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AP Psychology
Semester ReviewChapters 9, 10, 6, 7
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Chapter 6
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Learning
• Learning – A process through which experience produces lasting change in behavior or mental processes
• Habituation – Learning not to respond to repeated presentation of a stimulus
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The Essentials of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Conditioned response (CR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
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Classical ConditioningPrior to conditioning
Conditioning
After conditioning
Neutral stimulus(tone)
(Orientation to soundbut no response)
Unconditioned stimulus(food powder in mouth)
Unconditioned response(salivation)
Neutral stimulusCS (tone)
Unconditioned stimulus(food powder)
+Conditioned response
(salivation)
Conditioned stimulus(tone)
Conditioned response(salivation)
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Classical Conditioning
• Extinction – Weakening of a conditioned association in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcer
• Spontaneous recovery –Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay
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Acquisition, Extinction, and Spontaneous Recovery
(1)Acquisition(CS + UCS)
(3)Spontaneous Recovery(CS alone)
Res
t per
iod(2)
Extinction(CS alone)
(Time)
Trials
Str
engt
h of
the
CR
(Wea
k)(S
tron
g)
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The Power of Reinforcement• Positive reinforcers –
Stimulus presented after a response that increases the probability of that response happening again
• Negative reinforcers – Removal of an unpleasant stimulus, contingent on a particular behavior
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• Ratio schedules – Provide reward after a certain number of responses
• Interval schedules – Provide reward after a certain time interval
Fixed Ratio (FR)
Fixed Interval (FI)
Variable Ratio (VR)
Variable Interval (VI)
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The Problem of Punishment
• Punishment – An aversive stimulus which diminishes the strength of the response it follows
• How does this differ from negative reinforcement?
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Punishment vs. Negative Reinforcement
Loud Noise Press Lever
Press Lever
Loud Noise Removed
Loud Noise Applied
Response ConsequenceNegative Reinforcement
Punishment
No Noise
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The Problem of Punishment
• Positive punishment – The application of an aversive stimulus after a response
• Omission training (negative punishment) –The removal of an appetitive stimulus after a response
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Four Kinds of Consequences
Positive orappetitive
Negative or aversive
STIMULUS
-Remove
NegativeReinforcement
Aspirin curing headache causes more aspirin use
Omission TrainingMissing dinner leads to
less staying out late
+Present
PositiveReinforcement
Bonus for working hard leads to more hard work
PunishmentGetting speeding ticketleads to less speeding
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Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism
• Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior
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How DoesCognitive Psychology
Explain Learning?
• Insight learning – Problem solving occurs by means of a sudden reorganization of perceptions
• Cognitive maps –A mental representation of physical space
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Observational Learning: Bandura’s Challenge to Behaviorism
• Observational learning – Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others’ behavior and the consequences of their behavior
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Chapter 7
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-Human Memory is Good at:
• Information on which attention is focused• Information in which we are interested• Information that arouses us emotionally• Information that fits with our previous
experiences• Information that we rehearse
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Encoding Storage Retrieval
Memory’s Three Basic Tasks
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The Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Memory
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The First Stage: Sensory Memory
• The actual capacity of sensory memory can be twelve or more items
• All but three or four items disappear before they can enter consciousness
• There is a separate sensory register for each sense
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Encoding and Storage in Working Memory
• Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units
• Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory
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Semantic memory
Includes memory for:language, factsgeneral knowledge
Episodic memory
Includes memory for:events, personal experiences
Includes memory for:motor skills, operant and classicalconditioning
Long-term memory
Declarative memory Procedural memory
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Explicit memory – Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled
How Do WeRetrieve Memories?
• Implicit memory – Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness
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Other Factors Affecting Retrieval
• Mood congruent memory –A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood
• TOT (tip of the tongue) phenomenon –The inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory
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TransienceAbsent-
MindednessBlocking
Misattribution Suggestibility
Bias Persistence
Memory’s “Seven Sins”
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Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
• Recall decreases rapidly, then reaches a plateau, after which little more is forgotten
Pe
rce
nt r
eta
ined
60
50
40
30
20
10
0Days
5 10 15 20 25 30
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Blocking
• Forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved• Proactive interference• Retroactive interference• Serial position effect
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How Children Acquire Language• Innateness theory of language –
Children learn language mainly by following an inborn program for acquiring vocabulary and grammar
• Language acquisition device (LAD) – Structure in the brain innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar
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How Children Acquire Language
• Early stages of language acquisition include the following:• The babbling stage• The one-word stage• The two-word stage• Telegraphic speech (short, simple sentences)• The naming explosion
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Schemas and Scripts Help you Know What to Expect
• Schema – A knowledge cluster or general framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations in one’s life
• Script – A cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings
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Selecting a Strategy• Algorithms –
Problem-solving procedures or formulas that guarantee a correct outcome if correctly applied
• Heuristics – Cognitive strategies used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks; they do not guarantee a correct solution
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Heuristics
• Useful heuristics include:• Working backward• Searching for analogies• Breaking a big problem into smaller problems
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Judging and Making Decisions
Confirmation Bias
Hindsight Bias
Anchoring Bias
Representativeness Bias
Availability Bias
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Chapter 10
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Freud’s Model of the Mind
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Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
• Ego defense mechanisms – Largely unconscious mental strategies employed to reduce the experience of conflict or anxiety• Repression• Projection• Sublimination• Regression• Reaction formation• Denial• Rationalization• Displacement
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Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory• Psychic determinism –
Freud’s assumption that all mental and behavioral reactions are caused by unconscious traumas desires or conflicts
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• Archetypes
Animus
Anima
Shadow
Carl Jung: Extending the Unconscious
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Alfred Adler:An early split from Psychoanalysis
• Inferiority complex –A feeling of inferiority that is largely unconscious, with it roots in childhood
• Compensation –Making up for one’s real or imagined deficiencies
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Humanistic Theories
• Humanistic Theories include– Gordon Allport’s trait theory– Abraham Maslow’s self-actualizing personality– Carl Roger’s fully functioning person
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Patterns in Personality
• The “Big Five” traits1. Openness to experience2. Conscientiousness3. Extraversion4. Agreeableness5. Neuroticism
• Cattell identifies 16 personality factors
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Traits and the Person-Situation Debate
• Person-situation controversy – Theoretical dispute concerning the relative contribution of personality factors and situational factors in controlling behavior
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Implicit Personality Theories• Implicit personality theories –
Assumptions about personality that are held by people to simplify the task of understanding others
• Fundamental attribution error – Assumption that another person’s behavior (especially undesirable behavior) is the result of a flaw in the personality, rather than in the situation
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Chapter 9
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The Nature-NurtureInteraction
• Nature-nurture issue –Long-standing discussion over relative importance of nature (heredity) and nurture (environment) in their influence on behavior and mental processes
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Gradual versus Abrupt Change
• Continuity view vs. Discontinuity view
Age
Per
form
ance Continuity view
Discontinuity view
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Infancy(from one month to about 18 months)
• Babies learn through classical conditioning• Humans apparently have an inborn need for
attachment • Secure attachment• Anxious-ambivalent attachment• Avoidant attachment
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Cognitive Development
• Cognitive development –The process by which thinking changes over time
• Schemes –Mental structures orprograms that guide adeveloping child’s thoughts
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Accommodation –Mental process that restructures existing schemes so that new information is better understood
“Birds” are things that fly. But a “butterfly” flies and is not a bird…
Cognitive Development• Assimilation –
Mental process that modifies new information to fit it into existingschemes
• (Schema of “Pizza” can include “pepperoni” as well as cheese)
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete Operational
Formal Operational
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1. Authoritarian parents
2. Authoritative parents
3. Permissive parents
4. Uninvolved parents
Social and Emotional Development• Most approaches to child rearing fall into
one of the following four styles:
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Erikson’s Psychosocial StagesAge/Period Principal Challenge
0 to 1 1/2 years Trust vs. mistrust
1 1/2 to 3 years Autonomy vs. self doubt
3 to 6 years Initiative vs. guilt
6 years to puberty Confidence vs. inferiority
Adolescence Identity vs. role confusion
Early adulthood Intimacy vs. isolation
Middle adulthood Generativity vs. stagnation
Late adulthood Ego-integrity vs. despair
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The Developmental Challenges of Adulthood
• Love and work– Intimacy versus isolation– Generativity versus stagnation– Generativity –
A process of making a commitment beyond oneself to family, work, society, or future generations