sediments (United
NationsEnvironmentProgramme/NairobiConventionSecretariatandCSIR2009).
1.3.4 Suspendedsolidsincoastalwatersduetohumanactivitiesonlandandinthecoastalzone
Comoros:Erosionof thecatchmentareas,due todeforestation,has increased the sediment loadentering coastalwaters. Thishas led to sedimentation and siltationof the reefs, smothering the
corals,especiallyonthereefflat.Thehighsedimentinfluxintothelagooncoupledwiththeeffects
of global changes (ENSO 1994 and 1998), also resulted in the disappearanceof Thalassodendron
ciliatumseagrassbeds(ComorosMEDA,2012).
Kenya:Increaseddischargeofsedimentloads inMalindiBay(GOK2008)affectedthecoralreefsintheMalindiNationalParkandReserve(McClanahanandObura1997,Kazunguetal.2002,Kithekaet
al.2003a)andresulted inadecrease inthenumberofseagrassspecies, from fourtotwospecies
(Wakibia1995).PoorlandusepracticesandanincreaseindevelopmentactivitiesintheAthiSabaki
RiverBasinresulted inhighersedimentfluxesandareduction inthedepthofthephoticzoneand
productivityincoastalwater.HighsedimentloadsintheAthiSabakiandTanaestuarieshaveledto
very high turbidity of waters in Ungwana Bay (Kitheka et al. 2003a, b, Kitheka et al. 2005).
Sedimentationhasresulted insignificant impactsonmangroveareas,smotheringtherootsystems
oftreesandcausingdiebackoftheseforests(Kitheka,etal.2005).HeavysedimentationinMwache
Estuaryhasalso led todegradationofa largeexpanseofmangrove forest located in theestuary
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(Kithekaetal. 2003b).Sedimentdepositionandbeachaccretion(e.g.inMalindiBay)haveresulted
inthelossofbeachfrontagefromsomehotelandresortdevelopmentsinKenya,withaconsequent
lossoftourismrevenueandemployment(Kazunguetal.2002,Kithekaetal.2003a,b).ThePortof
Mombasarequiresregulardredgingofthenavigationalchanneltomaintainthedepthrequiredfor
shippingactivitiescontributingfurthertohighloadsofsuspendedsolids(Kazunguetal.2002).
Madagascar:Sediment loads fromrivercatchmentsarerecognisedasamajorconcern.Themajor
source of suspended solids originates from the Ifaho River, and particle charge and turbidity
decreasedependingonthedistancefromthemouth.DischargeofsuspendedsolidsfromtheToliara
WaterBasinhasbeenestimatedatapproximately6milliontonsperyear(MusyokiandMwandotto
1999citedinPayetandObura2004).Sedimentationhasresultedinsignificantimpactonmangrove
areas,smotheringtherootsystemsoftreesandcausingdiebackoftheseforests(Mongetal.2009).
Miningactivitiesalsocontributetoanincreaseinsuspendedsolidsthroughthedischargeofsludge
mineralsuspensions(Anonymous2003).
Mauritius:Coastal
waters
around
Mauritius
are
normally
crystal
clear
apart
from
during
heavy
rains
whenriverflooding isacommonoccurrence.Largeamountsofdebrisandsoilaredischarged into
the lagoons leading to seawater turning from blue to red brown (MauritiusMEDA 2012). High
sedimentation and associatedhigh turbidityhave alsobeen reported in the lagoon atRodrigues,
someofthebaysaresiltedandchannelshavebeenconstructedtofacilitatethemovementofboats
(MauritiusMEDA2012).Mozambique: The excessive inflow of sediments in the coastal and marine environments ofMozambique isduetobad landusepracticeswhich,amongothers, includepoorfarmingpractices
and deforestation in the coastal and hinterland areas. Shoreline stability in the estuaries and
adjacentcoast
is
mostly
dependent
on
the
input
of
sediments
from
rivers.
Given
that
sediment
dynamics is governed by the river runoff, freshwater shortages lead to a sediment deficit, and
coastalerosion. InMaputoandBeiraharbour thesiltation is furtheraggravatedby thesystematic
dredgingofthenavigationalchannels(FAO1999).
Seychelles:Construction anddevelopment activities in theupper regionsof Seychelleshave also
resultedindisturbancesofsoilmaterials,whicharedepositedintothelowerareas,wheretheflow
of water slows down. This has resulted in excessive silting of the lower part of rivers occurs
(SeychellesMEDA2012).
Somalia:Poor
farming
practices
upstream
increase
in
the
siltation
of
the
rivers
(UNEP
2009).
Destructionofmangroveforestsisalsoleadingtoheavyoffshoresiltationandalterationofnutrients
pathwaysforoffshorespecies.Municipalwastescontainingorganicmaterialsandsuspendedsolids
andothercontaminantsarereleaseddirectly intotheseaasthere isnocapacitytotreatwastes in
the coastalmunicipalities.Mininganddredging also increase in siltationof the rivers in Somalia.
Limestoneminingoffossilcoralreefs(beachrock)occursinthesouth,intownssuchasMarkaand
Barawe. The lime is used in house construction, whitewashing and decoration. The mining for
limestone degrades the coastal landscape and leads to coastal inundation, sedimentation and
erosion.Themainthreatstocoralreefsandseagrass includesmotheringduetosiltation (Somalia
MEDA2012).
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SouthAfrica: Sandmining activities in South Africamodify flows, produce high suspended solidloadinganddestructriparianandinstreamhabitats(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).
Tanzania:Seagrassbedsandcoralreefs inTanzaniaarethreatenedbyvariousnaturalandhumanactivitiesincludingexcessivesedimentation, increasingturbidityandreducinglightpenetrationand
shorelinedynamics
involving
sand
deposition
and
removal
(Whitney
et
al.
2003,
Wells
et
al.,
2004,
TanzaniaMEDA2012).1.3.5 Solidwastes/marinedebris(plasticsetc.)frommarineandlandbasedsources
Comoros: Due to the lack of an effective waste collection, processing and disposal system thepopulationindiscriminatelydisposeoftheirgarbagealongtheroad,intheseaalongthecoast,ina
riverornear theirhomes (ComorosMEDA2012).This results inanaccumulationofgarbageand
degradation of urban and coastal and marine habitats. With the rapid population growth,
uncontrolledurbanization,householdwasteproduction,aswellasotherpotentiallymoredangerous
medicalwaste,will continue to increase. Uncontrolled open air waste incineration causes toxic
fumes,which includedioxinsandfuransemissionsandfoulodoursthat inturncauseallergiesand
lungdiseases.Theseconditionsareunhealthyforthelocalcommunitiesandadeterrentfortourism
(ComorosMEDA2012).
Kenya:Dumpingof solidwastes inKenyaoccursaroundurbanareas and tourism centres (KenyaMEDA2012).Highpopulation concentrationalong thecoast is leading to increasedgenerationof
waste andwastemanagement is amajor challenge formost of themain urban coastal centres.
Garbage collection services only cover only 50% of the population. Dumpsites are located and
managedpoorly.Municipalitiesdonothaveadequatebudgetshencetheavailablestaffarepoorly
paid and notmotivated towork, and garbage collection vehicles are not adequate. The private
sectoroperatesonalocalisedscale,whilesmallscalesolidwastemanagementgroupslackmeansof
transport.Solidwasteonthepublicbeach isnowamajorproblem,even inareaswherethereare
officialwastebins(KenyaMEDA2012).
Madagascar:Thereareinadequatecollectionsystemsandsafemodesofdisposalorlittertreatment
systems. Incinerators, treatmentequipmentare rundownand insufficient.There isawidespread
useoftraditionaltechniques/technologiessuchasgarbageembankmentfills,burialofhospitallitter,
openair burning and open dumpsites. About 10% of householdwaste is disposed at authorised
sites; while 40% goes to inadequately managed sites and 5070% is illegally dumped. Mining
activitiesalsocontributetoanincreaseinsolidwaste.Thereisconcernthatmarinewastessuchas
plastic bags are a threat to turtleswhich feed onjellyfish (Hirama andWitherington 2006) and
abandonedfishinggearsuchascastnetscanalsotrapanddrownallspeciesofturtles.Seabirdscan
alsobeaffectedbymarinedebrisandcanbecomebeentangledinnetsandotherdiscardedfishing
gear. Population pressure has increased the number of settlements in the vicinity ofmangrove
forests, and led to dumping of garbage and otherwaste intomangrove forests leading to their
degradation(MadagascarMEDA2012).
Mauritius: The waste disposal infrastructure is adequate and facilities exist for collection and
disposal.Wasteiscollectedandbroughtdirectlythroughthefourtransferstationstoalandfillsite.
Solidwasteandmarinelitterinthemarineenvironmentdoeshoweverneedtobebetteraddressed
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(MauritiusMEDA2012).Garbagefromfishingboats isoneofthemainsourcesofpollution inPort
Louisharbourwaters(MauritiusMEDA2012).
Mozambique: The municipalities do some waste removal, but this needs improvement
(MozambiqueMEDA2012).Tourismoperatorsandenvironmentalnongovernmentalorganisations
doalmost
all
of
the
beach
clean
ups
with
limited
support
from
the
municipalities
or
government
institutions.Effortsat thecentral levelcurrentlyneed tobedirected towards thecreationofand
upgradingofwastereceptionfacilitiesatthemainports(MozambiqueMEDA2012).
Seychelles: Over 90% of the solid waste stream is collected, treated and disposed of in an
environmentallyacceptablemanner (SeychellesMEDA2012).Therearealso regularand frequent
cleaningprogrammesforalltheriversandbeachesintheSeychelles,andalsointheseaandyacht
basin.On theouter islands,debris andmarine litter from the sea is themain causeofpollution
(DepartmentofEnvironment2009)andtherehavebeenvariousinstanceswheremarinedebrishas
beenswallowedbyturtlesorfoundentangledaroundtheanimals(SeychellesMEDA2012).
Somalia: The expansion of urban areas has increased solid waste generation and dumping of
garbagedirectlyontotheseashore.Duetolackofregulation,almostallthecoastalcitiesandtowns
use the beaches as garbage dumping sites. Over the years, a huge volume of garbage has
accumulatedonthebeaches,andplasticsareamajorconcernonturtlebeachesinSomalia(Somalia
MEDA2012).
SouthAfrica:Portreceptionfacilitiesareadequate inthecommercialports,butnot infishingandrecreationharbours(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).Onland,solidwastecollectionservicesanddisposal
sites are currently largely adequate, except for informal settlements. Compacting, landfill and
incinerationare
used,
but
this
is
not
sustainable
and
pressure
is
mounting
to
reduce
the
waste
stream. Effective storm water screening devices have been developed and tested but not yet
installedinmostplaces(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).Tanzania: There is insufficient equipment for the collection of waste, and for covering waste
dumpsites(TanzaniaMEDA2012).Alldumpsitesareopen,notreatmentisdone,andhencelitteris
easilyblownbythewindandtransportedbywatertostormwaterdrainsandriversandeventually
intotheocean.Most recyclable items,suchasplasticbottles,containersandbags,arescavenged
from thewaste collectionpoints and dumpsites. Touristhotels generate largequantitiesof solid
wastes(TanzaniaMEDA2012).
1.3.6 Oilspills(drilling,exploitation,transport,processing,storage,shipping).
Comoros:Over30%oftheworld'soilproductionpassestheComoros,representingmorethan5000tankertripsperyear,andtheriskofaccidentsincreasesduringthecycloneseason.Todate,onlyone
accidenthasoccurred,whentheTaurusboatcaughtfireinMarch2007neartheportofMoroniwith
60tonnesofdieselonboard.Therehavebeensmallerspillswhenshipsemptytheirballastwaterat
sea,orduringthetranshipmentofoilproductsinportsandoildepots(ComorosMEDA2012).
Kenya: Kenyahas adownstreamoil industry, and EastAfricasonly refinery,whichproduces1.6
milliontonnesannually inMombasa.Spillage from theBritish tankerCavaliercausedconsiderable
damageto
mangrove
forests
in
Mombasa
in
1972.
This
coastline
has
since
been
subject
to
afurther
five severespills, resulting inmangrovedieback,especially inMidaCreekwhere theeffectsofoil
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spillswerestillevident10yearsafterthe lastoilspill incident(AbuodhaandKairo2001).Aspill in
MakupaCreekduring1988causedmassivedeathofmangroves.Seagrasshabitatshavealsobeen
impacted(AbuodhaandKairo2001).Dispersantscommonlyusedtocleanupoilspillscontaintoxic
solventswhichpenetratetheprotectivewaxycuticlesofseagrassblades.Thisaffectsthebiological
functioning of cellular membranes and chloroplasts, thereby causing plant loss and as well as
harmful effects in other benthic biota (Ellison and Farnsworth 1996, Abuodha and Kairo 2001).
Kenya has demarcated 17 blocks for petroleum rights negotiations, all offshore exploration is
currentlybeingundertakenby theprivatesector.The currentexpansionofKilindiniPortand the
developmentofLamuasa freeportbring increased risksofoilpollutionandconsequent impacts
(KenyaMEDA2012).
Mozambique:Morethan16,000tonnesofheavyfueloilwerespilledbytheKatinaPtankerin1992
threatening the coastal and marine ecosystems, and extensive areas of mangrove forest near
Maputoweredestroyed(Munga1993).TheportofBeirahasthelargestpetroleumrefinery(witha
capacityofnearly110,000m3)andapipelinewhichpumps1 to1.5million tonsofpetroleum to
Zimbabweeveryyear.Therearemoreportsinthecountrywithoilstoragefacilitiesfromortowhich
oil ispumpedwith associate risks foroil spillsduring the courseof theoperation.Theprevailing
winds (Southeasterly trade winds) make the Mozambican coast vulnerable to spills in the
MozambiqueChannel,asevidencedduringtheKatinaPoilspillin1992nearMaputoBay(Massinga
andHatton1997,MozambiqueMEDA2012).
Seychelles:Therehasnotbeenamajoroilspillreported intheSeychellesand,althoughthereareincidentsorminorspills,understandingofdiffuseandnonpointsourcesinthemarineenvironment
islimited(SeychellesMEDA2012).ThedownstreamoilsectorisavitalcomponentoftheSeychelles
economy,with fuel and liquefiedpetroleum gas accounting forover 25%of total imports in the
country.Oilsectoractivitiesincludeimportationanddistributionofrefinedoilandliquidpetroleum
gas, storage and marketing of petroleum products, marine bunkering, aviation refuelling, bulk
storage and transhipment and transportation of petroleum products by tankers. Oil exploration
effortscommenced in1969,butsignificantreserveshaveyettobediscovered.Thegovernmentof
Seychellesiskeentoencourageforeignoilcompaniestopartakeinfurtherhydrocarbonexploration
survey through the Petroleum Mining Act of 1976 (Seychelles Investment Bureau 2009). The
potentialsideeffectsofoffshoreoilexploration,particularlyonmarineecosystemshavealsobeen
highlightedasathreatinthefuture(SeychellesMEDA2012).
Somalia: In the vicinity of coastal cities, municipal waste, noxious oils, organic and inorganic
chemicalwastes isdumped into the seaona regularbasis.Maritimeactivitiesalso contribute to
pollutionthroughthereleaseofoilandballastwatersandsolublePCBsfromtheseproducts(UNEP
2009).Thecoasthasnotyetbeensubjecttoextensiveoilandgasexplorationandseveralareaswith
worldclasspotentialremaintobetested.Priortotheonsetofthecivilwar inDecemberof1990,
severalconcessionswereheldbymajor internationalpetroleumcompaniesandat least threekey
wells were scheduled to be drilled. Some large multinational oil companies were interested in
exploringdifferentsedimentarybasinsofSomalia.However,duetopolitical instabilityandwar,no
furtherworkinthisareahasbeendonedespitethehighpotentialfordiscoveryofdeposits(Somalia
MEDA2012).
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SouthAfrica:TherehavealreadybeenanumberofspillsinSouthAfricanwaters.TheKapodistriasran aground off Cape Recife, Eastern Cape in 1985 (Randall and Randall 1986) and at least 137
penguins died from oiling and 1,043 oiled penguins were rescued for rehabilitation. After the
Treasure oil spill of 2000, more than 40,000 African penguins were caught for rehabilitation,
relocation(toCapeRecife)orcaptiverearingduring(Crawfordetal.2000).Oilandgasexploration
commencedin1967andabout300petroleumwellshavebeendrilled(Broadetal.2006)centredon
the commercial oil fields of theOuteniqua Basinwith the Transkei, Zululand andDurban Basins
receivingconsiderably lessattention.Thepetroleum industrycontributes2% toGDP.Thecountry
produces 35,000 bbl/d of oil,with proven reserves estimated to be 15million barrels, and also
produced115billioncubicfeetofgas in2008,withreservesestimatedtobe320billioncubicfeet.
SouthAfricaalsohasAfricassecondlargestoilrefinerysystem,comprisedoffourrefineriesandtwo
synfuelplantsproducing692,000barrelsperday(bbl/d)in2008.Around19milliontonsofcrudeoil
is imported into South Africa annually,while approximately 120million tons pass South African
coastsboundforworldmarkets,hencethereisasignificantriskofanoilspillincident.Furthermore,
theincrease
in
shipping
traffic
due
to
the
piracy
taking
place
off
the
Somalia
coast,
and
port
expansionsnowposeanewconcern(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).
Tanzania:An increase inoiloperations(drilling,exploitation,transport,processing,storage,etc) in
Tanzania ispredicted to increaseoilspill risks.Oilandgasproductioncommenced recently in the
SongoSongoarchipelago,off the southernRufijidelta,andMnaziBay,andbothposea threat to
marine biodiversity due to general disturbance (e.g. pipe laying) and oil/gas leaks. Numerous
companiesarecurrentlyexploringpotentialoilreserves,and13offshoreblocksareexpectedtobe
concededinthenearfuture.TheoldrefineryinDaresSalaamwasclosedin1999,butthisisstillthe
centre for downstream activity, as it handles imports of liquid petroleum gas (LPG), stores oil
products,receives
gas
from
the
230
km
pipeline
connected
to
Songo
Songo,
supplies
Burundi,
Uganda,Rwanda andEasternConcoand transports crudeoil through apipeline to the Indenioil
refineryinZambia.Therearealsoplanstoconstructanewoilrefinery inDaresSalaam,aswellas
upgradingofoilstoragecapacityinDaresSalaamandincreasingofcapacityattheSongoSongogas
field,allofwhichshouldbeconducivetogrowth inthesector.Howeverthereareconcernsasthe
country has weak petroleum regulations, human capacity constraints, and an inconsistent EIA
framework. Increases inoiloperations,bothupstream anddownstream,will intensify the riskof
spillsandaccidents(TanzaniaMEDA2012).
MAC02 HABITATANDCOMMUNITYMODIFICATION2.1. Shorelinechange,duetomodification,landreclamationandcoastalerosion
Comoros: There are no official and reliabledata sourceson the extentof coastal erosion in theComorosotherthantheobservations(ComorosMEDA2012).Kenya:Shorelinechanges(erosionandaccretion)haveoccurredduetochanges insediment loads
fromrivers, increasedwaveclimateandcoastaldevelopment.Erosionasaresultofsandandcoral
miningcouldalsobecomeproblematic inKenya ifnotattendedto.Vulnerabilityassessmentshave
beenusedasatooltoidentifyandmapareasthatneedmanagementattentionagainstoccurrences
offloods,erosionandoilspill(KenyaMEDA2012).
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Madagascar: Coastal erosion is particularly noticeable atMorondava,Manakara andMahajanga
(MadagascarMEDA2012).Morondavaandneighbouringareason thewestcoasthave longbeen
affectedbyhigh ratesofcoastalerosion,andbreakwaterswereconstructedon thebeach. In the
cases ofManakara andMahajanga, coastal erosion is amore recent phenomenon (Madagascar
MEDA2012).TheeastcoastofMadagascarhasalsobeenaffected,andtheavenuebordering the
beachofToamasina cityhasbeendestroyed.Ports, culturalandhistorical sites locatedalong the
coastandtouristbeachesareexposedtohigherrisksoflossduetocoastalerosion(Tsangandrazana
2007).Coastalretreatduetowaveerosionwasestimatedbetween5.71mand6.54min1997,and
estimatedtoreachapproximately225mbyyear2100(MadagascarMEDA2012).
Mauritius:Enhancedcoastalerosionduetohumanactivitiesonlybecomenoticeableafewdecadesago.Hardstructuresplaced tooneartheshorelinegave riseto localizederosion.Seawallsbuiltto
contain theerosiongaverise to furthererosiondownstreamandotherprotectionmeasureswere
taken(MauritiusMEDA2012).Cyclonicwavesarehoweveralsoacontributoryfactorresponsiblefor
removing large quantities of sand from the beach and lagoons (MauritiusMEDA 2012). Tropical
cyclones will most likely become more intense and higher waves will be formed and as a
consequence,coastalerosionwillbeenhanced.Coastalerosionalsooccursdue towaves,razde
mare (tidal surges) in thewinter and transitionalmonths,which can result in coastal flooding.
Acceleratedsea levelrisehasbeenrecorded inMauritius,Rodriguesandother islands intheWest
IndianOcean (Ragoonaden2006).This isamatterof seriousconcern in theevent that the trend
continues. Coastal erosion is expected to worsen threatening more coastal infrastructure and
settlement(MauritiusMEDA2012).Mozambique:Coastalerosionisrecognisedasanimportantissue.Morethan90%ofthecoastlineerosion isduetonaturalprocessesthatoccurasaconsequenceof tropicalcyclonesandsea level
rise,resultinginretreatofthecoastline(MozambiqueMEDA2012).Theinstabilityofthecoastlinein
Mozambiqueishoweverthoughttobeduetothedepositionofmaterialsbroughtbyriverscurrents,
aswell as erosion due to the strong currents toward themouths of the rivers especially during
floods.Themaximumerosion valuesoccur in the southernborderbeachdune system (Pontado
Ouro)duetodisturbanceofthedunesystemsfromconstructionbytherecenttourismactivitiesin
theregion(MozambiqueMEDA2012).
Seychelles:Major reclamationworkswerecarriedoutoff theeastcoastofMah inSeychelles to
meetflatlanddemandsforadditionaldevelopmentandurbanization(Bijouxetal.2008,Seychelles
MEDA2012).Theseresultedinthelossofcoralreefsandshorelinechange.Coralrubblewasusedas
fillduring the reclamation, and this resulted in erosion on one side and accretion on the other,
damagetothebenthichabitatandalteredthecoastalandnearshorehydrodynamics(Pulfrichetal.
2006).Othercontributoryfactorsincludechanges inwindandwavepatternsduringthemonsoons
aswellasunregulatedcoastaldevelopment.Synergisticinteractionsofspringtideandsurgesfurther
exacerbatecoastalerosion.Theprevalenceofcoastalerosion ismore likely to follow theexisting
trendandfurtherescalateasaconsequenceofglobalandlocalnaturalandanthropogenicchanges
(SeychellesMEDA2012).
Somalia:MostoftheSomalicoastlinehasbeenseriouslyaffectedbycoastalerosion,especially intheeasternandsouthernregions(SomaliaMEDA2012).Coastalerosionisanissueofmajorconcern
inviewofitsimpactsonvaluableland,lossofvegetationinadditiontodestructionofinfrastructural
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facilitiesandproperties. Poorfarmingpracticesupstreamcausean increase inthesiltationofthe
rivers in addition to mining, urban development and dredging. As a consequence, the coastal
configuration,accretionanderosionpatternsandassociatedecosystemsarechanging(UNEP2009).
Sandminingisverypopularinallcoastaltownsandfishingvillages.Itismixedwithcement,coastal
soilandgraveltomakebricks.Thisdestabilizesthecoastalsanddunes,whichalreadycausedsevere
coastalerosion(SomaliaMEDA2012).
SouthAfrica:Bridgesand causeways for coastal roadsand railway lineshavedisruptedestuarinefloodplains in many areas, aggravating floods, increasing sedimentation and limiting seawater
exchange,whichhasa rangeofecological impacts includingcoastalerosion.TheDurbanharbour,
Africasbusiestport, interruptedthenaturalnortherlypatternofsedimentdriftandaffectedwave
refraction, resulting in beach erosion to the north. Durbans beaches are therefore artificially
maintainedbyasandpumpingschemethatreplenishessome280,000cubicmetresofsandevery
year(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).TheharbourdevelopmentatRichardsBayhasalsointerruptedthe
naturalsedimentdriftpattern,causingsandtoaccumulateagainstthesouthernbreakwater(South
AfricaMEDA 2012). It has also destroyed the dunefieldwheremuch of the northwardmoving
windblownsandwouldhavenaturallyaccumulated(SouthAfricaMEDA2012).Estuariesandrivers
areexploitedbyanumberofsandwinningoperations.
Tanzania:Theproblemof shoreline changes,particularly coastalerosionhas increasinglybecome
one of themajor issues of concern and has been a recurrent problem in many coastal areas,
includingtheislandsofZanzibar(TanzaniaMEDA2012).Coastalerosionproblemsaremainlycaused
bywaveactionontheshoreline.Between1981and2002,between2.04haand2.60haofthebeach
nearDar es Salaamwere eroded bywave action (Makota et al. 2004). Recently, Almstrm and
Larsson(2008)concludedwavegenerated longshoretransport isthegoverningprocessformoving
sedimentsalongtheKunduchibeacharea.Lwiza(1994)alsorecognisedthe influenceofwaveson
coastalerosioninTanzania(TanzaniaMEDA2012).
2.2. Disturbance,damageandlossofcoastal,watershedanduplandhabitats
2.2.1. Disturbance,damageandlossofupland/watershedhabitats(>10melevation)
Comoros:Due to thehighpopulationdensity (300 inhabitants/km), the lackof landuseplanningand the land tenure policy, there is uncontrolled land clearing and deforestation for agricultural
purposes,and logging.Deforestationhas ledto increasedsiltationandareduction ingroundwater
supplies.To controldeforestation,differentprojectshave focussedon sustainable techniques for
forestrestoration
and
better
agricultural
practices
have
been
undertaken.
However,
the
migration
of
farmersbetweenislandsisincreasingandnecessitatestheexpansionoffarmingareas.Kenya: Land use change has had significant impacts on the coastal and marine environment(UNEP/Nairobi Convention, 2010). Construction activities, poor agricultural practices and
deforestation in the riverbasinshave intensifiedhabitatdestruction and soilerosion resulting in
highsediment load into thecoastalwater.Thishastheeffectofreducing thedepthof thephotic
zone thus limiting productivity of the marine ecosystems (Kenya MEDA 2012). Poor land usepracticesintheAthi SabakiRiverBasinforinstance,hasresultedintheincreaseddischargeofhuge
volumeofsedimentsinMalindiBaywithfarreachingecologicalandsocioeconomicconsequences.
Massivesedimentation
interferes
with
growth
of
mangroves
and
also
smothers
coral
reefs
and
sea
grassbeds(GOK,2008).
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Comoros:Pooragriculturalandforestrypracticessuchasburning,clearingoftheforest,areanissueofconcern(ComorosMEDA2012).Kenya: Coastal forests in Kenya cover 139,000 ha and important areas include Arabuko Sokoke,
Diani,and theShimbahills (KenyaMEDA2012).Theseunique lowland tropical forestsareknown
locallyas
Kayas.
The
Kaya
forests
are
distributed
in
few
remaining
patches
along
the
coast
which
haveahighculturalsignificancetothelocalMijikendacommunitywhohavetraditionallyusedthem
for religiousand spiritual rituals (Blackett,1994).The sacredvaluesassociatedwith these forests
havecontributedtotheirconservationandgrowthofforesttourism inthecoastregion.However,
cultural belief associatedwith the Kayas is progressively being erodedwhich is threatening the
traditional management and conservation of these important indigenous forests. Coastal
populations arehighlydependenton forest resources for theirdailyneeds (food,medicines,and
generallivelihoods).Degradationofcoastalforestsimpactsuponthesecommunitiesandthemarine
environment through clearing of buffer vegetation in environmentally sensitive areas close to
shorelines,resultinginincreasederosionandsedimentation(KenyaMEDA2012).
Madagascar: Heavy dependence on subsistence agriculture, and particularly traditional tavy
agriculture, has caused massive deforestation and threatens to continue to do so due to high
poverty levels, rising population growth and limited nonagricultural incomegenerating
opportunities.Madagascarhas also lostmuch of its forests due to illicit logging and agriculture,
whichhashadaseriousimpactonadjacentecosystems.Thedegradationisparticularlyseverenear
Toliara,where forest landwas largely eliminated.Continental forests along the coast are rapidly
decliningandasaresult,andnowmangrovesarealsobeingincreasinglyexploitedforitstimberand
energyresourcesasaresult(MadagascarMEDA).
Mauritius:Althoughtherearestillsmallpocketsofforest(40km2)onMauritiusandRodrigues,verylittleof thenative forests remain.The first settlersonMauritiusexploited theebony forestsand
introduced alien species,which severelydamaged the islandsecosystems and indigenous species
throughover grazingandpredation (TurnerandKlaus2005). InRodrigues, clearanceby fires for
agriculture and introductionof cattlebegan in theearly1800s and continued through the1900s
(Turner and Klaus 2005). Replantation work by the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, has been
attemptingtoreintroducenativespeciesand improve forestcover.At theNationalCCAMeeting,
participantsidentifiedthisissueas'Notrelevant'.
Mozambique:Theutilizationof cropping, aswellas firewood and charcoalproduction, to supplyurban
centres
has
resulted
in
extensive
deforestation
of
coastal
forests.
The
forestry
sector
is
estimatedtocontributebetweentwoandthreepercenttototalGDPinMozambique(Suich2006).
Inexcessof70%ofthevalueaddedofforestryandforestryproductsisthoughttobeaccountedfor
bysubsistenceproductionwiththeremainderconsistingofmarketfuelwoodproduction, industrial
roundwood andprocessedwoodproduction (Suich 2006),onlypartwhichwillbe from activities
withinthecoastalzone.
Seychelles:MuchoftheuppermountainousslopesoftheinnerSeychellesareprotected.Therearefew landbased opportunities in Seychelles, thus, agriculture and forestry contributes far less
economically than themore dominant tourism and fisheries sectors. Subsistence agriculture and
forestrydoes
however,
contribute
6%
to
GDP
and
agriculture
alone
employed
nearly
6%
of
the
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labourforcein1995.Traditionalexportsofcinnamonandcoprahavealsorecentlybeenrevived,as
thegovernmentcontinuestoprovideincentivestothesectortoincreaseproductivity.
Somalia:TheMEDAdoesnotdiscusscoastalforests.SouthAfrica:ThesouthernCapehasremnantsofAfromontaneforest,whiletheEasternCapehaslargeareasofsubtropicalthicket.Thehighlyinginteriorisdominatedbygrasslands,whileKwaZuluNatalhas lushsubtropicalforests interspersedwithsavannah,whichalsooccursinthefarnorthof
thecountry.Coastalhabitats, includingcoastalforests,arevulnerabletothe increasingpressureof
increasedpopulationdensityandtheassociateddevelopment,mining,agricultureandafforestation,
habitatfragmentationandalienplantinvasion(SouthAfricaMEDA,2012).
Tanzania:Coastal forestsarenow recognisedasakey resourceunder threatby theGovernment.
Fuelwood and charcoal are themain sources of energy formostpeople in the coastal regionof
Tanzania.Thelackofanalternativeenergyforcookinghasresultedinunsustainableharvestingand
imposedsevere
demands
on
forest
resources.
In
addition
there
is
amajor
threat
posed
by
the
demand for land for export oriented production, including biofuels, which without careful
management,willbedetrimentalratherthanbeingbeneficialtocoastallivelihoods.Thepromotion
ofparticipatoryforestmanagementbythegovernmentandinternationalNGOssuchasWWFhave
focused on the empowerment of local communities to manage their own resources. Likewise,
alternativesourcesof incomegeneration,suchasbeekeeping,honeyproduction,andtreenursery
managementhavehighlightedpotentialsubstitutesinthissector(TanzaniaMEDA2012).
2.2.3. Disturbance,damageandlossofcoastalhabitats(beaches,dunes,coastalvegetationand
floodplainhabitatsto10melevation)
Comoros:Manynaturalbeachesarecurrentlydegradedduetotheremovalofsandanddumpingofgarbage(ComorosMEDA2012).Kenya:ThesandbeachesofKenyaareamajortouristattraction.Othercoastalhabitatsincludefossil
reef intertidalflatsandasbackshoreraisedreef limestone,formingcliffswhichare12 15mhigh,
sanddunes,mudflats,androckyshoresborderedbycliffs(KenyaMEDA2012).Inthe lastdecade,
therehasbeen rapidandunmanaged transformationof thecoast landwithaconsequent lossof
criticalcoastalhabitats.Mostsettlements,commercialdevelopmentsand touristbeachhotelsare
foundwithinafewhundredmetresfromthesea.Thismakessuchdevelopmentsvulnerabletosea
level rise (UNEP/FAO/PAP/CDA, 2000) but also contributes towards the degradation of these
habitats.Other
impacts
include
increased
sediment
loads
from
the
major
rivers
have
resulted
in
accretionofbeaches inMalindi andUngwanabays (GOK,2008). Lossofbirdhabitatsemanating
fromunsustainablehumanactivitiesthreatenstheKenyanavifaunaand,populationsofshorebirds
andseabirdshaveundergoneageneraldeclinealongthecoastoverthepastdecade.
Mozambique:Theacceleratedgrowthof the tourist industryalong the coastpromotesveryhigh
disturbance levels and represents a serious threat to the status of these habitats and the
conservation of shore birds. Exploitation of littoral organisms by the local population, a very
common activity along the Mozambican coast, also represents a potential threat to their
conservation(MozambiqueMEDA2012).
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Mauritius:Coastalhabitats includesandbeaches,rockyshores,andfossilreefbeachrock.Mostofthepristinecoastalsites,oftenadjacenttoexpansivesandbeaches,havebeenexploitedandnow
hotelplannersareexaminingareas lesstouchedbythe imprintofchange.Urbandevelopments in
floodplainsareas,whichareactuallybelowmeansealevel(e.g.FlicenFlac),havecreateddrainage
problems.InMauritius,cyclonicwavesareresponsibleforremovinglargequantityofsandfromthe
beach and lagoons.Mauritius also suggests that ocean acidification threatens coral reef growth
aroundtheislandandmaythereforereducethesupplyofsandtothelagoonandbeaches.
Madagascar: Coastal habitats include sandy beaches, coastal dune systems, pebble beaches and
rocky outcrops. Climate change related intensification of winds could result in dune systems
becoming more dynamic and significant, leading to the silting of back mangroves and shallow
ecosystems such as lagoons and reef. Recent observations in the Southwest suggest thatmany
ancientturtlenestingbeachesidentifiedbyRakotonirina(1989)arenolongerinuse.Thisreduction
may bedue to increased lightdisturbance due to the increasednumberof beach hotels, as the
presenceof lightson thebeach can induce females to leavewithout layingeggs and affectnew
hatches,inducingthemtoapproachthelightinsteadofmovingtowardthehorizontothesea.
Seychelles:Themost threatenedhabitatsare foundaround the inner islandswhichare themost
populated. Various development pressures along the coast, especially for tourism purposes are
currently posing threats to diversemarine habitats. The inner islands geomorphologic features
(mountainouswith coastalplateaus) and theprotectionplan (mountainouspartsnormally falling
intoNationalParks),are such that themajorityof thedevelopments for local residencesor rural
expansionsaretakingplacealongthecoast. Thisalbeit,nonurbanandcontrolledexpansionshould
stillbetaken intoaccountfor itcouldcauseadditionalstressonthecoastalareasifnotmonitored
and controlled accordingly (Ministry of National Development 2009). Increases in urban
developmenthavebeenshowntocausean increaseinthevolumeofwaterflowing intothe lower
drains,withthepotentialforcoastalflooding.
Somalia:Theexpansionofurbandevelopment inthecoastalzoneandtheexpansionof thecities
increasegarbagedumpingontheseashore.Duetolackofenvironmentalgovernance,almostallthe
coastalcitiesandtownsusethebeachesasrubbishdumpingsite.Sandminingisalsoverypopularin
allcoastaltownsandfishingvillages inSomalia. It ismixedwithcement,coastalsoilandgravelto
makebricks.Thisdestabilizesthecoastalsanddunes,whichalreadycausedseverecoastalerosion.
South Africa: Coastal development in South Africa includes development activities such asinfrastructure
(harbours
and
launch
sites,
cities,
towns,
housing,
roads
and
tourism),
as
well
as
dredgingactivitiesandthedisposalofsediments.Thesedevelopmentsposeamajorthreattomany
components of themarine environment, owing to their cumulative effects,which are often not
takenintoaccountbyimpactassessments.Fivetypesofminingarecurrentlyconsideredtothreaten
marinebiodiversity:sandwinning;miningfortitanium;diamonds;fossilfuels;andphosphate.
Tanzania: Coastal habitats found include sand beaches, intertidalmudflats and rocky cliffs and
intertidalbeachridgesandmarineterraces.Beachridgesandmarineterracesareamongthemost
prominent backshore features along the coast of Tanzania. A wide variety of coastal birds and
seabirdsarefoundparticularly inmangroveforests, intertidalflatsandonrockycliffs.Wadersand
shorebirdsvisit
Tanzania
in
large
numbers
each
year
between
August
and
May
to
feed
on
intertidal
flatsduringlowtides.10ImportantBirdAreas(IBAs)havebeendesignatedbyBirdlifeInternational
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along the coastofTanzania. Lossofbirdhabitatsemanating fromunsustainablehumanactivities
threatens the existence of the Tanzanian avifauna, populations of shorebirds and seabirds have
undergoneageneraldeclinealongthecoastoverthepastdecade.
2.2.4. Disturbance,damageandlossofwetlandhabitats
Comoros:TheparticipantsattheNationalCCAMeetingsidentifiedthisissueasbeing'NotRelevant'.Kenya:ThelargestandmostimportantcoastalwetlandsinKenyaistheTanaDelta.TheTanaRiveristhelargestandlongestriverinKenya(nearly1,014kmlong);theDeltacoversabout130,000haand
supports 100,000 people, consistingmostly of farmers, pastoralist& fishermen. The Tana Delta
presents true features of a typical delta, characterised by several distributaries that discharges
turbidwater intoUngwanaBay.Whiletherearesome importantcoastal lakes,someoftheoxbow
lakesarealsowetlands (e.g. LakeMahe inUmba floodplain,and Ziwa laChakambaandZiwa la
Ndovu in Tana flood plain see also Kitheka, 2002). The shores of both deltas and estuaries are
characterized by the presence of mangrove forest ecosystem (Kokwaro, 1985). The Tana River
volumehasfallenby20% in10years.TheKenyaMEDA(2012)recognisedthatclimatechangeand
naturalvariabilityisalreadyinfluencingrainfallpatternsandtheflowpatternsofrivers,impactingon
floodplains,deltasandcoastalecosystemsand;thattherewas limitedknowledgeand information
onthehydrologicalfunctionsofcoastalwetlands.Madagascar: The west coast ofMadagascar is particularly important for wetland birds. Coastalwetlandsarebeingimpactedbybothhumanandnaturalfactors(MadagascarMEDA2012).
Mauritius:Mauritius has an extremely rich coastal zone consisting of near shorewetlands and
mangroves, lagooncoral,fringingcoralreef.TheRivuletTerreRougeBirdSanctuary inMauritius is
thelargest
estuarine
delta
covering
about
26
hectares
and
is
an
important
wintering
ground
and
refugeformigratorybirdsescapingtherigorouswintermonthsofthenorthernhemisphere.
Mozambique: There are four coastal regions identifiedwhich include the coral reef coast, themangrovecoast,thedeltacoast,andtheparabolicsanddunecoast.Thesecondcoastalhabitat is
dealtwith under a separate issue (MozambiqueMEDA 2012). TheMozambiqueMEDA does not
howeverspecificallydiscussissuesrelatedtowetlands.
Seychelles: On the inner granitic islands the ever growing human population coupled with thetourismindustry(RocamoraandSkerrett,2001)leadstolandclearinganddrainageofwetlandsfor
developments such as housing. This can be exacerbated by the additional threat from global
warmingand
sea
level
rise
which
can
particularly
affect
the
outer
low
lying
coralline
islands.
Somalia:SixmaintypesofwetlandsinSomaliahavebeendescribed(HughesandHughes1992):(i)Tidal wetlands in bays in the East of the country and in the Gulf of Aden where they form a
continuoussaltmarshdevelopedonsedimentwasheddownfromtheOgoMountains.(ii)Wetlands
oftheShabelleJubbaRivers,wherethewholesubcoastalvalleyoftheShabelleischaracterizedby
the presence of swamps with peripheral floodplains. The river divides into three channels and
crossesaswampwhichspans25kmandstretches150kmalongthecoast,coveringanestimated
300,000ha.Wherethetworiversmeetthereisafloodplainafterwhichtheycrossmarshylandand
drain into amangrove fringedestuary at Jumba. (iii)Wetlandsof the LachsDistrict:occurwhere
temporarylarge
water
courses
(lachs)
drain
into
southern
Somalia,
and
become
floodplains
during
rainyseasons.(iv) Bullehs,TugsandDholos:Abullehisasmallendorheicdepressionfilledbyrunoff
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after a storm; these have distinct soil types which retain moisture and as a result have richer
vegetationthansurroundingareas.Tugsaresmalltemporarywatercourseswithlowgradient,which
floodandspreadoverawideareacausingbroadalluviumdeposits.Tugsoftenendininlanddeltas
whichareknownasdholos. (v)TheCentralDistricts:where therearesinkholesandasmall lake.
Severallargepansalsoexisttowardsthecoast,whichseldomholdwaterandwhentheydoitisonly
for a brief period. (vi) Artificial Impoundments: 240 reservoirs have been constructed to water
livestock(SomaliaMEDA2012).
SouthAfrica: Saltmarshesoccurmainly in temperate areas, so in SouthAfrica they are found insuitableestuarinehabitatalongtheCapeswestcoast,southcoastandsoutheastcoast.Furtherup
theeastcoast, inthesubtropicalpartsoftheWildCoastandKwaZuluNatal,theyarereplacedby
mangroves.Truesaltmarshesarefound inapproximately70oftheCapes155estuaries,themost
extensive in the ASCLME region being the 1,800 ha in the Knysna Lagoon on the south coast.
Commonspecies include thecordgrassSpartinamaritima, theglasswortSarcocorniaperennisand
themarshsamphireSalicorniameyeriana.Tanzania:TheRufijiMafiaKilwaMarineRAMSARSite is locatedacross the threenameddistricts,withinthecoastalandLindiregionsofsoutheastTanzania.Ithasanareaof596,908ha(URT2009).
According to theDirectory ofWetlands of International Importance, this site is a representative
wetland of East Africa as it contains a large diversity of wetland types, which are ecologically
interlinked,and includesthethreatenedestuarine,coastalandmarinewetlandhabitats (Directory
ofWetlandsofInternationalImportance2004).2.2.5. Disturbance,damageandlossofestuarinehabitats
Comoros:DuringtheNationalCCAMeetings,attendeesidentifiedthisissueas'NotRelevant'.
Kenya:Oneof thebiggestestuaries is theAthiSabakiEstuary inMalindi; thedistributarieswithintheTanaDeltasuchasKipiniandMtoKilifiarealsoestuariesintheirownright(Kitheka,etal.,2003).
OtherestuariesincludethoseatthemouthsofMwache,Kombeni,RamisiandUmba.Theshoresof
estuaries are characterized by the presence of mangrove forest ecosystem (Kokwaro, 1985).
Changesinlandandwaterusepractices,pooragriculturalpractices,deforestationinthecatchment
areas, are leading to alteration of river freshwater flow and increased soil erosion, increasing
sediment loads increek,deltasandestuaries, causing thedegradationofmangrove forests,coral
reefsandseagrassbeds.TheAthiSabakiestuary ischaracterisedbyhighlyturbidwaterthat limits
primaryproductivityandresultedinaccretionofbeachesinMalindiandUngwanabays(GOK,2008).
Fish samples in the AthiSabaki Rivers and estuaries have also been found to have residue
concentrations of pesticides (Lalah et al., 2003;Mugachia et al., 1992; Munga, 1985). There is
however limitedmonitoring of estuaries and a limited knowledge of the flora and fauna (Kenya
MEDA2012).
Madagascar: The most spectacular areas of shoreline change are due to sedimentation oftenobservedinestuariesandmouthsofmajorrivers.TheBayofBetsibokaisanexampleofanestuary
withserioussedimentationproblems.Therivercarrieshugequantitiesofsiltwhich isdeposited in
largequantitiesatthebay.IntheSouthwest,thesameheavysedimentationoccursatthemouthof
theriverFiherenana,resultinginsmotheringofreefflatsandmangroveforests(Bemiasa2009).Gill
netsandfishbarriersareusedacrossriversandestuaries(MadagascarMEDA2012).
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Mauritius: Small estuaries and deltas are observed in a few placesmainly atGrand RiverNorthWest,Grande RivireNoire in thewest and Baie du Cap in the south.During theNational CCA
Meetings,attendeesidentifiedthisissueas'NotRelevant'.Mozambique:TheestuariesofbigriverssuchastheZambezi,Pngu,BuziandSaveareall inthe
centralpart
of
Mozambique.
These
provide
important
habitat
for
mangroves;
the
Zambezi
delta
mangrovesextend50kminland.Theseareasarealsoimportantfishinggrounds,wheresmallpelagic
and demersal fish and crustaceans of estuarinewaters are dominant. The semiindustrial prawn
fishingareasare locatedalong thenavigationchannelsofMaputoBayand in theestuariesof the
MaputoandNkomati rivers (atdepthbetween10and20meters).Estuariesareoftencentres for
development.Forexample,duetothelowlyingcoastalplain,mostoftheports(withexceptionto
PembaandNacala)havebeendevelopedinshallowbaysandestuariesandthisposesaproblemfor
handlinglargemodernoceangoingvessels.Thehighcostsofmaintenancedredgingareconstraints
inportdevelopment.There is a gap in theunderstandingof the coupled riverbasin and coastal
systems, including themaindriversofecological,hydrodynamics andmorphodynamic changes in
the estuaries (and coastalwaters) and a gap in knowledge on the influence of nutrients inputs
throughriversandrainfallinthebiogeochemicalprocessesinestuaries(andcoastalwaters).
Seychelles:DuringtheNationalCCAMeetings,participantsidentifiedthisissueas'NotRelevant'.Somalia:Where theShabelleand Jumba riversmeet there isa floodplain, afterwhich they cross
marshy landanddrain intoamangrove fringedestuary (HughesandHughes1992).The Shebelle
rivermouthisoneofthepriorityseascapesmentionedintheEasternAfricaMarineEcoregion.The
areahasbeenproposedforprotectionasitisnotonlythemostnorthernestuaryineasternAfrica,
but it is also the largest estuarineoffshore mud ecosystem and the only permanent estuarine
systemin
Somalia.
Sea
level
rise
could
cause
flooding
of
estuaries,
placing
most
coastal
cities
at
risk
(SomaliaMEDA2012).
SouthAfrica:SouthAfricasestuariesarerelativelysmallandmeanannualrunoffforthecountrysrivers is variable. These characteristics, coupledwith extreme environmental conditions, such as
droughts, have led to a number of different definitions for South African estuaries (Day 1980;
Heydorn 1989). Depending on the definition used, there aremore than 258 systemswith total
coverageof75000haofwhichabout60000ha,morethan80%,occurintheACMLE(VanNiekerk
unpublisheddata).Riverinflowtotheestuariesisdeterminedbythedifferentclimaticconditionsin
different parts of the coast, as well as the size and shape of the catchment. Poorly regulated
activitiesupstream
have
destroyed
many
estuarine
habitats.
These
include
infra
structural
developmentssuchasmouthstabilisation, low lyingdevelopments,canalisation, landreclamation,
harbourdevelopment,pollutionanddredging.Thedegradationofsuchintertidalestuarinehabitats
isparticularlyproblematic foroverwinteringPalaearcticmigrantbirdspeciesandcouldresult ina
drasticreductioninthenumbersandevenextinction(SouthAfricaMEDA2012)
Tanzania:RiverssuchasPangani,Wami,Ruvu,Rufiji,Matandu,Mbemkuru,LukulediandRuvumaallflow to the Indian Ocean. Themouths ofmost of these rivers are characterized by productive
brackishwaterenvironmentsinestuaries,deltasandmangroveforests(FrancisandBryceson,2001).
Tidal inlets, estuaries and creeks are characteristically sites of urban and port development, for
exampleTanga
and
Dar
es
Salaam,
which
can
lead
to
nutrient
enrichment
and
other
forms
of
pollution.Sandmininginestuariesalsocausesdirectimpactsresultinginlossofaestheticvalueand
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ecosystemdegradation,aswellassecondary threats to the longtermsustainabilityof thecoastal
sandresourceandstability.Increasedeconomicactivitiesandexpandingpopulationsinthegrowing
coastaltownshaveresultedinproductionoflargeamountofwaste,andrawdomesticsewageand
industrialeffluentsaredirectlyreleasedintothenearbyestuaries(TanzaniaMEDA2012).
2.2.6.Disturbance,
damage
and
loss
of
mangrove
habitats
Comoros:Mangrovesare foundthroughout thearchipelago,coveringanestimated115to117ha
(FAO2007),withmoresignificantcoverageonMohli(91ha),withlessonGrandeComoro(18ha)
andAnjouan(8ha)(ComorosMEDA,2012).Thereare5mangrovespeciesknowntooccur,themost
commonofwhichare:Sonneratiaalba,AvicenniamarinaandRhizophoramucronata.The forests
are mostly situated on the south side of the islands, due to exposure patterns and rainfall
distribution. At thewater's edge other species such as: Pandanus sp, Hibiscus tillaceus, Ipomea
pescaprae,Rhizophoramucronata,Bruguieragymnorrhiza,Avicennia.sp.andLumnizerasp.
Kenya:MangroveforestsinKenyaareestimatedtocover50,000ha(FAO2007)withninemangrovespecies that include Rhizophora mucronata and Ceriops tagal which are the dominant species
represented in almost all mangrove formations (Kenya MEDA 2012). The rare species include
Heritiera littoralisandXylocarpusmoluccensis.Mangroveshavebeen impactedbyhumanactivities
particularly through removal ofwood products, conversion to other uses and pollution. Recent
estimatessuggesta20%declineinmangrovecoveroverthelasttwodecades(KenyaMEDA2012),
although this ishigher than the10%estimated loss fromFAO (2007).Reduction in river flowhas
increased erosion of the delta mouth, and through increased saltwater intrusion, lead to a
reductionofdownstreamhabitatsformangrovesandotherspecies.Conversionofmangroveareas
has also contributed to mangrove degradation in Kenya, for example more than 5000 ha of
mangrovesat
Ungwana
Bay
have
been
cleared
to
pave
way
for
solar
salt
works
and
aquaculture
(AbuodhaandKairo,2001).
Madagascar:Mangrove coverage is the secondhighest afterMozambique: estimates range from
278,078ha(Girietal.,2011)to300,000to400,000ha(FAO2007,MozambiqueMEDA2007).There
arereportedly8(9)speciesfound including:Acrostichumaureum,Avicenniamarina,Ceriopstagal,
Heritiera littoralis, Lumnitzera racemosa, Rhizophoramucronata, Sonneratia alba andXylocarpus
granatum(andpossiblyBruguieragymnorrhiza)(FAO2007).Mangroveresourcesweretraditionally
usedfortimberforhouseandboatconstruction,intraditionalmedicineagainststomachulcers,for
the collection of crabs and fish and for firewood. Rapid population growth in coastal areas has
resultedin
increased
exploitation
for
urban
fuelwood,
charcoal
and
timber.
Fishing
in
mangroves
is
mainly artisanalbut fishing companiesoperating in thenorthern areas tend tobe industrial and
shrimp aquaculture inmangrove areas is being encouraged in certain areas. Increased sediment
loads, due to deforestation upland and changes in rainfall patterns is resulting in
hypersedimentation and smothering of mangroves. Sedimentation at the mouth of the river
Fiherenana,forexample,issiltingthenearbymangrove.OverharvestingofthemangrovecrabScylla
serrata,iscommoninthemangroveareasnearcoastalcities,whilemoreremoteareasstillsupport
fishablestocks.
Mauritius: Mauritius only hosts two species of mangrove, namely Rhizopora mucronata and
Bruguieragymnorhiza,
and
as
such
is
the
most
species
poor
country
in
the
ASCLMEs.
The
mangroves
form a narrow fringe, and the extent of mangrove cover around the islands has significantly
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decreased (2000 ha in 1987 to 1400 ha in 1994) due to overcutting for firewood, construction
purposes and for clearing boat passages. The figures reported in the MEDA are an order of
magnitudelargerthanthosereportedbyFAO(2007)whichreportedacoverageof45hain1980and
120hain2005.Furthermore,thetotalareaofmangrovecoverinMauritiusisnowreportedtobe23
ha(MauritiusMEDA2012).Inresponsetothedeclineinmangrovehabitat,theFisheriesandMarine
ResourcesActof1998,makesprovision for theprotectionand the conservationofmangroves.A
MangrovePropagationProgrammewas initiated in1995,with anobjectiveof restoringdenuded
areaswithmangroves.Since1995,atotalof214,800ofmangroveseedlingswereplantedinanarea
of12.95ha,withanoverallsurvivalrateof78%(MauritiusMEDA2012).
Mozambique:MangrovesoccuralongalmosttheentirecoastofMozambiquemostly insheltered
shorelinesandestuaries,coveringanestimated396,080ha (Barbosaetal.,2001)to390,200 (FAO
2007),whichisthelargestareacoverageforallthecountriesintheregion.Mozambiquealsohosts
thehighest species richness,with a total 10 speciesofmangrove, includingBruguiera cylindrica,
which isonlyfound inMozambique.Mangrovesarebeingdepletedatarateof4%(Mozambique
MEDA,2012). Thegrowthofpopulationincoastalregions,associatedwiththedevelopingtourism
has increased thedepletionrateandbetween12,300ha (FAO2007)and15,000ha (Mozambique
MEDA 2012) has been degraded across 7 provinces. The northern sector has numerous islands
(mainlyQuirimbasarchipelago)whichhelptoprovideprotectiontomangroves.Themangrovesof
Zambezi delta extend 50 km inland. This mangrove zone is continuous from the south up to
Quelimanecoveringcloseto180kmofcoastline.Thiszoneisoneofthelargestextentsofmangrove
forests inAfricarepresentingcloseto50%ofMozambiquemangroves (Barbosaetal.,2001).The
southernsectorhasextensivemangrovesinMorrumbeneestuary,Inhambanebay,Maputobayand
Inhaca Island.Maputobaywith itsfourmainrivers inlets inthebay isoneofthemajormangrove
areasin
southern
Mozambique
(Barbosa
et
al.,
2001).
Some
of
the
major
threats
to
mangroves
in
Mozambique include: uncontrolled exploitation for firewood, charcoal and pole production;
clearance foragriculture and saltproduction;uncontrolled influxofpeople frommainland to the
coast leadingto increasedoverexploitationofmangrovesandpollution.Degradationofmangroves
isalsocausedbychanges inriverflowrates,andparticularlybyareductionof freshwater flowto
mangrovesduetodamconstruction(Barbosaet al.,2001).
Seychelles:Mangrove forestsare foundwithin the innergraniticandouter islands.Theyoccupyatotalsurfaceareaof2,900ha(SeychellesMEDA,2012)to2,500(FAO2007)andthereareatotalof
eightspecies,namelyRhizophoramucronata,Bruiguieragymnorhiza,Ceriopstagal,Sonneratiaalba,
Lumnitzeraracemosa,
Avicennia
marina,
Xylocarpus
granatum
and
Xylocarpus
mulocuensis
(SeychellesMEDA,2012).There issomediscrepancybetween this listand thespeciesreported in
FAO (2007),which lists9species, includingPemphisacidula,which isreportedtoonlybefound in
the Seychelles, andAcrostichumaureumbutwhichdoesnot includeXylcocarpusmulocuensis.At
PortLaunayinMah,alleightspeciesofmangrovesarefoundinanareathathasbeendesignateda
RAMSARsite.TheSeychellesreportedthatonCurieusethereisaproblemwithinsufficientsewage
andwastewatertreatmentwhichleadstopollutionofthemangrovesandthebeaches.
Somalia: Mangroves aremainly found along the southwest coast although isolated pockets of
AvicenniamarinagrowonthenortherncoastbehindsandspitsandalongtheGulfofAden(Carbone
andAccordi
2000;
Khalil
2004).
Tree
growth
is
reportedly
restricted
due
to
cold
upwelling
waters
(Tayloretal.,2003),althoughsalinityisalsoanotherfactorknowntostuntgrowthinsomeregions.
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Coverage was reported to be 10,000 ha in 1975 (FAO 2007) and is currently estimated to be
between7300ha,representingalossof2,200ha.Somaliareportedsixmangrovespecies:Avicennia
marina, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Ceriops tagal, Lumnitzera racemosa, Rhizophoramucronata, and
Sonneratiaalba(SomaliaMEDA2012).B.gymnorrhiza,C.tagal,L.racemosaandR.mucronataare
commonalongthe IndianOceancoast,Sonneratiaalbaoccurs insomeestuaries inthesouth,and
Avicennia and Rhizophora grow on intertidal flats facing the channels. FAO (2007) reported the
presenceof8species,includingXylocarpusgranatumandCeriopssomalensis,thelatterofwhichis
anendemicspecies(although it isnotentirelyclear ifthesespeciesarefoundontheIndianOcean
coast).Mangroves are found in the intertidal zoneof the coast southof Kisimayo and extensive
mangroveforestsarefoundinthecreeksofIstambul,KudhaandBurgavoandontheshelteredside
ofthebarrierislands(CarboneandAccordi2000).TheShebellerivermouth,whichincludesthearea
wheretheJubaandShebellemeet,isoneofthepriorityseascapesmentionedintheEasternAfrica
MarineEcoregionandshouldalsobeconsideredforprotectionas it isnotonlythemostnorthern
estuary ineasternAfrica,butit isalsothe largestestuarineoffshoremudecosystemandtheonly
permanentestuarine
system
in
Somalia.
In
this
area
there
is
mangrove
fringed
estuary
at
Jumba
(Hughes andHughes 1992). There is systematic overharvesting ofmangrovewood for building,
charcoal, firewoodandtradepurposes,aswellasconversionofmangrovehabitat foragricultural,
residential use and salt and lime production.Destruction ofmangrove forests is also leading to
heavyoffshoresiltationandalterationofnutrientspathwaysforoffshorespecieswithconcomitant
reduction in fish catches. This is contributing towards the decline in artisanal fishery resources
includingthegiantmangrovemudcrabScyllaserrata.
SouthAfrica:MangrovesoccurinestuariesalongtheeastcoastofSouthAfricafromKosiBayinthenorth toNahoon River at East London. Two species, the Tagalmangrove Ceriops tagal and Kosi
mangroveLumnitzera
racemosa,
extend
no
further
south
than
the
Kosi
system,
while
the
red
mangroveRhizophoramucronataandblackmangroveBruguieragymnorrhizareachtheir limitson
theWildCoast,togetherwiththemangroveassociateAcrostichumaureum,ahalophytic fern.The
whitemangroveAvicenniamarinaextends toEastLondon (Steinke1995).Mangrovescover some
2.20 km2,within the Kosi Bay system supporting the threemost common SouthAfrican species
(Avicenniamarina,BrugueiragymnorrhizaandRhizophoramucronata)aswellastwospeciesatthe
southernmost limitof theirdistribution (Ceriops tagalandLumnitzera racemosa).Mangrove trees
(white, red and blackmangrove) areharvested for theirwood,which is verydurable.Mangrove
cutting is considered aproblem inmanyof theWildCoastestuariesMngazana,Mtata,Xoraand
Mntafufu (Sink et al. 2004).At Kosi Baymangroves are harvested for buildingmaterials and for
constructionof
fish
traps,
and
there
is
some
harvesting
in
Richards
Bay.
Tanzania: Mangroves are found in various locations including themouths characterized by the
presenceofdeltas, estuaries andmangrove forests, covering an estimated 127,200ha, the third
largest coveragewithin theASCLMEs.TheRufijidelta ishome to the largestestuarinemangrove
forestinEastAfrica,withanestimatedsurfaceareaof53,200ha,itconstitutesapproximately46%
oftotalmangroveforestcoverinTanzania(TanzaniaMEDA2012).Atotalof8speciesofmangrove
arefound inmainlandTanzania(Avicenniamarina,Bruguieragymnorrhiza,Ceriopstagal,Heritiera
littoralis,Lumnitzeraracemosa,Rhizophoramucronata,SonneratiaalbaandXylocarpusgranatum)
andXylocarpusmulluccensisoccursinZanzibar(Ngusaruetal,2001).ThisiscontrarytoFAO(2007)
whichonly
reported
the
presence
of
5species