Appendix I: CommonMathematical Operations in Chemistry
A. Scientific NotationA number written in scientific notation consists of a decimal part, a number that is usuallybetween 1 and 10, and an exponential part, 10 raised to an exponent, n.
1.2
Exponential partDecimal part
10�10�
Exponent (n)
Each of the following numbers is written in both scientific and decimal notation.
A positive exponent means 1 multiplied by 10 n times.
A negative exponent means 1 divided by 10 n times.
To convert a number to scientific notation, we move the decimal point to obtain a num-ber between 1 and 10 and then multiply by 10 raised to the appropriate power. For exam-ple, to write 5983 in scientific notation, we move the decimal point to the left three placesto get 5.983 (a number between 1 and 10) and then multiply by 1000 to make up for mov-ing the decimal point.
Since 1000 is we write
5983 = 5.983 * 103
103,
5983 = 5.983 * 1000
10-3=
1
10 * 10 * 10= 0.001
10-2=
1
10 * 10= 0.01
10-1=
1
10= 0.1
(-n)
103= 1 * 10 * 10 * 10 = 1000
102= 1 * 10 * 10 = 100
101= 1 * 10
100= 1
6.7 * 103= 6700 6.7 * 10-3
= 0.0067
1.0 * 105= 100,000 1.0 * 10-5
= 0.000001
A-1
A-2 Appendix I : Common Mathemat ica l Operat ions in Chemist ry
We can do this in one step by counting how many places we move the decimal point toobtain a number between 1 and 10 and then writing the decimal part multiplied by 10raised to the number of places we moved the decimal point.
0.00034 3.4 10�4��
If the decimal point is moved to the left, as in the previous example, the exponent is pos-itive. If the decimal is moved to the right, the exponent is negative.
5983 5.983 103��
To express a number in scientific notation:
1. Move the decimal point to obtain a number between 1 and 10.
2. Write the result from step 1 multiplied by 10 raised to the number of places youmoved the decimal point.
• The exponent is positive if you moved the decimal point to the left.
• The exponent is negative if you moved the decimal point to the right.
Consider the following additional examples:
Multiplication and DivisionTo multiply numbers expressed in scientific notation, multiply the decimal parts and addthe exponents.
To divide numbers expressed in scientific notation, divide the decimal parts and subtractthe exponent in the denominator from the exponent in the numerator.
Consider the following example involving multiplication:
Consider the following example involving division:
Addition and SubtractionTo add or subtract numbers expressed in scientific notation, rewrite all the numbers so thatthey have the same exponent, then add or subtract the decimal parts of the numbers. Theexponents remained unchanged.
1A ; B2 * 10n;B * 10n A * 10n
= 4.0 * 104
15.6 * 107211.4 * 1032 = a 5.6
1.4b * 107 -3
= 6.3 * 1010 13.5 * 104211.8 * 1062 = 13.5 * 1.82 * 104 +6
1A * 10m21B * 10n2 = aA
Bb * 10m-n
1A * 10m21B * 10n2 = 1A * B2 * 10m+n
0.000000000070 m = 7.0 * 10-11 m
290,809,000 = 2.90809 * 108
B. Logarithms A-3
Notice that the numbers must have the same exponent. Consider the following exampleinvolving addition:
First, express both numbers with the same exponent. In this case, we rewrite the lowernumber and perform the addition as follows:
Consider the following example involving subtraction.
First, express both numbers with the same exponent. In this case, we rewrite the lowernumber and perform the subtraction as follows:
Powers and RootsTo raise a number written in scientific notation to a power, raise the decimal part to thepower and multiply the exponent by the power:
To take the nth root of a number written in scientific notation, take the nth root of thedecimal part and divide the exponent by the root:
B. LogarithmsCommon (or Base 10) LogarithmsThe common or base 10 logarithm (abbreviated log) of a number is the exponent to which10 must be raised to obtain that number. For example, the log of 100 is 2 because 10 must beraised to the second power to get 100. Similarly, the log of 1000 is 3 because 10 must beraised to the third power to get 1000. The logs of several multiples of 10 are shown below.
Because by definition, .The log of a number smaller than one is negative because 10 must be raised to a negative
exponent to get a number smaller than one. For example, the log of 0.01 is because 10-2
log 1 = 0.100= 1
log 10,000 = 4
log 1000 = 3
log 100 = 2
log 10 = 1
= 1.6 * 102 14.0 * 10621>3 = 4.01>3
* 106>3
= 16 * 1013 = 16 * 1012
14.0 * 10622 = 4.02* 106 *2
7.14 * 105-0.19 * 105
7.33 * 105
-1.9 * 104
7.33 * 105
5.16 * 107+0.34 * 107
4.82 * 107
+3.4 * 106
4.82 * 107
A-4 Appendix I : Common Mathemat ica l Operat ions in Chemist ry
must be raised to to get 0.01. Similarly, the log of 0.001 is because 10 must be raisedto to get 0.001. The logs of several fractional numbers are shown below.
The logs of numbers that are not multiples of 10 can be computed on your calculator. Seeyour calculator manual for specific instructions.
Inverse LogarithmsThe inverse logarithm or invlog function is exactly the opposite of the log function. For ex-ample, the log of 100 is 2 and the inverse log of 2 is 100. The log function and the invlogfunction undo one another.
The inverse log of a number is simply 10 rasied to that number.
The inverse logs of numbers can be computed on your calculator. See your calculatormanual for specific instructions.
Natural (or Base e) LogarithmsThe natural (or base e) logarithm (abbreviated ln) of a number is the exponent to which e(which has the value of 2.71828…) must be raised to obtain that number. For example, theln of 100 is 4.605 because e must be raised to 4.605 to get 100. Similarly, the ln of 10.0 is2.303 because e must be raised to 2.303 to get 10.0.
The inverse natural logarithm or invln function is exactly the opposite of the ln func-tion. For example, the ln of 100 is 4.605 and the inverse ln of 4.605 is 100. The inverse lnof a number is simply e rasied to that number.
The invln of a number can be computed on your calculator. See your calculator manualfor specific instructions.
Mathematical Operations Using LogarithmsBecause logarithms are exponents, mathematical operations involving logarithms are simi-lar to those involving exponents as follows:
log an= n log a ln an
= n ln a
log a
b= log a - log b ln
a
b= ln a - ln b
log1a * b2 = log a + log b ln1a * b2 = ln a + ln b
invln 3 = e3= 20.1
invln x = ex
invlog 3 = 103= 1000
invlog x = 10x
invlog(log 100) = 100
invlog 2 = 100
log 100 = 2
log 0.0001 = -4
log 0.001 = -3
log 0.01 = -2
log 0.1 = -1
-3-3-2
D. Graphs A-5
C. Quadratic EquationsA quadratic equation contains at least one term in which the variable x is raised to the sec-ond power (and no terms in which x is raised to a higher power). A quadratic equation hasthe following general form:
A quadratic equation can be solved for x using the quadratic formula:
Quadratic equations are often encountered when solving equilibrium problems. Belowwe show how to use the quadratic formula to solve a quadratic equation for x.
As you can see, the solution to a quadratic equation usually has two values. In any realchemical system, one of the values can be eliminated because it has no physical signifi-cance. (For example, it may correspond to a negative concentration, which does not exist.)
D. GraphsGraphs are often used to visually show the relationship between two variables. For example, inChapter 5 we show the following relationship between the volume of a gas and its pressure:
x = 1.43 or x = 0.233
=
5 ; 3.6
6
=
-1-52 ; 21-522 - 41321122132
x =
-b ; 2b2- 4ac
2a
3x2- 5x + 1 = 0 1quadratic equation2
x =
-b ; 2b2- 4ac
2a
ax2+ bx + c = 0
0 160 320 480 640 800 960 1120
Pressure (mmHg)
Vol
um
e (L
)
0
100
200
300
400
500
The horizontal axis is the x-axis and is normally used to show the independent variable.The vertical axis is the y-axis and is normally used to show how the other variable (called thedependent variable) varies with a change in the independent variable. In this case, the graphshows that as the pressure of a gas sample increases, its volume decreases.
Volume versus Pressure A plot of the volume of a gas sample––as measured in a J-tube––versuspressure. The plot shows that volume and pressure are inversely related.
Many relationships in chemistry are linear, which means that if you change one vari-able by a factor of n the other variable will also change by a factor of n. For example, thevolume of a gas is linearly related to the number of moles of gas. When two quantities arelinearly related, a graph of one versus the other produces a straight line. For example, thegraph below shows how the volume of an ideal gas sample depends on the number ofmoles of gas in the sample:
A-6 Appendix I : Common Mathemat ica l Operat ions in Chemist ry
�x
�y
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Number of moles (n)
Vol
um
e (L
)0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
A linear relationship between any two variables x and y can be expressed by the followingequation:
where m is the slope of the line and b is the y-intercept. The slope is the change in y divid-ed by the change in x.
For the graph above, we can estimate the slope by simply estimating the changes in y andx for a given interval. For example, between and ,and we can estimate that Therefore the slope is
In several places in this book, logarithmic relationships between variables can be plottedin order to obtain a linear relationship. For example, the variables and t in the fol-lowing equation are not linearly related, but the natural logarithm of and t are lin-early related.
A plot of versus t will therefore produce a straight line with and y-intercept = ln[A]0 .
slope = -kln[A]t
y = mx + b
ln[A]t = -kt + ln[A]0
[A]t
[A]t
m =
¢y
¢x=
18 L
0.80 mol= 23 mol>L
¢y = 18 L.¢x = 0.80 mol1.2 molx = 0.4 mol
m =
¢y
¢x
y = mx + b
Volume versus Number of Moles The volume of a gas sample increases linearly with thenumber of moles of gas in the sample.
A-7
Appendix II: Useful Data
A. Atomic Colors
B. Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 25 °C
1 4 5 6 7 8 9
BBe C FH N O
Atomic number:
Atomic symbol:
20 29 30 35 53 54
I XeCu Zn BrCa
Atomic number:
Atomic symbol:
Si Cl KMgNa P S
11 12 14 15 16 17 19Atomic number:
Atomic symbol:
Substance
132.2
Beryllium
Be(s) 0 0 9.5
BeO(s) 13.8
45.5
Bismuth
Bi(s) 0 0 56.7
177.0
151.5
200.4
Boron
B(s) 0 0 5.9
B(g) 565.0 521.0 153.4
(continued on the next page)
-140.6-143.1Bi2S3(s)
-493.7-573.9Bi2O3(s)
-315.0-379.1BiCl3(s)
-815.0-902.5Be(OH)2(s)
-580.1-609.4
-1362.2-1473.2BaSO4(s)
S ° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol)Substance
Aluminum
Al(s) 0 0 28.32
Al(g) 330.0 289.4 164.6
109.3
50.9
Barium
Ba(s) 0 0 62.5
Ba(g) 180.0 146.0 170.2
9.6
112.1
123.7
BaO(s) 72.1
-944.7Ba(OH)2(s)
-520.3-548.0
-806.7-855.0BaCl2(s)
-1134.4-1213.0BaCO3(s)
-560.8-537.6Ba2+(aq)
-1582.3-1675.7Al2O3(s)
-628.8-704.2AlCl3(s)
-325-483-538.4Al3+(aq)
S ° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol)
A-8 Appendix I I : Useful Data
Substance
290.1
254.4
36.4 87.6 232.1
54.0
90.0
Bromine
Br(g) 111.9 82.4 175.0
0 0 152.2
30.9 3.1 245.5
80.71
HBr(g) 198.7
Cadmium
Cd(s) 0 0 51.8
Cd(g) 111.8 77.3 167.7
115.3
CdO(s) 54.8
CdS(s) 64.9
123.0
Calcium
Ca(s) 0 0 41.6
Ca(g) 177.8 144.0 154.9
70.0
91.7
108.4
68.5
41.4
193.2
CaO(s) 38.1
83.4
106.5
236.0
Carbon
C(s, graphite) 0 0 5.7
C(s, diamond) 1.88 2.9 2.4
C(g) 716.7 671.3 158.1
186.3
234.6
270.2
177.8
201.7
309.7
216.4
218.8
129.0
32.7 242.9
126.8
239.9
227.4 209.9 200.9
52.4 68.4 219.3C2H4(g)
C2H2(g)
-162.3-201.0CH3OH(g)
-166.6-238.6CH3OH(l)
-22.5CH3NH2(g, methylamine)
-361.4-425.0CH2O2(l, formic acid)
-102.5-108.6CH2O(g)
-66.4-128.2CCl4(l)
-62.3-95.7CCl4(g)
-73.7-134.1CHCl3(l)
-63.2-124.2CH2Cl2(l)
-95.4CH2Cl2(g)
-60.2-81.9CH3Cl(g)
-50.5-74.6CH4(g)
-3884.7-4120.8Ca3(PO4)2(s)
-1322.0-1434.5CaSO4(s)
-897.5-985.2Ca(OH)2(s)
-603.3-634.9
-742.8-938.2Ca(NO3)2(s)
-142.5-181.5CaH2(s)
-1175.6-1228.0CaF2(s)
-748.8-795.4CaCl2(s)
-1129.1-1207.6CaCO3(s)
-64.9-59.8CaC2(s)
-53.1-553.6-542.8Ca2+(aq)
-822.7-933.3CdSO4(s)
-156.5-161.9
-228.7-258.4
-343.9-391.5CdCl2(s)
-73.2-77.6-75.9Cd2+(aq)
-53.4-36.3
-102.8-121.4Br-(aq)
Br2(g)
Br2(l)
-968.9-1094.3H3BO3(s)
-1194.3-1273.5B2O3(s)
B2H6(g)
-1119.4-1136.0BF3(g)
-388.7-403.8BCl3(g)
S ° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol) Substance
229.2
160.7
281.6
37.2 53.6 264.0
208.5
263.8
159.8
270.3
199.8
181.1
231.0
310.0
49.1 124.5 173.4
31.6 149.2 191.9
144.0
212.1
78.5 201.6 167.4
360.24
CO(g) 197.7
213.8
117.6
91.2
187.4
151 166 118
HCN(l) 108.9 125.0 112.8
HCN(g) 135.1 124.7 201.8
89.0 64.6 151.3
116.7 67.1 237.8
283.5
2327.0 2302.0 426.0
Cesium
Cs(s) 0 0 85.2
Cs(g) 76.5 49.6 175.6
132.1
CsBr(s) 117
CsCl(s) 101.2
CsF(s) 92.8
CsI(s) 127
Chlorine
Cl(g) 121.3 105.3 165.2
0 0 223.1
56.6
HCl(g) 186.9
HCl(aq) 56.5
102.5 120.5 256.8
80.3 97.9 266.2
Chromium
Cr(s) 0 0 23.8
Cr(g) 396.6 351.8 174.5
-1971Cr3+(aq)
Cl2O(g)
ClO2(g)
-131.2-167.2
-95.3-92.3
-131.2-167.1Cl-(aq)
Cl2(g)
-337-342
-525.5-553.5
-414-438
-387-400
-292.0-258.0Cs+(aq)
C60(s)
-204.9-219.1COCl2(g)
CS2(g)
CS2(l)
CN-(aq)
-623.2-699.7H2CO3(aq)
-586.8-692.0HCO -
3 (aq)
-56.9-527.8-677.1CO 2-
3 (aq)
-386.0-413.8CO2(aq)
-394.4-393.5CO2(g)
-137.2-110.5
-1544.3-2226.1C12H22O11(s, sucrose)
C10H8(s, naphthalene)
-910.4-1273.3C6H12O6(s, glucose)
-50.4-165.1C6H5OH(s, phenol)
C6H5NH2(l, aniline)
C6H6(l)
-15.71-125.7C4H10(g)
-15.0-147.3C4H10(l)
-318.1C3H7OH(l, isopropanol)
-155.6-248.4C3H6O(l, acetone)
-23.4-103.85C3H8(g)
-389.9-484.3C2H4O2(l, acetic acid)
-133.0-166.2C2H4O(g, acetaldehyde)
-79.6-166.8C2H4Cl2(l, dichloroethane)
C2H3Cl(g, vinyl chloride)
-167.9-234.8C2H5OH(g)
-174.8-277.6C2H5OH(l)
-32.0-84.68C2H6(g)
S ° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol)
B. Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 25 °C A-9
Substance
44
81.2
238
Cobalt
Co(s) 0 0 30.0
Co(g) 424.7 380.3 179.5
CoO(s) 53.0
79.0
Copper
Cu(s) 0 0 33.2
Cu(g) 337.4 297.7 166.4
51.9 50.2
64.9 65.5
CuCl(s) 86.2
108.1
CuO(s) 42.6
CuS(s) 66.5
109.2
93.1
120.9
Fluorine
F(g) 79.38 62.3 158.75
0 0 202.79
HF(g) 173.8
Gold
Au(s) 0 0 47.4
Au(g) 366.1 326.3 180.5
Helium
He(g) 0 0 126.2
Hydrogen
H(g) 218.0 203.3 114.7
0 0 0
1536.3 1517.1 108.9
0 0 130.7
Iodine
I(g) 106.76 70.2 180.79
0 0 116.14
62.42 19.3 260.69
106.45
HI(g) 26.5 1.7 206.6
Iron
Fe(s) 0 0 27.3
Fe(g) 416.3 370.7 180.5
113.4
293.3
92.9
118.0
142.3-334.0-399.5FeCl3(s)
-302.3-341.8FeCl2(s)
-666.7-740.6FeCO3(s)
-10.54-47.69Fe3+(aq)
-84.94-87.9Fe2+(aq)
-51.57-56.78I-(aq)
I2(g)
I2(s)
H2(g)
H+(g)
H+(aq)
-275.4-273.3
-13.8-278.8-335.35F-(aq)
F2(g)
-86.2-79.5Cu2S(s)
-146.0-168.6Cu2O(s)
-662.2-771.4CuSO4(s)
-53.6-53.1
-129.7-157.3
-175.7-220.1CuCl2(s)
-119.9-137.2
-98Cu2+(aq)
-26Cu+(aq)
-454.3-539.7Co(OH)2(s)
-214.2-237.9
-1279-1476Cr2O 2-
7 (aq)
-1058.1-1139.7Cr2O3(s)
-717.1-872.2CrO 2-
4 (aq)
S ° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol) Substance
FeO(s) 60.75
106.7
52.9
87.4
146.4
Lead
Pb(s) 0 0 64.8
Pb(g) 195.2 162.2 175.4
0.92 18.5
161.5
131.0
136.0
174.9
PbO(s) 68.7
68.6
PbS(s) 91.2
148.5
Lithium
Li(s) 0 0 29.1
Li(g) 159.3 126.6 138.8
12.24
LiBr(s) 74.3
LiCl(s) 59.3
LiF(s) 35.7
LiI(s) 86.8
90.0
LiOH(s) 42.8
37.6
Magnesium
Mg(s) 0 0 32.7
Mg(g) 147.1 112.5 148.6
89.6
65.7
57.2
MgO(s) 27.0
63.2
91.6
88
Manganese
Mn(s) 0 0 32.0
Mn(g) 280.7 238.5 173.7
MnO(s) 59.7
53.1
190.6
Mercury
Hg(l) 0 0 75.9
Hg(g) 61.4 31.8 175.0(continued on the next page)
-436.2-529.9MnO -
4 (aq)
-465.1-520.0MnO2(s)
-362.9-385.2
-78.8-225.6-219.4Mn2+(aq)
-401-461Mg3N2(s)
-1170.6-1284.9MgSO4(s)
-833.5-924.5Mg(OH)2(s)
-569.3-601.6
-1071.1-1124.2MgF2(s)
-1012.1-1095.8MgCO3(s)
-591.8-641.3MgCl2(s)
-137-455.4-467.0Mg2+(aq)
-561.2-597.9Li2O(s)
-441.5-487.5
-381.1-483.1LiNO3(s)
-270.3-270.4
-587.7-616.0
-384.4-408.6
-342.0-351.2
-293.3-278.47Li+(aq)
-813.0-920.0PbSO4(s)
-98.7-100.4
-217.3-277.4PbO2(s)
-187.9-217.3
-451.9Pb(NO3)2(s)
-173.6-175.5PbI2(s)
-314.1-359.4PbCl2(s)
-625.5-699.1PbCO3(s)
-261.9-278.7PbBr2(s)
-24.4Pb2+(aq)
-1015.4-1118.4Fe3O4(s)
-742.2-824.2Fe2O3(s)
-166.9-178.2FeS2(s)
-696.5-823.0Fe(OH)3(s)
-255.2-272.0
S ° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol)
Substance
170.21 164.4
166.87 153.5 65.74
146.0
HgO(s) 70.3
HgS(s) 82.4
191.6
Nickel
Ni(s) 0 0 29.9
Ni(g) 429.7 384.5 182.2
97.7
NiO(s) 37.99
NiS(s) 53.0
Nitrogen
N(g) 472.7 455.5 153.3
0 0 191.6
260.8
192.8
111.3
111.17
113.0
94.6
0.4
72.0
120.9
117.0
151.1
259.8
266.9
146
NO(g) 91.3 87.6 210.8
33.2 51.3 240.1
146.70
NOBr(g) 82.2 82.4 273.7
NOCl(g) 51.7 66.1 261.7
50.6 149.3 121.2
95.4 159.4 238.5
81.6 103.7 220.0
97.5 209.2
11.1 99.8 304.4
113.9 178.2
13.3 117.1 355.7
Oxygen
O(g) 249.2 231.7 161.1
0 0 205.2
142.7 163.2 238.9
70.0
188.8
109.6
232.7-105.6-136.3H2O2(g)
-120.4-187.8H2O2(l)
-228.6-241.8H2O(g)
-237.1-285.8H2O(l)
-10.90-157.3-230.02OH-(aq)
O3(g)
O2(g)
N2O5(g)
-43.1N2O5(s)
N2O4(g)
-19.5N2O4(l)
N2O(g)
N2H4(g)
N2H4(l)
-110.2-206.85NO -
3 (aq)
NO2(g)
-110.9-207HNO3(aq)
-73.5-133.9HNO3(g)
-190.6-339.9NH4NO3(aq)
-183.9-365.6NH4NO3(s)
-112.5-201.4NH4I(s)
-665.9-849.4NH4HCO3(s)
-348.7-464.0NH4F(s)
NH4CN(s)
-202.9-314.4NH4Cl(s)
-175.2-270.8NH4Br(s)
-79.31-133.26NH +
4 (aq)
-26.50-80.29NH3(aq)
-16.4-45.9NH3(g)
-90.6-132.1NF3(g)
N2(g)
-79.5-82.0
-211.7-239.7
-259.0-305.3NiCl2(s)
-210.7-265.4Hg2Cl2(s)
-50.6-58.2
-58.5-90.8
-178.6-224.3HgCl2(s)
Hg 2+
2 (aq)
-36.19Hg2+(aq)
S ° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol) Substance
Phosphorus
P(s, white) 0 0 41.1
P(s, red) 22.8
P(g) 316.5 280.1 163.2
144.0 103.5 218.1
58.9 24.4 280.0
217.1
311.8
364.6
300.8
5.4 13.5 210.2
222.5
325.5
90.4
110.5
158.2
228.9
Platinum
Pt(s) 0 0 41.6
Pt(g) 565.3 520.5 192.4
Potassium
K(s) 0 0 64.7
K(g) 89.0 60.5 160.3
101.2
KBr(s) 95.9
KCN(s) 128.5
KCl(s) 82.6
143.1
151.0
KF(s) 66.6
KI(s) 106.3
133.1
KOH(s) 81.2
KOH(aq) 91.6
116.7
155.5
94.14
102.1
175.6
Rubidium
Rb(s) 0 0 76.8
Rb(g) 80.9 53.1 170.1
121.75
RbBr(s) 110.0
RbCl(s) 95.9
152-292.0-392.4RbClO3(s)
-407.8-435.4
-381.8-394.6
-283.1-251.12Rb+(aq)
-1321.4-1437.8K2SO4(s)
-425.1-494.1K2O2(s)
-322.1-361.5K2O(s)
-1063.5-1151.0K2CO3(s)
-239.4-284.9KO2(s)
-440.5-482.4
-379.4-424.6
-394.9-494.6KNO3(s)
-324.9-327.9
-537.8-567.3
-303.1-432.8KClO4(s)
-296.3-397.7KClO3(s)
-408.5-436.5
-101.9-113.0
-380.7-393.8
-283.3-252.14K+(aq)
-2698-2984P4O10(s)
-1640.1P4O6(s)
-1142.6-1288.3H3PO4(aq)
-1124.3-1284.4H3PO4(s)
-1130.2-1296.3H2PO -
4 (aq)
-33.5-1089.2-1292.1HPO 2-
4 (aq)
-220.5-1018.7-1277.4PO 3-
4 (aq)
-512.9-558.5POCl3(g)
-520.8-597.1POCl3(l)
PH3(g)
-1520.7-1594.4PF5(g)
-305.0-374.9PCl5(g)
-443.5PCl5(s)
-267.8-287.0PCl3(g)
-272.3-319.7PCl3(l)
P4(g)
P2(g)
-12.1-17.6
S° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol)
A-10 Appendix I I : Useful Data
B. Standard Thermodynamic Quantities for Selected Substances at 25 °C A-11
Substance
RbF(s)
RbI(s) 118.4
Scandium
Sc(s) 0 0 34.6
Sc(g) 377.8 336.0 174.8
Selenium
Se(s, gray) 0 0 42.4
Se(g) 227.1 187.0 176.7
29.7 15.9 219.0
Silicon
Si(s) 0 0 18.8
Si(g) 450.0 405.5 168.0
239.7
282.8
34.3 56.9 204.6
41.5
80.3 127.3 272.7
Silver
Ag(s) 0 0 42.6
Ag(g) 284.9 246.0 173.0
105.79 77.11 73.45
AgBr(s) 107.1
AgCl(s) 96.3
AgF(s) 84
AgI(s) 115.5
140.9
121.3
144.0
200.4
Sodium
Na(s) 0 0 51.3
Na(g) 107.5 77.0 153.7
58.45
NaBr(s) 86.8
NaCl(s) 72.1
NaCl(aq) 115.5
123.4
NaF(s) 51.1
101.7
113.0
NaI(s) 98.5
116.5
205.4
NaOH(s) 64.4
NaOH(aq) 48.2
115.9
135.0
75.1
95.0-447.7-510.9Na2O2(s)
-375.5-414.2Na2O(s)
-1044.4-1130.7Na2CO3(s)
-218.4-260.2NaO2(s)
-419.2-470.1
-379.7-425.8
-373.2-447.5NaNO3(aq)
-367.0-467.9NaNO3(s)
-286.1-287.8
-992.8-1125.5NaHSO4(s)
-851.0-950.8NaHCO3(s)
-546.3-576.6
-262.3-365.8NaClO3(s)
-393.1-407.2
-384.1-411.2
-349.0-361.1
-261.9-240.34Na+(aq)
-618.4-715.9Ag2SO4(s)
-40.7-32.6Ag2S(s)
-11.2-31.1Ag2O(s)
-33.4-124.4AgNO3(s)
-66.2-61.8
-185-204.6
-109.8-127.0
-96.9-100.4
Ag+(aq)
Si2H6(g)
-856.3-910.7SiO2(s, quartz)
SiH4(g)
-1572.8-1615.0SiF4(g)
-619.8-687.0SiCl4(l)
H2Se(g)
-328.9-333.8
-557.7
S ° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol) Substance
149.6
173.8
Strontium
Sr(s) 0 0 55.0
Sr(g) 164.4 130.9 164.6
114.9
97.1
SrO(s) 54.4
117.0
Sulfur
S(s, rhombic) 0 0 32.1
S(s, monoclinic) 0.3 0.096 32.6
S(g) 277.2 236.7 167.8
128.6 79.7 228.2
102.3 49.7 430.9
41.8 83.7 22
291.5
12.4 62.0
205.8
122
248.2
256.8
18.5
129.5
156.9
18.5
67
Tin
Sn(s, white) 0 0 51.2
Sn(s, gray) 0.1 44.1
Sn(g) 301.2 266.2 168.5
258.6
365.8
SnO(s) 57.2
49.0
Titanium
Ti(s) 0 0 30.7
Ti(g) 473.0 428.4 180.3
252.3
353.2
50.6
Tungsten
W(s) 0 0 32.6
W(g) 849.4 807.1 174.0
75.9
(continued on the next page)
-764.0-842.9WO3(s)
-888.8-944.0TiO2(s)
-726.3-763.2TiCl4(g)
-737.2-804.2TiCl4(l)
-515.8-577.6SnO2(s)
-251.9-280.7
-432.2-471.5SnCl4(g)
-440.1-511.3SnCl4(l)
-2.1
-522.5-648.5S2O 2-
3 (aq)
-744.6-909.3H2SO4(aq)
-690.0-814.0H2SO4(l)
-754.4-886.5HSO -
4 (aq)
-744.6-909.3SO 2-
4 (aq)
-371.1-395.7SO3(g)
-300.1-296.8SO2(g)
-245.6SOCl2(l)
-27.7-39.4H2S(aq)
-33.4-20.6H2S(g)
-17.7HS-(aq)
-1116.5-1220.5SF6(g)
S2-(aq)
S8(g)
S2(g)
-1340.9-1453.1SrSO4(s)
-561.9-592.0
-1140.1-1220.1SrCO3(s)
-781.1-828.9SrCl2(s)
-39-557.3-545.51Sr2+(aq)
-1789-1917Na3PO4(s)
-1270.2-1387.1Na2SO4(s)
S ° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol)
Substance
Uranium
U(s) 0 0 50.2
U(g) 533.0 488.4 199.8
227.6
377.9
77.0
Vanadium
V(s) 0 0 28.9
V(g) 514.2 754.4 182.3
-1031.8-1085.0UO2(s)
-2063.7-2147.4UF6(g)
-2068.5-2197.0UF6(s)
S ° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol) Substance
Zinc
Zn(s) 0 0 41.6
Zn(g) 130.4 94.8 161.0
111.5
ZnO(s) 43.7
ZnS(s, zinc blende) 57.7
110.5-871.5-982.8ZnSO4(s)
-201.3-206.0
-320.5-350.5
-369.4-415.1ZnCl2(s)
-109.8-147.1-153.39Zn2+(aq)
S ° (J>mol # K)¢G °f (kJ>mol)¢H °f (kJ>mol)
A-12 Appendix I I : Useful Data
C. Aqueous Equilibrium Constants1. Dissociation Constants for Acids at 25 °C
Name Formula
Acetic
Acetylsalicylic
Adipic
Arsenic
Arsenous
Ascorbic
Benzoic
Boric
Butanoic
Carbonic
Chloroacetic
Chlorous
Citric
Cyanic HCNO
Formic
Hydrazoic
Hydrocyanic HCN
Hydrofluoric HF
Hydrogen chromate ion
Hydrogen peroxide
Hydrogen selenate ion
Hydrosulfuric
Hydrotelluric 1.6 * 10-112.3 * 10-3H2Te
1 * 10-198.9 * 10-8H2S
2.2 * 10-2HSeO -
4
2.4 * 10-12H2O2
3.0 * 10-7HCrO -
4
3.5 * 10-4
4.9 * 10-10
2.5 * 10-5HN3
1.8 * 10-4HCHO2
2 * 10-4
4.0 * 10-71.7 * 10-57.4 * 10-4H3C6H5O7
1.1 * 10-2HClO2
1.4 * 10-3HC2H2O2Cl
5.6 * 10-114.3 * 10-7H2CO3
1.5 * 10-5HC4H7O2
5.4 * 10-10H3BO3
6.5 * 10-5HC7H5O2
1.6 * 10-128.0 * 10-5H2C6H6O6
5.1 * 10-10H3AsO3
5.1 * 10-121.7 * 10-75.5 * 10-3H3AsO4
3.9 * 10-63.9 * 10-5H2C6H8O4
3.3 * 10-4HC9H7O4
1.8 * 10-5HC2H3O2
Ka3 Ka2
Ka1Name Formula
Hypobromous HBrO
Hypochlorous HClO
Hypoiodous HIO
Iodic
Lactic
Maleic
Malonic
Nitrous
Oxalic
Paraperiodic
Phenol
Phosphoric
Phosphorous
Propanoic
Pyruvic
Pyrophosphoric
Selenous
Succinic
Sulfuric Strong acid
Sulfurous
Tartaric
Trichloroacetic
Trifluoroacetic acid 3.0 * 10-1HC2F3O2
2.2 * 10-1HC2Cl3O2
4.6 * 10-51.0 * 10-3H2C4H4O6
6.4 * 10-81.7 * 10-2H2SO3
1.2 * 10-2H2SO4
2.3 * 10-66.2 * 10-5H2C4H4O4
4.8 * 10-92.4 * 10-3H2SeO3
2.0 * 10-77.9 * 10-31.2 * 10-1H4P2O7
4.1 * 10-3HC3H3O3
1.3 * 10-5HC3H5O2
2.0 * 10-75 * 10-2H3PO3
4.2 * 10-136.2 * 10-87.5 * 10-3H3PO4
1.3 * 10-10HC6H5O
5.3 * 10-92.8 * 10-2H5IO6
6.4 * 10-55.9 * 10-2H2C4O4
4.6 * 10-4HNO2
2.0 * 10-61.5 * 10-3H2C3H2O4
5.9 * 10-71.2 * 10-2H2C4H2O4
1.4 * 10-4HC3H5O3
1.7 * 10-1HIO3
2.3 * 10-11
2.9 * 10-8
2.8 * 10-9
Ka3 Ka2
Ka1
2. Dissociation Constants for Hydrated Metal Ions at 25 °C
Cation Hydrated Ion
3.2 * 10-10Fe(H2O) 2+
6Fe2+
3 * 10-8Cu(H2O) 2+
6Cu2+
1.6 * 10-4Cr(H2O) 3+
6Cr3+
1.3 * 10-9Co(H2O) 2+
6Co2+
3 * 10-7Be(H2O) 2+
6Be2+
1.4 * 10-5Al(H2O) 3+
6Al3+
Ka Cation Hydrated Ion
2.5 * 10-10Zn(H2O) 2+
6Zn2+
4 * 10-4Sn(H2O) 2+
6Sn2+
3 * 10-8Pb(H2O) 2+
6Pb2+
2.5 * 10-11Ni(H2O) 2+
6Ni2+
6.3 * 10-3Fe(H2O) 3+
6Fe3+
Ka
C. Aqueous Equilibrium Constants A-13
3. Dissociation Constants for Bases at 25 °C
Name Formula
Ammonia
Aniline
Bicarbonate ion
Carbonate ion
Codeine
Diethylamine
Dimethylamine
Ethylamine
Ethylenediamine
Hydrazine
Hydroxylamine 1.1 * 10-8HONH2
1.3 * 10-6H2NNH2
8.3 * 10-5C2H8N2
5.6 * 10-4C2H5NH2
5.4 * 10-4(CH3)2NH
6.9 * 10-4(C2H5)2NH
1.6 * 10-6C18H21NO3
1.8 * 10-4CO 2-
3
1.7 * 10-9HCO -
3
3.9 * 10-10C6H5NH2
1.76 * 10-5NH3
Kb Name Formula
Ketamine
Methylamine
Morphine
Nicotine
Piperidine
Propylamine
Pyridine
Strychnine
Triethylamine
Trimethylamine 6.4 * 10-5(CH3)3N
5.6 * 10-4(C2H5)3N
1.8 * 10-6C21H22N2O2
1.7 * 10-9C5H5N
3.5 * 10-4C3H7NH2
1.33 * 10-3C5H10NH
1.0 * 10-6C10H14N2
1.6 * 10-6C17H19NO3
4.4 * 10-4CH3NH2
3 * 10-7C13H16ClNO
Kb
4. Solubility Product Constants for Compounds at 25 °C
Compound Formula
Aluminum hydroxide
Aluminum phosphate
Barium carbonate
Barium chromate
Barium fluoride
Barium hydroxide
Barium oxalate
Barium phosphate
Barium sulfate
Cadmium carbonate
Cadmium hydroxide
Cadmium sulfide CdS
Calcium carbonate
Calcium chromate
Calcium fluoride
Calcium hydroxide
Calcium hydrogen phosphate
Calcium oxalate
Calcium phosphate
Calcium sulfate
Chromium(III) hydroxide
Cobalt(II) carbonate
Cobalt(II) hydroxide
Cobalt(II) sulfide CoS
Copper(I) bromide CuBr
Copper(I) chloride CuCl
Copper(I) cyanide CuCN
Copper(II) carbonate
Copper(II) hydroxide
Copper(II) phosphate
Copper(II) sulfide CuS
Iron(II) carbonate
Iron(II) hydroxide
Iron(II) sulfide FeS 3.72 * 10-19
4.87 * 10-17Fe(OH)2
3.07 * 10-11FeCO3
1.27 * 10-36
1.40 * 10-37Cu3(PO4)2
2.2 * 10-20Cu(OH)2
2.4 * 10-10CuCO3
3.47 * 10-20
1.72 * 10-7
6.27 * 10-9
5 * 10-22
5.92 * 10-15Co(OH)2
1.0 * 10-10CoCO3
6.3 * 10-31Cr(OH)3
7.10 * 10-5CaSO4
2.07 * 10-33Ca3(PO4)2
2.32 * 10-9CaC2O4
1 * 10-7CaHPO4
4.68 * 10-6Ca(OH)2
1.46 * 10-10CaF2
7.1 * 10-4CaCrO4
4.96 * 10-9CaCO3
8 * 10-28
7.2 * 10-15Cd(OH)2
1.0 * 10-12CdCO3
1.07 * 10-10BaSO4
6 * 10-39Ba3(PO4)2
1.6 * 10-6BaC2O4
5.0 * 10-3Ba(OH)2
2.45 * 10-5BaF2
1.17 * 10-10BaCrO4
2.58 * 10-9BaCO3
9.84 * 10-21AlPO4
1.3 * 10-33Al(OH)3
Ksp Compound Formula
Iron(III) hydroxide
Lanthanum fluoride
Lanthanum iodate
Lead(II) bromide
Lead(II) carbonate
Lead(II) chloride
Lead(II) chromate
Lead(II) fluoride
Lead(II) hydroxide
Lead(II) iodide
Lead(II) phosphate
Lead(II) sulfate
Lead(II) sulfide PbS
Magnesium carbonate
Magnesium fluoride
Magnesium hydroxide
Magnesium oxalate
Manganese(II) carbonate
Manganese(II) hydroxide
Manganese(II) sulfide MnS
Mercury(I) bromide
Mercury(I) carbonate
Mercury(I) chloride
Mercury(I) chromate
Mercury(I) cyanide
Mercury(I) iodide
Mercury(II) hydroxide
Mercury(II) sulfide HgS
Nickel(II) carbonate
Nickel(II) hydroxide
Nickel(II) sulfide NiS
Silver bromate
Silver bromide AgBr
Silver carbonate
(continued on the next page)
8.46 * 10-12Ag2CO3
5.35 * 10-13
5.38 * 10-5AgBrO3
3 * 10-20
5.48 * 10-16Ni(OH)2
1.42 * 10-7NiCO3
1.6 * 10-54
3.1 * 10-26Hg(OH)2
5.2 * 10-29Hg2I2
5 * 10-40Hg2(CN)2
2 * 10-9Hg2CrO4
1.43 * 10-18Hg2Cl2
3.6 * 10-17Hg2CO3
6.40 * 10-23Hg2Br2
2.3 * 10-13
1.6 * 10-13Mn(OH)2
2.24 * 10-11MnCO3
4.83 * 10-6MgC2O4
2.06 * 10-13Mg(OH)2
5.16 * 10-11MgF2
6.82 * 10-6MgCO3
9.04 * 10-29
1.82 * 10-8PbSO4
1 * 10-54Pb3(PO4)2
9.8 * 10-9PbI2
1.43 * 10-20Pb(OH)2
3.3 * 10-8PbF2
2.8 * 10-13PbCrO4
1.17 * 10-5PbCl2
7.40 * 10-14PbCO3
4.67 * 10-6PbBr2
7.50 * 10-12La(IO3)3
2 * 10-19LaF3
2.79 * 10-39Fe(OH)3
Ksp
A-14 Appendix I I : Useful Data
Compound Formula
Silver chloride AgCl
Silver chromate
Silver cyanide AgCN
Silver iodide AgI
Silver phosphate
Silver sulfate
Silver sulfide
Strontium carbonate
Strontium chromate 3.6 * 10-5SrCrO4
5.60 * 10-10SrCO3
6 * 10-51Ag2S
1.20 * 10-5Ag2SO4
8.89 * 10-17Ag3PO4
8.51 * 10-17
5.97 * 10-17
1.12 * 10-12Ag2CrO4
1.77 * 10-10
Ksp Compound Formula
Strontium phosphate
Strontium sulfate
Tin(II) hydroxide
Tin(II) sulfide SnS
Zinc carbonate
Zinc hydroxide
Zinc oxalate
Zinc sulfide ZnS 2 * 10-25
2.7 * 10-8ZnC2O4
3 * 10-17Zn(OH)2
1.46 * 10-10ZnCO3
1 * 10-26
5.45 * 10-27Sn(OH)2
3.44 * 10-7SrSO4
1 * 10-31Sr3(PO4)2
Ksp
Complex Ion
1.4 * 108[Zn(ox)3]4-
2 * 1015[Zn(OH)4]2-
2.8 * 109[Zn(NH3)4]2+
1.3 * 1014[Zn(en)3]2+
3 * 1016[Zn(EDTA)]2-
2.1 * 1019[Zn(CN)4]2-
3 * 1025[Sn(OH)3]-
2 * 1035[Pt(NH3)6]2+
1 * 1016[PtCl4]2-
2.2 * 106[Pb(S2O3)3]4-
3.5 * 106[Pb(ox)2]2-
8 * 1013[Pb(OH)3]-
3.0 * 104[PbI4]2-
2 * 1018[Pb(EDTA)]2-
2.4 * 101[PbCl3]-
3 * 108[Ni(ox)3]4-
2.0 * 108[Ni(NH3)6]2+
2.1 * 1018[Ni(en)3]2+
3.6 * 1018[Ni(EDTA)]2-
2 * 1031[Ni(CN)4]2-
9.5 * 106[Hg(ox)2]2-
2 * 1030[HgI4]2-
2 * 1023[Hg(en)2]2+
6.3 * 1021[Hg(EDTA)]2-
1.1 * 1016[HgCl4]2-
1.8 * 1041[Hg(CN)4]2-
8.9 * 102[Fe(SCN)]2+
2 * 1020[Fe(ox)3]3-
1.7 * 105[Fe(ox)3]4-
5.0 * 109[Fe(en)3]2+
1.7 * 1024[Fe(EDTA)]-
2.1 * 1014[Fe(EDTA)]2-
2 * 1043[Fe(CN)6]3-
Kf
5. Complex Ion Formation Constants in Water at 25 °C
Complex Ion
1.5 * 1035[Fe(CN)6]4-
3 * 108[Cu(ox)2]2-
1.7 * 1013[Cu(NH3)4]2+
1 * 1020[Cu(en)2]2+
5 * 1018[Cu(EDTA)]2-
1.0 * 1029[Cu(CN)4]2-
5 * 105[CuCl3]2-
8.0 * 1029[Cr(OH)4]-
1 * 1023[Cr(EDTA)]-
1 * 103[Co(SCN)4]2-
1 * 1020[Co(ox)3]3-
5 * 109[Co(ox)3]4-
5 * 109[Co(OH)4]2-
2.3 * 1033[Co(NH3)6]3+
1.3 * 105[Co(NH3)6]2+
4.9 * 1048[Co(en)3]3+
8.7 * 1013[Co(en)3]2+
1 * 1036[Co(EDTA)]-
2.0 * 1016[Co(EDTA)]2-
2 * 106[CdI4]2-
1.2 * 1012[Cd(en)3]2+
6.3 * 102[CdCl4]2-
3 * 1018[Cd(CN)4]2-
5.5 * 103[CdBr4]2-
2 * 1016[Al(ox)3]3-
3 * 1033[Al(OH)4]-
7 * 1019[AlF6]3-
1.3 * 1016[Al(EDTA)]-
2.8 * 1013[Ag(S2O3)2]-
1.2 * 1010[Ag(SCN)4]3-
1.7 * 107[Ag(NH3)2]+
5.0 * 107[Ag(en)2]+
2.1 * 107[Ag(EDTA)]3-
1 * 1021[Ag(CN)2]-
Kf
Half-Reaction E ° (V)
2.87
2.08
1.98
1.82
1.78
1.69
1.68
1.61
1.51
1.50
1.48
1.46
1.36
1.33
1.23
1.21
1.20
1.09
1.00
0.99
0.98
0.96
0.95
0.92
0.80
0.80
0.77
0.76
0.70
0.56
0.54
0.52
0.40
0.34Cu2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Cu(s)
O2(g) + 2 H2O(l) + 4 e-
¡ 4 OH-(aq)
Cu+(aq) + e-
¡ Cu(s)
I2(s) + 2 e-
¡ 2 I-(aq)
MnO -
4 (aq) + e-
¡ MnO 2-
4 (aq)
O2(g) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ H2O2(aq)
PtCl 2-
4 (aq) + 2 e-
¡ Pt(s) + 4 Cl-(aq)
Fe3+(aq) + e-
¡ Fe2+(aq)
Hg 2+
2 (aq) + 2 e-
¡ 2 Hg(l)
Ag+(aq) + e-
¡ Ag(s)
2 Hg2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ 2 Hg 2+
2 (aq)
ClO2(g) + e-
¡ ClO -
2 (aq)
NO -
3 (aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 3 e-
¡ NO(g) + 2 H2O(l)
HNO2(aq) + H+(aq) + e-
¡ NO(g) + 2 H2O(l)
VO +
2 (aq) + 2 H+(aq) + e-
¡ VO2+(aq) + H2O(l)
AuCl -
4 (aq) + 3 e-
¡ Au(s) + 4 Cl-(aq)
Br2(l) + 2 e-
¡ 2 Br-(aq)
IO -
3 (aq) + 6 H+(aq) + 5 e-
¡12I2(aq) + 3 H2O(l)
MnO2(s) + 4 H+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Mn2+(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
O2(g) + 4 H+(aq) + 4 e-
¡ 2 H2O(l)
Cr2O 2-
7 (aq) + 14 H+(aq) + 6 e-
¡ 2 Cr3+(aq) + 7 H2O(l)
Cl2(g) + 2 e-
¡ 2 Cl-(aq)
PbO2(s) + 4 H+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Pb2+(aq) + 2 H2O(l)
2 BrO -
3 (aq) + 12 H+(aq) + 10 e-
¡ Br2(l) + 6 H2O(l)
Au3+(aq) + 3 e-
¡ Au(s)
MnO -
4 (aq) + 8 H+(aq) + 5 e-
¡ Mn2+(aq) + 4 H2O(l)
2 HClO(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Cl2(g) + 2 H2O(l)
MnO -
4 (aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 3 e-
¡ MnO2(s) + 2 H2O(l)
PbSO4(s) + 2 H2O(l)
PbO2(s) + 4 H+(aq) + SO 2-
4 (aq) + 2 e-
¡
H2O2(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ 2 H2O(l)
Co3+(aq) + e-
¡ Co2+(aq)
Ag2+(aq) + e-
¡ Ag+(aq)
O3(g) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ O2(g) + H2O(l)
F2(g) + 2 e-
¡ 2 F-(aq)
D. Standard Reduction Half-Cell Potentials at 25 °C A-15
D. Standard Reduction Half-Cell Potentials at 25 °C
Half-Reaction E ° (V)
0.32
0.27
0.22
0.20
0.16
0.15
0.14
0.071
0.00
-3.04Li(aq) + e-
¡ Li(s)
-2.92K+(aq) + e-
¡ K(s)
-2.90Ba2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Ba(s)
-2.76Ca2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Ca(s)
-2.71Na+(aq) + e-
¡ Na(s)
-2.38La3+(aq) + 3 e-
¡ La(s)
-2.37Mg2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Mg(s)
-2.23H2(g) + 2 e-
¡ 2 H-(aq)
-1.66Al3+(aq) + 3 e-
¡ Al(s)
-1.18Mn2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Mn(s)
-0.832 H2O(l) + 2 e-
¡ H2(g) + 2 OH-(aq)
-0.76Zn2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Zn(s)
-0.73Cr3+(aq) + 3 e-
¡ Cr(s)
-0.50Cr3+(aq) + e-
¡ Cr2+(aq)
-0.492 CO2(g) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ H2C2O4(aq)
-0.45Fe2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Fe(s)
-0.40Cd2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Cd(s)
-0.36PbSO4(s) + 2 e-
¡ Pb(s) + SO 2-
4 (aq)
-0.28Co2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Co(s)
-0.23Ni2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Ni(s)
-0.23N2(g) + 5 H+(aq) + 4 e-
¡ N2H +
5 (aq)
-0.15AgI(s) + e-
¡ Ag(s) + I-(aq)
-0.14Sn2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Sn(s)
-0.13Pb2+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Pb(s)
-0.036Fe3+(aq) + 3 e-
¡ Fe(s)
2 H+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ H2(g)
AgBr(s) + e-
¡ Ag(s) + Br-(aq)
S(s) + 2 H+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ H2S(g)
Sn4+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ Sn2+(aq)
Cu2+(aq) + e-
¡ Cu+(aq)
SO 2-
4 (aq) + 4 H+(aq) + 2 e-
¡ H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
AgCl(s) + e-
¡ Ag(s) + Cl-(aq)
Hg2Cl2(s) + 2 e-
¡ 2 Hg(l) + 2 Cl-(aq)
BiO+(aq) + 2 H+(aq) + 3 e-
¡ Bi(s) + H2O(l)