AMERICANINDIANCOLLEGESUCCESSATAMAINSTREAMUNIVERSITY:
FACILITATORSANDBARRIERSTOACADEMICATTAINMENTBy
SCOTTD.FLEMING
Adissertationsubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsforthe
DoctorofPhilosophy
MajorinSociology
SouthDakotaStateUniversity
2010
ii
AMERICANINDIANCOLLEGESUCCESSATAMAINSTREAMUNIVERSITY:
FACILITATORSANDBARRIERSTOACADEMICATTAINMENT
Thisdissertationisapprovedasacredibleandindependentinvestigationby
acandidatefortheDoctorofPhilosophydegreeandisacceptableformeetingthe
dissertationrequirementsforthisdegree.Acceptanceofthisdissertationdoesnot
implythattheconclusionsreachedbythecandidatearenecessarilytheconclusions
ofthemajordepartment.
____________________________________________________________
TimothyJ.Nichols,Ph.D. Date DissertationAdvisor
____________________________________________________________ DianeKayongo‐Male,Ph.D. Date Head,RuralSociology
iii
Acknowledgements
Therearemanywithoutwhosesupport,encouragement,andassistancethis
dissertationcouldnothavebeenpossible.TothosepeopleIoffermydeepest
gratitudeandeternaldebt.Firstandforemostamongmysupportersaremyfamily,
Ranae,Hannah,andTyler.Withouttheirsacrificeandperseverancethroughoutthe
manylongyearsthatIsoughtmyownacademicattainment,thiswouldnothave
beenpossible.
Tothefaculty,staff,andadministratorsofPSU,whograciouslysharedwith
metheirthoughts,feelingsandopinionsontheNativeAmericancollegeexperience
atthisuniversity,Ioffermanythanks.TheircommitmentanddedicationtoNative
studentsuccesswillserveasmymodelthroughouttheyearstocome.
Finally,andmostimportantly,ImustacknowledgethemanyAmerican
Indianstudentswhoplacedinmethetrustthatallowedthemtosharetheirhopes,
andaspirationsforcollegeandthefrustrationsthatmanyexperiencealongtheway.
Itismysincerehopethatthisdissertationplaysapartingettingtheirvoicesheard
andisofserviceinthefacilitationofacademicattainmentforallNativestudents
interestedinpursuinghighereducation.Toallofthosewhoparticipatedinthis
research,andwhomIconsidermyfriends,Ioffermysincereandheartfeltthanks
andeverlastingappreciation.
iv
Abstract
AMERICANINDIANCOLLEGESUCCESSATAMAINSTREAMUNIVERSITY:
FACILITATORSANDBARRIERSTOACADEMICATTAINMENT
SCOTTD.FLEMING
2010
Thisstudyisanethnographicexplorationintothebarrierstoacademic
attainmentandthefactorsthatfacilitateretentionandgraduationforAmerican
IndianstudentsatapredominantlyWhiteuniversityintheupperMidwest.
Worksincriticaleducationtheoryandcriticalracetheoryprovidethe
frameworkfortheinvestigation.Referencegrouptheoryprovidesthebasisfor
investigatingtheroleplayedbya‘thirdplace’asasafeenvironmentwhere
AmericanIndiancollegestudentscanaffiliatewithanormativereferencegroupthat
sharescommonculturalcapitalthataidsinnavigationthroughtheuniversity
environment.
Theethnographicresearchmethodsofintensiveinterviews,focusgroups,
andparticipantobservationwithuniversityadministrators,faculty,staff,and
studentsareusedtogatherdata.Quantitativedataonuniversityenrollment,
retention,andgraduationbyrace/ethnicityisalsopresented.
Findingsshowamongthemostsalientfacilitators,supportisthemost
significant,followedbycultureandfinancialresources.Amongthemostpowerful
v
barriers,themostsalientwasfoundtobeinstitutionalbarriers,followedbyalackof
support,poorhighschoolpreparation,andthelackofopportunitiesforcultural
expressionandparticipation.
Implicationsandrecommendationsforthepragmaticapplicationoffindings
tothefieldofhighereducationforAmericanIndianstudentsarediscussed.
Recommendationsforfurtherstudyareincluded.
vi
TableofContents
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….iv
ListofTables……………………………………………………………………………………………….….....ix
ChapterOne:Introduction…………..………………………………………………………..................1
ChapterTwo:LiteratureReview…………………..……………………………………………...…10
ABriefHistoryofAmericanIndianEducation………………………………………….10
TheCurrentStateofAmericanIndianHigherEducation………………………..…17
StudiesinAmericanIndianHigherEducation…………………………………….....…23
BarrierstoAmericanIndianHigherEducation……………………………………..….24
FactorsLeadingtoAmericanIndianSuccessinHigherEducation……………..28
SpecificStrategiesforSuccessinHigherEducation…………………………………..31
TheRoleofEthnicIdentityandEmpowerment………………………………………...35
TheRoleofaSharedPlaceforAmericanIndianStudents………………………….41
SummaryandConclusiontoLiteratureReview………………………………………...43
ChapterThree:TheoreticalOrientation……………….………………………………………....47
ChapterFour:Methodology……………………..……………………………………………………....61
ResearchQuestions………………………………………………………………………………....62
StudyInstitution……………………………………………………………………………………..63
StudyParticipants…………………………………………………………………………………...63
ResearchDesign……………………………………………………………………………………...66
Methods…………………………………………………………………………………………...……..67
DataCollectionandAnalysis…………………………………………………………………….73
vii
ConsiderationofHumanSubjects……………………………………………………………..80
ChapterFive:Findings:Quantitative…………………..…………………………………….……..84
ChapterSix:Findings:Facilitators…………………..…………………………………….…………89
Facilitator:Support………………………………………………………………………………….91
Facilitator:FinancialResources……………………………………………………………...101
Facilitator:Culture………………………………………………………………………………...104
ChapterSeven:Findings:Barriers………………………….……………………………….……..107
InstitutionalBarriers……………………………………………………………………………..109
PoorHighSchoolPreparation………………………………………………………………...115
PrejudiceorRacism……………………………………………………………………………….121
LackofSupport……………………………………………………………………………………..123
Family…………………………………………………………………………………………………..128
Financial……………………………………………………………………………………………….131
Community……………………………………………………………………………………………135
Culture………………………………………………………………………………………………….137
DominantCultureReferenceGroup………………………………………………………..142
Place……………………………………………………………………………………………………..147
ChapterEight:Discussion……………………………………………………….……………………...152
Facilitators……………………………………………………………………………………………153
Barriers………………………………………………………………………………………………...163
ChapterNine:Summary,Conclusions,RecommendationsandLimitations....201
Summary/Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………..201
viii
Limitations……………………………………………………………………………………………213
Recommendations………………………………………………………………..……………….216
SuggestionsforFurtherResearch……………………………….………………...………..222
References……………………………………………………………………………………………………...224
Appendices
A:InterviewGuideforAdministratorsandFaculty……………………….………...235
B:InterviewGuideforStudents……………………………………………………...………238
C:ParticipantConsentFormforPersonalInterview………………..............……...242
D:ParticipantConsentFormforFocusGroupInterview………………………….245
E:ParticipantConsentFormforPersonalInterview Administrator/Faculty………………………………………..………………………248 F:IntroductiontoFocusGroupandDemographicQuestionnaire…………….251
G:NativeAmericanScholarships…………………………………………….………..........253
ix
ListofTables
Table……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...page
5.1 EthnicOriginSDSUStudentPopulation………………………………………………….…85
5.2 RetentionandGraduationRatesofFull‐Time,First‐TimeBachelor’s
DegreeseekingStudentPopulation(TotalPopulation)…………………………..…88
5.3 RetentionandGraduationRatesofFull‐Time,First‐TimeBachelor’s
DegreeseekingStudentPopulation(NativeAmericanPopulation)………..…..88
6.1 PrimaryFacilitatorsofAmericanIndianEducationalAttainmentSample
Quotations…………………………………………………………………………………........……...90
7.1 PrimaryBarrierstoAmericanIndianEducationalAttainment
SampleQuotations………………………………………………………………………………...108
CHAPTERONE
Introduction
PlainsStateUniversity(PSU)isapredominantlyWhiteinstitutioninastate
withasignificantandgrowingAmericanIndianpopulation.PSUoffersadiversityof
programsaimedathelpingAmericanIndianssucceedincollege.However,the
mechanismsthatimpacttheefficacyoftheseprogramsarenotwellunderstood.
ThisstudyexploresfacilitatorsandbarrierstoeducationalattainmentforAmerican
IndianstudentsatPSU.
Thisstudyseekstodeterminewhatfactorscombinetoenhanceacademic
attainmentinhighereducationamongAmericanIndianstudents;andconversely,
whatfactorsworkasbarrierstoacademicattainment.Thisstudyexploresthe
factorsthatcontributetoeducationalattainmentamongAmericanIndianstudents
atapredominantlyWhiteuniversityinaMidwesternplainsstate.
ThroughoutthehistoryofcontactbetweenEuropeancolonizersandthe
indigenouspeoplesofNorthAmerica,Indianeducationhadasitsprimarygoalthe
reshapingoftheIndianintothemoldoftheEuropeanman(Meriam1928;Collier
1947;Berkhofer1978).
Berry(1969)illustratesthefailureofAmerica’slonghistoryoffailingto
educatetheIndianintotheWhiteman’simage.Berryattributesthisfailuretothe
historyofrelationsbetweenthedominantsocietyandtribalgroupsregarding
academicachievement.Berrypointsoutthatnearlyeveryconceivablebarrierto
2
educationalsuccesswasatworkregardingtheeducationalexperienceofthe
AmericanIndianstudent.
InthebookNativeAmericanHigherEducationintheUnitedStates,Carney
(1999:147)listsseveralproblemsthataremanifestattheindividuallevelthatactas
obstaclestosuccessinhighereducation.Theseinclude:apersistentlyhighdropout
rateduringorbeforehighschool(Tierney1992);alowproportionofhighschool
graduatesenteringcollege(Belgarde1992);astrongsenseofisolationandof
insurmountableculturalbarriers(RichardsonandSkinner,1991);agenerallackof
academicpreparationandskills,alackofrolemodels,financialproblems,negative
culturalpressure(GuyetteandHeth1983);cultureshock,lackofmotivation,
Englishdeficiency,unrealisticcareergoals,distrustoftheinstitution,andageneral
lackofsupport,socializationandcounseling,(McIntosh1987;WrightandTierney
1991).
AccordingtoHuffman(1999)studentswhoarelessassimilatedtothe
mainstreamculturewillexperiencemorecultureshockuponarrivalatcollegeand
willbemorelikelytodropoutandreturnhomewithoutsomesupportorservices
designedtofacilitatethetransitionfromthefamiliar,moretraditionalenvironment
tothemainstreamcollegeenvironment.Associationwithculturallysimilarpeers
helpssoftentheharsheffectsofcultureshockandsmooththetransition.
Inthebook,TheGreatGoodPlace(1989),Oldenburgmakesastrongcasefor
whatheterms‘thethirdplace’asaplacewhereinformalpublicassociationserves
3
tofacilitateasenseofcommunitywellbeingandsolidaritybasedonsharedvalues
andcommonlifeexperienceatthelocalcommunitylevel.
GarrodandLarimore(1997)compilednarrativesfromAmericanIndian
studentsatDartmouthandfoundthatthegroupknownas“TheNativeAmericansat
Dartmouth”providedachanceforsupportandsolidarityforNativestudentsinthe
foreignworldofanIvyLeaguecampusintheNortheasternUnitedStates.Many
contributorscitedtheformationofsuchareferencegroupastheprimaryfactorin
theircollegesuccess.TheNativeAmericanHouseatDartmouthprovidedasafe
placefortheformationofthereferencegroup.
GiventhecontinuingdisparitybetweengraduationratesofAmericanIndian
andnon‐Indianstudents(Pavel,Skinner,Farris,Calahan,TippeconnicandStein
1998;DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder2008),thisstudyhaswideranging
implicationsfortheimplementationofculturallyrelevantprograms,policiesand
curriculafocusedonincreasingretentionandgraduationratesforAmericanIndian
studentsinhighereducation.
SeveralstudiesshowadisproportionategraduationratebetweenNative
Americanstudentsandnon‐Indianstudentsatboththesecondaryandpost‐
secondarylevels.NativeAmericanstudentsareconsistentlyshowntobemorelikely
todropoutbeforethecompletionofhighschool.Severalreasonsforthedisparity
includealienation,feelingofpowerlessnessandinferiorityestrangement,
depression,andlackofsupport,sufficienthelptosucceedandlackofsuccess
experiences(Wax1967;Berry1969;FalkandAitken1984;Lin,LaCounteandEder
4
1988;Gilliland1988).AcademicdifficultiesandnonpersistenceofNativeAmericans
incollegearesimilarlywelldocumented(Steward1993;Pavelet.al.1998;DeVoe,
Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder2008).Atthecollegelevel,despiteevidenceof
academicability,dropoutratesarehigherforNativeAmericansthanforanyother
minority(Reddy1993;DeVoeetal.2008).NativeAmericansarealso
underrepresentedingraduateprograms(LaFromboiseandLow1989;Pavel1998).
NativeAmericansconsistentlyhavelowereducationalattainmentthanotherethnic
minorities(Lin,LaCounteandEder1988;DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder
2008).
WhatfactorsmightaccountforacademicsuccessamongAmericanIndian
studentsatPSU?Existingprogramssuchas2+2+2(NicholsandNichols,1998),Trio,
UpwardBoundandSuccessAcademy(Lee2006)andtheNativeAmericanClubat
PSUarebelievedtofacilitatesuccessfultransitionforstudentsintothemainstream
university.
Thecriticaltheoreticaltraditionprovidestheconceptualframeworkforthe
study.Worksrelatingtocriticaleducationtheoryandcriticalracetheoryare
identifiedasparticularlysalientforthisexaminationofretentionandgraduationof
AmericanIndianstudentsfromPlainsStateUniversity.
Thecriticalschoolofsociologicaltheory,commonlyreferredtoasthe
FrankfurtSchool,developedintheearly1900soutoftheMarxianperspective.Atits
core,criticaltheorydevelopsamodeofinquirythatgoesbeyondsurfaceillusionsto
uncoverrealstructuresinthematerialworld(Neuman2000).Criticaltheoristshold
5
thatfactscannotbeseparatedfromtheeffectofthedominantvaluesofasociety
(Althusser1969;Bottomore1984;Neuman2000).Criticaltheoryisvalueladenand
emancipatoryinthatitseekstoliberatehumanexistenceandameliorateoppressive
socialconditions.
Gramsci’s(1932)conceptofhegemonyisrelevanttothisstudy.Cultural
hegemonyisasocialconditioninwhichtherulingclassmanipulatescultural
symbolsinsuchawaythatleadsotherclassesorculturalgroupstoeffectively
contributetotheirownsubordination(Gramsci1932).Thisformofdomination
operatesthroughvitalsocialfunctionsinsocialinstitutionssuchaseducation
(Friere1974),andisofparticularinteresttothisstudyofAmericanIndiansand
highereducationatPSU.
Thisstudyemploysaninductiveresearchapproachtoexplorefactors
influencingsecondaryeducationalattainmentofAmericanIndians.Inkeepingwith
thecriticaltheoreticaltradition,themethodsofqualitativeethnographyprovides
thick,richdescriptionfromtheinsider’sperspective.Theconceptof‘praxis’as
introducedbyMarx,isaguidingprincipleinthedesignandimplementationofthis
study.Praxishasasitsgoaltoameliorateoppressivesocialconditionsthroughthe
applicationofpragmaticactionthatisbasedintheoreticallygeneratedideas.This
studyisdirectedatenhancingunderstandingsothatmoreAmericanIndian
studentsareabletoattaintheirhighereducationaspirations.
Datacollectedforthisresearchincludesfocusgroups,intensiveinterviews,
informalinterviews,fieldobservations,participantobservation,anddocumentary
6
dataanalysisincludingquantitativedataonenrollmentandretentionofNative
Americanstudents.Thisdataprovidesusefulinsightforanenhancedunderstanding
oftheresearchquestionsthatfollow.
Basedinthecriticaltheoreticaltradition,thisprojectinvestigatesthe
followingresearchquestions:
1.WhatfactorsfacilitateeducationalattainmentforAmericanIndian
students?
2.WhatfactorsactasbarrierstoeducationalattainmentforAmerican
Indianstudents?
Basedonareviewoftheliterature,thisresearchincludestheexaminationof
issuesrelatingto:
a. Supportprogramsb. Financialresources c. Campusenvironmentd. Familyrelationse. Pre‐collegeacademicpreparationf. Facultyexpectationsg. Faculty,staffandstudentattitudesh. Curriculumi. Culturallybasedreferencegroupj. Culturalfactorsk. The3rdplacel. Individual(personal)drivetowardacademicattainment
Themeasureofeducationalattainmentisdeterminedthroughcomparative
ratesofretentionandgraduationforAmericanIndianstudentsandallother
studentsatPSU.
7
Intheinterestofprotectingconfidentialitythenameoftheuniversityhas
beenchangedtoPlainsStateUniversity(PSU).Thestateinwhichitislocatedshall
becalledPrairieStateandthecityinwhichitislocatedshallbeknownasRailtown.
Allothercommunitiesmentionedthroughouthavealsobeenrenamedinorderto
safeguardtheidentityofthosewhospeakofthoseplacesinawaythatlinks
themselvesandtheirhistorytothoseplaces.
Students,administratorsandfacultyatPlainsStateUniversityprovidedthe
multiplevoicesandviewpointscontributingtothisstudy.
InFebruaryof1881theTerritorialLegislaturegranted120,000acresin
PrairieStatefortheestablishmentofan‘AgricultureCollege’.In1889,congress
grantedanadditional40,000acresforthefuturePSU.By1923,instructional
programswereorganizedintofivedivisionsincluding:Agriculture,Engineering,
GeneralScience,HomeEconomics,andPharmacy.ThefuturePSUwasbeginningto
takeshape.
AccordingtothePSUOfficeofInstitutionalResearch,forthefallsemesterof
2009,totalstudentenrollmentwas12,376.Afterexcluding824studentsof
unknownethnicoriginandthoserefusingtoprovideinformation,8.4percentofthe
totalstudentpopulationwaslistedasminoritystudents.AmericanIndianstudents
enrolledatPSUcomprisethesecondlargestofminoritygroupsandwere2.1
percentofallstudentsenrolled.TheonlyminoritygrouplargerisAsian/Pacific
Islandersat3percent,themajorityofwhichareinternationalgraduate
student/researchassistants.Inwhatcanonlybedescribedasanoverwhelmingly
8
White,mainstreamuniversity,2.1percentisdisproportionatewhentakinginto
accountthetotalNativeAmericanpopulationinPrairieState,whichiscommonly
citedasbetweeneightandninepercent,accordingtotheU.S.CensusBureau.
GiventhecontinuingdisparitybetweengraduationratesofAmericanIndian
andnon‐Indianstudents(Paveletal.,1998;DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder
2008),theimplicationsofthisstudymayhavewiderangingapplicationsforthe
implementationofculturallyrelevantprograms,policiesandcurriculafocusedon
increasingretentionandgraduationratesforAmericanIndianstudentsinhigher
education.Towardthisend,IplantoorganizeandexecuteseminarsatPSUforall
stakeholdersinterestedinthefindingsofthisresearchandhowthesefindingscan
beimplementedtoenhancetheunderstandingoffactorsthatcombinetohinderor
facilitateretentionandgraduationofAmericanIndianstudentsatPrairieState’s
largestmainstreamuniversity.Inkeepingwiththecriticalperspectiveofthis
research,itishopedthatincreasedunderstandingofsuchfactorswillleadtopolicy
changesthatgreatlyincreasethechancesforeducationalattainmentforNative
students.
Throughouttheconceptualization,designandimplementationofthis
research,Ihavesoughttoprovideamediumforthedeliveryofthevoicesofall
thoseadministrators,faculty,supportstaffandstudentswhoarethestakeholdersin
academicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Ofprimarysignificance
arethestudentsthemselveswhowereeagertobeheardandwhoremainhopeful
forpositivesocialchangeleadingtoempowermentandacademicsuccess.Ithas
9
beenmygoaltoprovideadetailedpictureofthecollegeexperienceatPSUthrough
theeyesoftheNativeAmericanstudent.
Therearerealisticlimitationsofsuchanendeavor.Amongthoselimitations,
itmustbenotedthatthisresearchspannedonlyoneyearinthelivesofthosewho
participatedandinthehistoryoftheinstitutionitself.Assuch,itisonlyabrief
snapshotintime.Duringthecourseofthatyear,manypositivechangeshave
alreadycometolife.Mostnotablyamongthosechangesisthecommitmentbythe
universityadministrationforthecreationofanAmericanIndianEducationand
CulturalCenterscheduledtoopenduringthefallsemesterof2010.Alsoof
significanceistheplanninganddevelopmentofanenhancedcurriculumintheform
oftheAmericanIndianStudiesmajortoaccompanythecurrentminorinthatfield
ofstudy.
WhilethelonghistoryofbarrierstoeducationalattainmentforAmerican
IndianstudentsatPSUisformidable,itisofconsiderablesignificanceandcausefor
renewedhopethatPSUismovinginapositivedirection.
Inthechaptersthatfollow,relevantliteratureandtheoreticalperspectives
arepresented.Methodsarediscussedandqualitativeandquantitativefindingsare
presented.Thedissertationconcludeswithadiscussionofthesefindings,
conclusions,andrecommendations.
10
CHAPTERTWO
LiteratureReview
PlainsStateUniversityisapredominantlyWhiteinstitutioninastatewitha
significantandgrowingAmericanIndianpopulation.PSUoffersadiversityof
programsaimedathelpingAmericanIndianssucceedincollege.However,the
mechanismsthatimpacttheefficacyoftheseprogramsarenotwellunderstood.
Inordertogainanimprovedunderstandingofmechanismsthatimpact
AmericanIndianpostsecondaryeducationalattainment,thisliteraturereviewwill
examineahistoryofAmericanIndianeducationfromitsearliestinceptionuptothe
currentstatusofAmericanIndianhighereducation.Inaddition,commonbarriersto
educationalattainmentforNativeAmericanstudentsandspecificstrategiesthat
haveprovensuccessfulforovercomingthesechallengeswillbeexplored.Previous
researchinvestigatingthelinkbetweenethnicidentity,empowermentand
educationalattainment,alongwiththeroleofasharedspaceforAmericanIndian
studentsinpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsofhighereducationisdiscussed.
ABriefHistoryofAmericanIndianEducation
EarlyAmericanIndianEducation
PriortoEuropeancolonizationoftheAmericas,tribalnationshaddiverse
systemsofeducationthatweredesignedtoteachyouth,accordingtothetribes’
specificcultures,theskillsnecessaryforsurvivalintheirenvironments(Zinn1980).
11
ThissystemofNativeeducationwasaccomplishedprimarilythroughinformal
observationandinteractionwithparents,relatives,eldersandreligiousandsocial
groups(Pewewardy2002).
ThroughoutthehistoryofcontactbetweenEuropeancolonizersandthe
indigenouspeoplesofNorthAmerica,Indianeducationhadasitsprimarygoalto
reshapetheIndianintothemoldoftheEuropeanman(Meriam1928;Collier1947;
Berkhofer1978).Europeanvaluessuchascompetition,individualachievementand
theaccumulationofwealthwerecommonlyseenasmorecivilizedthanwerethe
valuesofcooperation,communalismandaharmonywiththeEarth,whichwere
morecommontothetraditionalbeliefsofmanyAmericanIndiantribes(Eastman
1902;StandingBear1928;Neihardt1932;Brown1953).ThespirituallifeofNative
AmericanswasseenbymanyEuropeansasheathenandwassupplantedby
Christianityasthepathwaytocivilization(Berkhofer1978;McBeth1983;Oppelt
1990;DeloriaJr.1994;Boyer1997;Calloway1999).Inordertoachievethisgoal,
colonizerssupposedtheidentityoftheAmericanIndianwouldhavetobe
deconstructedandreconstructedintheimageoftheWhiteman(Berkhofer1978;
Bordewich1996;Utter2001).
AccordingtoPewewardy(1998:8),AmericanIndianpopulationswerenot
defeatedbymilitaryforceorpandemicdiseaseintroducedbyEuropeansbutrather
by“politicallystructuringeducationalinstitutionsforAmericanIndian/Alaska
Nativestudentstomoldacolonialethos.”CitingWilliams(2000),Pewewardy
(2002)continues:
12
SinceitsinvasionofAmerica,WhitesocietyhassoughttojustifythroughlawandlegaldiscourseitsprivilegesofaggressionagainstIndianpeoplebystressingtribalism’sincompatibilitywiththesuperiorvaluesandnormsofWhitecivilization(Williams2000:103).
Oppelt(1990)detailsthehistoryofIndianeducationfromthemissionary
schoolsofthecolonialtimesthroughthefederalgovernment’stenurewith
educationpolicy.Thishistoryincludesthemajormotivationsofthoseproponentsof
Indianeducation.Amongthesemotivesaretheearlyintentions,incolonialtimes,to
civilizetheIndianthroughChristianization.Bythemid‐nineteenthcentury,the
federalgovernment’seducationpolicywastoremodeltheAmericanIndianintothe
Euro‐Americanimage(Hertzberg1971;Berkhofer1978;Utter2001).Richard
HenryPrattimplementedthispolicywhen,in1879,heopenedthefirstfederal
boardingschoolinCarlisle,Pennsylvania.Prattsummarizedhisgoalofcomplete
assimilationinhisoftenquotedmotto;“KilltheIndianandsavetheman”(Utter
2001).ThiswastobeaccomplishedbyteachingtheIndianthevalueofland
ownershipandstewardship.Thegoalwastoeradicatethecultureoftheindigenous
peoplethroughtheprocessofassimilationandacculturation,thusblendingthe
IndianintotheEuro‐centricmainstream.Thiswouldbeaccomplishedbyremoving
childrenfromtheirhomesandplacingtheminboardingschoolsawayfromtheir
parentsandextendedfamily(Hertzberg1971;McBeth1983;Utter2001).Inthis
way,familystructurewoulddisintegrateandNativecultureswouldfadeawayas
Euro‐Americannormsandvaluesandthelearningofavocationaltradereplacedit
(Hertzberg1971:16;McBeth1983;Calloway1999:359).
13
Oppelt(1990)chronicledthehistoricalantecedentsofcontemporary
AmericanIndianhighereducation.Inparticular,hedescribestwoprominent
periodsinIndianeducation.Oppeltfirstdescribesthe‘MissionaryPeriod’from
approximately1568‐1870,whichwascharacterizedbyearlyEuropeaneffortsto
religiouslyconverttheNativepeopleofNorthAmerica.Thefirstschoolfor
AmericanIndians,foundedin1568bytheJesuits,theeffortsofJohnEliot,knownas
‘ApostletotheIndians’,HarvardUniversity’searlyobjectivetoeducateAmerican
IndiansandEleazarWheelock’sDartmouthSchoolforIndiansareamongthemany
examplesofearlyattemptstoeducatetheIndianinthe‘WhiteMan’sImage’
(Berkhofer1978).Oppeltpointsoutthatresistancebythevarioustribesandtheir
attemptstoestablishtheirownschoolsystemswerenegatedbypoliciesaimedat
makingAmericanIndiansintodocileChristianswhoactedinwayscongruentwith
theWhiteEuropeangoals.
Oppelt’s(1990)secondperiodisthe‘FederalPeriod’,whichwasfrom1870
to1968.Thisperiodwascharacterizedbyoff‐reservationfederalboardingschools
thatwereorganizedaroundtheprimarygoalofassimilatingtheAmericanIndian
intotheEuro‐Americanmainstreamsociety.Curriculaattheseboardingschools
werecenteredaroundmanualartsandvocationaltradeswhileheavyfocuswas
directedateradicatingallaspectsofNativecultureincludinglanguage,ceremonial
ritualandevenfamilyandkinshipties.WiththedistractionsprovidedbyWorld
WarIandWorldWarII,alongwiththecontinuedprotestsoftriballeadersandnon‐
Indians,criticismstartedtomountagainsttheboardingschoolsystem.“Muchofthis
14
criticismisjustified:theinvoluntaryremovalofchildrenfromtheirparentsandthe
brutaltreatmentofstudentsrightfullyembitteredsomeIndiansagainstalltypesof
‘Whiteman’seducation’”(Oppelt1990:20).
RethinkingtheGoalsandMethodsofAmericanIndianEducation
In1928theU.S.governmentpublishedareportgenerallyknownasthe
MeriamReportnamedforitsleadresearcherandorganizerLewisMeriam.The
report,requestedbytheSecretaryoftheInterior,wastheresultofasurveyofthe
economicandsocialconditionsofAmericanIndiansuptoandduringthe1920s.
Researcherscovered95differentjurisdictions,includingreservations,Indian
agencies,hospitals,schoolsandcommunitieswhereAmericanIndianshadmigrated.
ThereportislargebecauseofthediversityfoundamongAmericanIndiantribes.
Thereportisorganizedintothefollowingsections:1)ageneralpolicyforIndian
Affairs,2)health,3)education,4)generaleconomicconditions,5)familyand
communitylife,includingtheactivitiesofwomen,6)migratedIndians,7)legal
aspectsoftheIndianproblemand8)missionaryactivitiesamongIndians.Relevant
tothisstudyisthesectiononIndianeducation.Meriamresearchersfoundthestate
ofIndianeducationtobeinadequateandineffective.Thehistoryofmissionschools,
federalboardingschoolsandthenlocalreservationdayschoolsallleftmuchtobe
desiredintheeducationofAmericanIndianyouth,accordingMeriam(1928).
ParticularlydetrimentaltotheeducationoftheIndianchildwashisorherremoval
15
fromthefamily,inordertoeradicatetraditionalcultureandreplaceitwiththatof
thedominantmainstreamsociety.TheMeriamreportquotesDeanJamesE.Russell:
Howeverimportantmaybethecontributionoftheschools…theatmosphereandconditionsofthehomeare,especiallyintheearlydaysofthechild’slife,theprimarydeterminateinthedevelopmentofthechild,and,sinceitistheparentswhodeterminetheseconditionsandcreatethatatmosphere,itistheywhoareofnecessitythemostimportanteducationalfactorsinthelivesoftheirchildren(P.349).
AnotherMeriampassageisparticularlypoignant:
Moreover,itisessentialforthoseinchargeofeducationfortheIndiantorememberthattheIndian’sattitudestowardssocietyhavebeendeterminedlargelybyhisexperiences,andthatthesecan,wherevernecessary,bechangedtodesirablesocialattitudesbyexposingtoacorrespondingsetofrightexperiencesintherelationshipsofhome,familyandcommunitylife.(P.354)
TheMeriamReport(1928)markedthebeginningofthereformulationof
ideasconcerningtheeducationoftheAmericanIndian.Thisapproachwascentered
onavaluationofNativecultureanditsincorporationintoeducation.
TheTribalCollegeMovement
Oppelt(1990)andBoyer(1997)describethedevelopmentoftheTribal
Collegemovementasaneducationalmanifestationofself‐determinationfor
AmericanIndians.TribalcollegeshaveledtothegreatestgainsforAmericanIndian
highereducationtodate(Oppelt1990).
In1968thefirsttribalcollegewasformedbytheNavajonation.Thiswasthe
beginningofthemovementtowardthedevelopmentofanationalnetworkof
triballycontrolledcollegeswherehighereducationwasmadeavailableonamore
16
localizedbasisthatallowedNativeAmericansaccesstoeducationopportunities
whichwerepreviouslyunattainable.Mostofthefirststudentstotakeadvantageof
theseneweducationalopportunitieswerefemales.Theywere,onaverage,older
thantraditionalcollegeagedstudents.Manyweremotherslookingforapathwayto
abetterlifeforthemselvesandtheirchildren(Oppelt1990).
Oppelt(1990)liststhreemajorfactorsunderlyingthedevelopmentof
tribally‐controlledcollegesinthelate1970s.Theseare:1)Non‐Indianinstitutions
ofhighereducationprovedinadequateinmeetingtheuniqueeducationalneedsof
theculturallydiversegroupsofreservationIndians;2)Theconceptofself‐
determinationencouragedIndianstotakecontrolofthedevelopmentoftheirown
highereducationinstitutions;3)Theneedfortrainingandeducationon
reservationstodevelopnaturalandhumanresourceshadbecomemoreevidentto
AmericanIndianleaders.
Oppeltcloseswithobservationspointingtotheneedforalinkbetween
educationandthehopeforemploymentopportunitiesforAmericanIndians.Among
theseobservationsistheneedforgovernmentfundingfortribalcolleges.
Boyer(1997)alsodescribestheTribalCollegeMovementanditsimpacton
theeducationalandsocialopportunitiesforAmericansIndiansthroughhigher
education.Thecoreconceptuponwhichtribalcollegesarebuiltisthenotionof
providingaculturallyrelevantcurriculumthatismadeaccessibletotribalmembers
whomaynototherwisehaveaccesstohighereducation.Boyerincludesa
descriptionofthestateofbeingofthe27,(atthattime,in2010thereare37)
17
triballycontrolledcollegesandthechallengesfacedbythem.Themostsignificantof
thesechallengeswere:lackoffunding,thetenuousrelationshipbetweenthefederal
governmentandtribalcolleges,intermsoffinancialandmoregeneralsupportand
thesovereignstatusoftribalgovernmentsinrelationtotribalcolleges(Boyer
1997).
TheCurrentStateofAmericanIndianHigherEducation
DeVoe,Darling‐ChurchillandSnyder(2008)provideacomprehensive
overviewofthestatusofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesinPostsecondary
Educationin,StatusandTrendsintheEducationofAmericanIndiansandAlaska
Natives:2008.Findingsmostrelevanttothisresearcharehighlightedbelow.
DemographicOverview
In2006therewere4.5millionAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesinthe
UnitedStatesrepresenting1.5percentofthetotalU.S.population.In2006almost
half,(49percent)wereresidentsinwesternstates.In2003,thereweremorethan
560federallyrecognizedAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativetribes.Thelargestare
CherokeeandNavajo.Since1990,themedianageofAmericanIndianAlaska
Natives,includingthoseofHispanicethnicity,increasedbyfiveyears,from26to31.
In2006,themedianageforthegeneralpopulationwas36years.In2006,27
percentofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeindividualslivedinpovertycomparedto
13percentofthegeneralpopulation.At36percent,theAmericanIndian/Alaska
18
Nativepovertyratewashigheramongfamiliesonreservationsthanamongfamilies
inotherAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeareas(DeVoeetal.2008:iii).
PostsecondaryEducation
ThenumberofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudentsenrolledincolleges
anduniversitieshasmorethandoubledinthepast30years(DeVoeetal.2008:v).In
2006,AmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesaccountedfor1percentoftotalenrollment
incollegesanduniversities.OfallAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudentsenrolled
inpublicandprivatedegreegrantinginstitutionsin2006,morethanhalfwere
enrolledin4‐yearinstitutions.Thisisincontrasttotheyearsbetween1976and
1994whenmoreAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativeswereenrolledin2‐year
postsecondaryinstitutionsthanin4‐yearpostsecondaryinstitutions.In2006,a
smallerpercentageofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesbetweentheagesof18and
24wereenrolledincollegesoruniversitieswhencomparedtootherethnicgroups
(p.126).TwentysixpercentofAmericanIndians18‐24yearsoldwereenrolled
comparedto41percentofWhites,33percentofBlacks,27percentofHispanicsand
58percentofAsians(p.127).AmericanIndians/AlaskaNativescomprised1.1
percentofthetotalcollegeanduniversityenrollmentin2006representingan
increasefrom0.7percentin1976(p.126).Between1976and2006,collegeand
universityenrollmentofAmericanIndianandAlaskaNativemalesandfemales
grewatdifferentrates.In1976,38,500AmericanIndianmalesand37,600American
Indian/AlaskaNativefemaleswereenrolledindegreegrantingcollegesand
19
universities.By1978,thenumberoffemalesexceededthatofmalesenrolled.In
2006,111,000AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativefemales(61percent)and71,200
males(39percent)wereenrolledincollegesanduniversities(p.128).Theonly
racial/ethnicgrouptohaveawiderpercentagespreadbetweenmalesandfemales
enrolledincollegeoruniversityisBlackstudentsforwhomtheratiois65percent
femaleto35percentmaleenrolledstudents(p.128).
In2006,therewere32tribally‐controlledcollegesanduniversities,located
in12statesacrossthewestandMidwestwithonelocatedinAlaska.Tribally‐
controlledcollegesanduniversitiesaredesignedtofosterenvironmentsfocusedon
AmericanIndiancultureinordertopreserve,enhance,andpromoteAmerican
Indianlanguagesandtraditions(DeVoe2008:130).Studentsattheseinstitutions
aregenerallyolderthan24yearsofage(p.130).Totalenrollmentintribally
controlledcollegesanduniversitiesincreasedby23percent,from14,000infall
2001,to17,300infall2006(p.130).AmericanIndians/AlaskaNativestudents
numbered13,600intriballycontrolledcollegesanduniversities,representing79
percentoftotalenrollment,were(DeVoe2008:130).EightpercentofallAmerican
Indianstudentswereenrolledintribalcollegesoruniversities.Between2001and
2006,enrollmentofNativestudentsintribalcollegesoruniversitiesincreasedata
fasterrate(17percent)thandidenrollmentofNativestudentsgenerally(15
percent)(DeVoeetal.2008:130).
Inthe2003‐04schoolyear,82percentofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNative
studentsenrolledfull‐time,full‐yearinundergraduatedegreeprogramsreceived
20
financialaid(p.132).Duringthistime,theonlygroupwithahigherpercentageof
financialaidrecipientswasBlackstudentsat89percent.ThisiscomparedtoWhite
studentsat74percent,Asian/PacificIslandersat66percent,andHispanicsat81
percent(p.132).
AccordingtoDeVoeetal.(2008:134),between1976‐77and2005‐06,the
numberofdegreesawardedbycollegesanduniversitiestoAmerican
Indians/AlaskaNativesmorethandoubledforeachlevelofdegree(DeVoe
2008:134).In1976‐77,2,500associate’sdegreeswereconferredonAmerican
Indians.Thatnumbersteadilyincreasedto5,600by1995‐96(p.134).Thenumber
ofassociate’sdegreesearnedbyNativestudentsin2005‐06reached8,600.This
representsanincreaseof53percentbetween1995‐96and2005‐06.Thenumberof
associate’sdegreesforallstudentsroseonly28percentbycomparison(p.134).
Thissamepatternwasalsoapparentinthenumberofbachelor’sdegreesearnedby
Nativestudents.In1976‐77around3,300bachelor’sdegreeswereawardedto
AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudents;by1995‐96thatnumberincreasedto
7,000,andto11,000in2005‐06(p.134).Thisrepresentsanincreaseof57percent
comparedto28percentforthetotalpopulationbetween1995‐96and2005‐06
(p.134).Thenumberofpost‐baccalaureatedegreesawardedtoAmerican
Indian/AlaskaNativesalsoincreasedbetween1976‐77and2005‐06from970to
3500formaster’sdegrees,from100to230fordoctoraldegreesandfrom200to
710forfirstprofessionaldegrees(DeVoeetal.2008:134).
21
WhileagreaterpercentageofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudents
earnedtheirbachelorsdegreesinbusinessthaninotherfieldsinthe2005‐06
schoolyear,thepercentagethatearnedtheirdegreesinbusiness(19percent)was
smallerthanthatofallstudents(21percent).In2005‐06,52percentofmaster’s
degreesawardedtoAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeswereinthefieldsofeducation
andbusiness.Forty‐eightpercentofdoctoraldegreesawardedtoAmerican
Indians/AlaskaNativeswereinthefieldsofeducation,psychologyandsocial
sciencesandhistory.
SocialandEconomicOutcomesofHigherEducation
In2007,44percentofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesage25orolderhad
attendedsomecollegeorcompletedanundergraduateorgraduatedegree.
Approximately36percentofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativeshadcompletedhigh
schoolwithoutcontinuingontoapostsecondaryinstitution,and20percenthadnot
finishedhighschool(p.148).AhigherpercentofAmericanIndian/AlaskaNatives
didnotfinishhighschoolwhencomparedtoWhites(9percent),Asians(12
percent)andNativeHawaiians/PacificIslanders(11percent)onlyHispanicshada
higherpercentagethatdidnotfinishhighschoolat40percent(p.148).
AhigherpercentofAmericanIndians/AlaskaNatives,16andoverwere
unemployedin2007(12percent)comparedtopercentagesofWhites(4percent),
Hispanics(6percent)andAsianPacificslanders(3percent)(DeVoeetal.2008).
But,in2007,theunemploymentrateswerelowerforAmericanIndian/Alaska
22
Nativeswithhigherlevelsofeducation(p.148).Specifically,only2percentof
AmericanIndianswithabachelor’sdegreeorhigherwereunemployed,compared
to12percentofhighschoolgraduatesand29percentofthosewhodidnot
completehighschool(p.148).In2006,themedianannualincomefor25‐34year
oldsinthegeneralU.S.population,whowereemployedfull‐year,full‐time,was
$35,000.For25‐34yearoldAmericanIndians/AlaskaNativesthemedianannual
incomewas$27,000.AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeyoungadultswithabachelor’s
degreeearned29percentmoreannuallythanthosewhoonlycompletedhigh
school.
InsummaryoftheDeVoeetal.(2008)document,dramaticgainsareevident
inAmericanIndianhighereducation.EnrollmentofAmericanIndiansincolleges
anduniversitieshasmorethandoubledoverthirtyyears.Enrollmentintribally‐
controlledcollegestopped17,000in2006;over82percentofAmericanIndianfull
timeundergraduatestudentsreceivedfinancialaid;thenumberofeverylevelof
degreesconferreduponAmericanIndianshasmorethandoubledsince1976.Still,
in2006,AmericanIndianstudentsaccountedforonly1percentoftotalcollegeand
universityenrollment.
Thestatisticsinthisreportshowapatternovertimethatincreasing
numbersofNativeAmericans/AlaskaNativesaregoingtocollegeandthattheir
expectationsofacademicattainmenthavealsoincreased.Employmentandsalary
statisticsdemonstratethepositivevalueandimpactsthatincreasinglevelsofhigher
educationarehavingonAmericanIndiancommunities.Still,despitegainsmade
23
overthepastthirtyyears,progresshasbeenuneven.Therestillexistsignificant
differencesbetweenAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativecollegeanduniversitystudents
andstudentsofotherethnic/racialgroupsonthekeyindicatorsofeducational
performancereportedbyDeVoeetal.(2008).
CurrentstudiesonthestateofAmericanIndianhighereducationare
discussedbelowincludingbarrierstoeducationalattainmentandstrategiesfor
overcomingthosebarriers.
StudiesonAmericanIndianHigherEducation
Barrierstocollegesuccessareofteninplacelongbeforethestudentgetsto
thecollegeoruniversity.FactorsthathinderacademicsuccessforAmericanIndian
studentsareofteninplacethroughoutthestudents’entireacademiccareer.Several
studiesshowadisproportionategraduationratebetweenNativeAmericanstudents
andnon‐Indianstudentsatboththesecondaryandpost‐secondarylevels(Wax
1967;Jackson,SmithandHill2003).NativeAmericanstudentsareconsistently
showntobemorelikelytodropoutbeforethecompletionofhighschool(Wax
1967;Berry1969;DeVoeetal.2008).Reasonsforthisdisparityincludealienation,
feelingsofpowerlessnessandinferiority,estrangement,depression,andlackof
support,lackofsufficienthelptosucceedandlackofsuccessexperiences(Wax
1967;Berry1969;FalkandAitken1984;Lin,LaCounteandEder1988;Gilliland
1988;Jacksonetal.2003).
24
AcademicdifficultiesandnonpersistenceofNativeAmericansincollegeare
similarlywelldocumented(Steward,1993;Paveletal.,1998;DeVoeetal.2008).At
thecollegelevel,despiteevidenceofacademicability,dropoutratesarehigherfor
NativeAmericansthanforanyotherminority(Reddy1993;DeVoeetal.2008).
NativeAmericansarealsounderrepresentedingraduateprograms(LaFromboise
andLow1989;Paveletal.1998;DeVoeetal.2008).NativeAmericansconsistently
havelowereducationalattainmentthanotherethnicminorities(Lin,LaCounteand
Eder1988;Paveletal.1998;DeVoe2008).
BarrierstoAmericanIndiansinHigherEducation
Berry(1969)discussesthelonghistoryofAmerica’sfailuretoeducatethe
Indianintothe‘Whiteman’simage’.Berrycoversthereasonsforthisfailure
throughthehistoryofrelationsbetweenthedominantsocietyandtribalgroups.
Amongcurrentproblemsresultingfromthisacademichistoryareage
appropriatenessforgradelevel,andthehighdropoutrateforIndianstudents.
Berry(1969)suggeststherelationsbetweenWhiteteachersandIndianstudents
commonlyresultinaself‐fulfillingprophecywhereteachersdonotexpectstudents
toachieveandthestudentsdonotexpecttoexcel.Berry(1969)pointsoutthat
nearlyeveryconceivablebarriertoeducationalachievementisatworkregarding
theeducationalexperienceoftheAmericanIndianstudent.Inadditiontothose
listedabove,otherroadblockstoeducationalattainmentincludechallengesinthe
formoflanguagebarriers,culturalbarriersandculturaldeprivation,lackofparent
25
involvement,culturallyinsensitiveteachertrainingandteacherexpectations
regardingAmericanIndianstudents(Berry1969).Manyofthesebarriersare
rootedinthehistoryofforcedassimilationandongoingattemptstodestroy
indigenouscultures(Berry1969).
ManyofthebarrierstocollegesuccessforAmericanIndianstudents
originatelongbeforethestudentarrivesattheuniversity.Thosebarriersbeginin
elementaryschoolandcontinuethroughhighschoolandcarryoverintothecollege
experience.ProblemsidentifiedbyWax,WaxandDumont(1964)involved
perceptionsandmisconceptionsonthepartofnon‐Indianteachersregardingthe
socialdynamicsoftheIndianculture.ManyWhiteteachersdidnotattemptto
understandthevalueoftheNativeculturebut,rather,soughttoteachfromthe
Euro‐centricmainstreamculturalbaseofvaluesandnorms.Theperspectiveofthe
teacherswasthattheabilityoftheIndianstudenttolearnwaslimited.Assuch,the
teachersprovidedinstructionatwhattheythoughtwasanappropriatelevel.Infact,
thisamountedtotrackingbasedoninaccuratepresumptions(Wax,et.al1964).
WrightandTierney(1991)describetheharshrealityofIndianeducation.
Amongtheserealitiesare:mostnativestudentscomefromeconomicallydepressed
remoteareasandonly3outof1009thgraderswilleventuallyreceivea
baccalaureatedegree.Thosefour‐yearinstitutionswiththehighestIndianstudent
populationareineconomicallydepressedstates;and,Tribalcollegesreceive
woefullyinadequatefunding.
26
Carney(1999)listsseveralproblemsidentifiedbyresearchers,including
Tierney(1992),thatarecommonamongindividualAmericanIndianstudentsand
thatactasobstaclestohighereducationattainment.Theseinclude:apersistently
highdropoutratefromhighschool;alowproportionofAmericanIndianhigh
schoolgraduatescontinuingontocollege;anoverwhelmingsenseofisolationand
alienationresultingfrominsurmountableculturalbarrierswhileatcollege;poor
academicpreparationandskillsbeforeenteringcollege;alackofAmericanIndian
rolemodelsforeducationalsuccess;financialproblems;disharmonybetween
traditionalcultureandthatofthemainstreamcollegeenvironment;cultureshock
uponarrivalatcollege;lackofmotivation;languagebarriers;unrealisticor
unplannedcareergoals;distrustoftheinstitutionasonewhosegoalisassimilation
intomainstreamculture;lackofsupportfromfamily;inappropriatesocialization
intocollegeenvironment;and,lackofcounselingorcounselingfromthedominant
Euro‐centricperspective.
AccordingtoCarney(1999),difficultiesexperiencedbyNativeAmerican
collegestudentscanbetracedtoculturalcausesoftwotypes.Bothcanbeclassified
astypesofculturaldiscontinuity(Wax,WaxandDumont1964;Huffman1999).
FirstisthegenerallyunsupportivesituationinwhichNativestudentsfind
themselvesastheyenteramainstreaminstitutionofhighereducation.Native
Americanstudents,particularlythosefromruralreservationcommunities,may
comefromhighschoolsthatarepoorlyfundedandlackthesupportsystemsneeded
tomakeaneffectivetransitionfromthelocalcommunityhighschooltothecollege
27
environmentwherethemilieuisbasedontraditionalEuro‐centricnormsand
values.Thesevaluesincludingcompetitionandconcernforselfovergroupwelfare
maybeinconflictwiththecommonvaluesincontemporaryNativefamilies,suchas
primaryconcernforextendedfamilyandcommunityoverindividual
accomplishment,competitionandselfpromotion.Studentsleavinghomeforthe
firsttimefindthemselvesatcollegefeelingisolated,alienatedandwantingtoreturn
hometothefamiliarenvironmentofsupportastraditionallyprovidedbythe
extendedfamilyandlocalcommunity(GarrodandLarimore1997;Carney1999).
Suchcultureshockcanbetraumatic.
Thesecondculturaldiscontinuityconsistsofthefundamentalcultural
differencesinU.S.mainstream‘Euro‐American’andAmericanIndianculture.Native
Americanstudentsmayfindthemselvesinaformaleducationalenvironmentthatis
unfamiliaranduncomfortableforthem.Thisconflictisthedirectresultof
fundamentaldifferencesbetweenWhiteandNativeculture.TheAmericanIndian
studentwhoadherestothetraditionalculturalbeliefsandpracticesseeshimor
herselfasconnectedtoboththenaturalphysicalworldandtoallpeopleand
creaturesinit.Thisholisticframeofreferenceisinoppositiontothefragmented
andcompartmentalizedframeofreferencethatcharacterizesacademicknowledge
asseparateanddistinctdisciplines.Itisalsoincongruentwiththesocialstructureof
theacademicworldthatisshapedbythedominantsocialstructureitselfandis
characterizedbystatusdifferentiationandhierarchicalrelationships(Tierney
1992).ThenecessityfortheAmericanIndianstudenttofunctioninthis
28
compartmentalizedacademicstylemayleavetheNativeAmericanstudentfeelinga
senseofincompletenessandinadequacy(Carney1999).
Feagin(1996),reportingonthecollegeexperienceofBlackstudentsat
predominantlyWhitecollegecampuses,statesthatprejudicialattitudesaboundon
WhitecampusesamongWhitestudents,facultyandadministrators.Ifracial
insensitivityhas,infact,beeninstitutionalizedonmainstreamcollegecampusesin
theformofaEuro‐centriccurriculum,lackofinterestinBlackstudents,andthe
expectationbyfacultythatindividualBlackstudentsrepresenttheentireBlackrace,
asFeagin(1996)suggests,thesamemayholdtrueforNativeAmericanstudentson
majorityWhite,mainstreamcampuses.
Despitethesehistoricalfailuresandbarrierstosuccessasseeninthe
literature,DeVoeetal.(2008)demonstrate,AmericanIndiansaremakingpositive
gainsalongmanyindicatorsofeducationalattainment.Thescholarlyunderstanding
of‘whatworks’isgrowingandisdiscussedbelow.
FactorsLeadingtoAmericanIndianSuccessinHigherEducation
TherearemanyfactorsleadingtosuccessincollegeforNativeAmerican
students.AccordingtoJackson,SmithandHill(2003)qualitativeinterviewswith15
successfulAmericanIndiancollegestudentswhogrewuponreservationsidentified
thefollowingthemesrelatedtotheirpersistenceincollege:familysupport,
structuredsocialsupport,faculty/staffwarmth,exposuretocollegeandvocations,
developingindependenceandassertiveness,relianceonspiritualresources,and
29
overcomingracism.Factorscontributingtonon‐persistenceincludedtheculturally
relevantthemeidentifiedasthenonlinearcollegepaththatintervieweesdescribed
asbreaksinattendance,forvariousperiods,beforedegreecompletionorattending
anumberofdifferentschools.Intervieweesalsocited,asabarriertopersistence,
culturaldiscontinuity,intheformofconflictbetweenacademicsuccessasdefined
bythedominantsocietyandmaintainingtraditionalculturaltieswithfamilyand
communitythatmaynotacceptthestudentasacollegegraduate.Theresults
indicatedthatstablementoringrelationshipsandprogrammaticsupportaretwo
factorsthatcanbeimplementedattheinstitutionallevelthatmaybebeneficialin
helpingAmericanIndianstudentsovercomeroadblockstoeducationalattainment
(Jackson,SmithandHill2003).
Inareviewofliteratureregardingwhatworksandwhatdoesnotworkin
educatingAmericanIndians,Demmert(2001:38‐9)listsseveralfactorsidentifiedby
researchersasleadingtosuccessforAmericanIndiansincollegethosefactorsare:
1. FamilySupport:Familysupportandencouragementplayanimportantrole, roleinstudentretentionandacademicsuccessincollege(Wilson1983;Rindone1988;Huffman,SillandBrokenleg1986;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994).Theeducationlevelandoccupationofparentsarefound
andarepredictorsofstudentsuccessincollege(Brown1993).
2. CulturalIdentity:Themaintenanceofculturalidentityandtraditionswas
foundtobeinstrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthe
postsecondarylevel(Huffman,SillandBrokenleg1986).
3.Personaldeterminationandgoalsetting:Personaldeterminationhas
beenshowntobeafactorleadingtocollegesuccessforAmericanIndians
(Kerbo1981;Wilson1983;Rindone1988;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994).
30
4. Financialsupport:AmericanIndianstudentscommonlyidentified
financialsupportasanimportantfactorinstayingincollege(Wilson
1983).
5. Academicskills:Goodacademicperformancepriortocollegehasbeen
linkedtogoodacademicperformanceincollege(Brown1993).
6. Mentorsandsupportivefaculty:NativestudentsinAlaskareported
accessibility,approachability,genuinenessandcaringbycollegeor
universityfacultyasnecessaryforlearningsuccess(Wilson1997).
7. Biculturalcurriculum:Abiculturalpostsecondarycurriculum
incorporatingbothEuro‐AmericanandtraditionalNativeknowledgewas
linkedtosignificantNativestudentretentionandprogramcompletion,
exertionofleadershipandclosertieswithcommunityand
intergenerationalrelationships(Barnhardt1994;BallandPence2001).
8. Studentsupportservicesrespectfuloftheneedsandinterestsof
culturallydiversestudentsareseenasanimportantfactorsleadingto
success(Barnhardt1994).
Priorresearchindicatesthatacombinationoffactorsworktoward
increasingretentionandsuccessfortheNativecollegestudent.Amongthesefactors,
familysupport,afundamentalfoundationintheeducationbasics,motivation,a
senseofselfbasedonethnicidentity,lackoflanguagebarriers,earlygoalsetting
andsupportivementorshaveallbeenshowntobeinfluentialinwhetheraNative
Americanstudentstaysincollegeandsucceedsacademically(Demmert2001).
31
SpecificStrategiesforSuccessinHigherEducation
WrightandTierney(1991)makeacaseforthesupportofIndianeducation
bythefederalgovernmentandsocietyingeneral.Thereisgreatneedforculturally
relevantcurriculaandthevaluationofNativecultureasasocialassetratherthana
deficit.Waxetal.(1964)andGarrodandLarimore(1997)suggestthatNative
studentsandtheirfamiliesplacegreatvalueoneducation.Itisthereforeincumbent
upontheinstitutionsofhighereducationtobreakfromthehistoricalEuro‐centered
moldandprovideaneducationalexperiencebasedontheculturalandhistorical
socialcharacteristicsoftheAmericanIndianstudent.
TheTribalcollegemovementanditsimpactontheeducationalandsocial
opportunitiesforAmericansIndiansthroughhighereducationhasbeenwell
documented(Oppelt1990;Stein1992;Boyer1997;Paveletal.,1998;Foxetal.
2005;DeVoeetal.2008).Accordingtotheseauthors,thecoreconceptonwhich
tribalcollegesarebuiltisthenotionofprovidingaculturallyrelevantcurriculum
thatismadeaccessibletotribalmemberswhomaynototherwisehaveaccessto
highereducation.Theseconceptscouldbebeneficiallyappliedtomainstream
collegesasanavenueforincreasedretentionandgraduation.
HeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)describeaprogramdevelopedby
AmericanIndianeducators,socialworkprofessionalsanduniversityadvisorsfrom
fourMontanatribalcollegesincooperationwiththeUniversityofMontanathatthey
havecalled,‘TheFamilyEducationModel’(FEM).FEMwasbasedonthree
assumptionsrelevanttoAmericanIndianstudents.Theseassumptionsare:1)Many
32
studentsandtheirfamiliesneedcollegetoactastheirliaisonwithexistinghealth
andsocialservicesintimesofcrisis;2)Tribalcollegesmustfacilitatetheabilityof
familymemberstosupporttheirstudent’sefforts;and3)Tribalcollegesneedto
engagefamilymembersinthelifeofthecollegecommunitythroughbuilding
partnershipsandinvolvingtheminsocialandculturalactivities.Thebenefitsofthe
FEMareexplainedbyHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002)associalandcultural
activitiessuchasdances,socials,sportsandoutdooractivitiestowhichfamilies,
spousesandchildrenareregularlyinvitedtojoin.Throughtheirparticipationin
theseactivities,thefamilymembersdevelopasenseofbelongingtothecampus
environmentandarenolongerresentfulofthetimespentoncampusbytheir
studentfamilymember.AccordingtoHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)
“Establishingandmaintainingasenseof‘family’bothathomeandatcollege
fortifiesAmericanIndianstudents’academicpersistence.”
GuilloryandWolverton(2008)appliedtheFamilyEducationModel(FEM)in
astudyofNativeAmericanstudentsatpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsin
Washington,IdahoandMontana.AmericanIndianstudentsinthestudyidentified
familyandstudentsocialsupportandthedesiretogivebacktotheircommunityas
importantpersistencefactors.Interestingly,non‐Indianadministratorsatthesame
institutionsidentifiedfinancialassistanceasthemostimportantfactorinfluencing
NativeAmericanstudentpersistence.
Theseresearcherssuggesta“shiftawayfromdealingwithNativeAmerican
studentpersistencethroughpurelymonetarymeansandtowardcreatingwaysin
33
whichNativeAmericanstudentscanconnectwithboththeuniversityandtheir
homecommunities”(GuilloryandWolverton2008:81).Theysuggestcollaborative
programswithtribes,supportingdaycare,andbringinghighereducationtoNative
Americancommunities(GuilloryandWolverton2008).
Carney(1999:147)suggestssolutionstotheproblemofAmericanIndian
persistenceandpostsecondaryeducationalattainmentasnumerousasthe
problemstheyaddress.AmongthesolutionsCarneysuggestsare:expanded
recruitmentprogramsthatincludestudentsandtheirfamilies,aswellasmorenon‐
traditionalstudentswhohavebeenoutofschoolforafewyears;moreelaborate
socializationandorientationprogramsdesignedtoeasethetransitionofNative
studentsintoamainstreamcampusenvironment;increasedmonitoringofprogress
andongoingsupportforNativestudents;and,thedevelopmentofNativeAmerican
facultyandjobexperiencebyNativestudentsthatwouldpreparethemfor
employmentbeyondthecollegeexperience.Inallcases,thereistheneedfor
increasedfundingtosupportprograms(Carney1999).However,beforefunding
canberealizedastheprimaryconsideration,thereneedstobeanawarenessofthe
needsofNativestudentsandawillingnessbythoseinpositionsofauthoritytotake
actiononbehalfofthosestudents(Boyer1997).
Fox,LoweandMcClellan(2005)compiledalistofrecommendationsfor
collegeadministratorstomeettheneedsofAmericanIndianstudents.These
recommendationsareofparticularvalueastheycomedirectlyfromAmerican
Indianeducators.
34
Theyinclude:
1. EnhanceknowledgeaboutNativeAmericansandtheircultureamong
highereducationprofessionals.
2. ExpandappreciationofdiversityamongAmericanIndiansatbothmicro
andculturallevels.
3. Improveeducationalprofessionals’understandingoftribalsovereignty.
4. ShifttohighereducationmodelincorporatingNativeAmericanvalues,
worldviewsandexperiences.
5. Buildstrongerrecruitmentandretentionefforts.
6. Improvecommunicationsandimplementbureaucraticproceduresthat
bridgetheculturegapsbetweenIndianstudentsandtheirfamiliesand
mainstreamsocialsystemsthatareintimidatingandinhibitingtoIndian
people.
7. RecruitandretainAmericanIndianfaculty.
8. ExpandresearchinallareasofNativeAmericanhighereducation.
9. InvolveAmericanIndianpeopleinallaspectsofNativeAmericanhigher
education.
FromtheliteraturebyresearchersincludingBerry1964,Waxetal.1967,
Fox,etal.2005,Oppelt1990,Carney1999,Huffman1999,andDemmert2001,we
haveseenthemesrelatingtothesalienceofculturaldimensionsofNativeAmerican
studentsrepeatedlyemerge.Theconceptsofethnicidentityandempowerment
35
discussedbelowmayalsocontributetoanimprovedunderstandingofwhatcan
helpAmericanIndianstudentssucceedatcollege.
TheRoleofEthnicIdentityandEmpowerment
Field(1994:433)definesethnicidentityas“thedegreetowhichthe
individualsthoughtofthemselves,organizedthemeaningoftheirsocial
relationships,andinterpretedtheirexperiencesintermsoftheirnationality
background.”
Theconceptof“symbolicethnicity”asproposedbyHerbertGans(1979)is
usedasillustrationofthewayinwhichindividualswillpickandchoosefromastore
orcacheofculturalitems.Swidler(1986)referredtothisstoreasatypeof‘toolkit’
ofethnicorculturalitemstobebroughtoutandusedatparticulartimesin
particularsituations.Nagel(1994)seestheconstructionofethnicidentityas
accomplishedbychoosingitemsfroma‘shoppingcart’.Nagelseessocietal
constraintsasdeterminantoftheshapeofthecart,whereasexternalforcesbeyond
anyoneindividual’scontrollimitethnicidentification.Suchlimitationmayapply,
forexample,toAmericanIndiancollegestudentsonpredominantlyWhitecollege
campuses.
Inhisclassic1969work,EthnicGroupsandBoundaries,FredrikBarthposits
theconceptsoftheculturalconstructionistmodelofethnicity.Ethnicgroupsare
situationalandcontextual.Thisistosaythattheyaretheresultofparticular
interactional,historical,economicalandpoliticalfactorsincombinationsthatleadto
36
theformationofethnicboundaries.Throughoutthelongcolonialhistorysincethe
firstcontactbetweenAmericanIndiansandEuropeansettlerstherehavebeen
historicalattemptsbytheEuro‐dominantculturetoeradicatethecultureand
identityoftheNativeAmericans.Giventhishistory,acomplexsetoffactorsmay
influencehowAmericanIndianstudentsdevelopanethnicidentityandastudent
identitywithinthemainstreamcollegeenvironmentandhowthosetwoaspectsof
selfworkwithandagainsteachother.
InherbookentitledEmpowermentthroughMulticulturalEducation,Sleeter
(1991)explainshowpeopleempoweredbyeducationcanunderstandthe
oppressivenatureofthesocialstructure;actproactivelytowardreachingtheirown
goals;succeedasindividualswithinthedominantsocialstructureofschoolsand
othersocialinstitutions;advocateforthemselvesasindividualswithinthelarger
socialsystem;and,workcollectivelyforsocialjustice.Freire(1970)arguesthatitis
throughtheprocessofconscientizationthatoppressedpeoplerealizethattheir
culturalvaluesarelegitimate.Deyhle’s(1992;1995)researchshowsthatthe
differenceindropoutratesbetweenUtestudentsinabordercommunityand
Navajostudentsfromamoretraditionalreservationcommunityareanchoredinthe
degreeofconnectiontotraditionalNativecultureandthestrengthofIndian
identity.
Researchers(Oyserman,HarrisonandBybee2001;Oysermanetal.2003)
haveexaminedtheeffectsthatastrongracialidentityhasonprovidinga“positive
bufferagainstdecliningacademicefficacy”(2001:384)Thisispredicateduponthe
37
ideathatbeingamemberofaminoritygroupcanhavea‘deflatingandstigmatizing’
effect.Racialidentity,theresearchersargue,canbeacrucialelementaffectinghow
someadolescentsmakesenseoftheirselves.
Oyserman,GantandAger(1995:1222)describethestrategiesusedbyBlack
andWhiteuniversitystudents“toobtainachievementrelatedpossibleselves.”
Oyserman,BybeeandTerry(2006)explain“achievementrelatedpossibleselves”
and“academicpossibleselves”asdefinitionsofselfthataresupportiveand
consistentwithachievementandacademicsuccess.Oysermanetal.(1995)
recognizedthatsuchsociallyconstructedselvesareheavilydependentuponthe
backingofimportantothersinthesocialenvironment.Theseimportantothersmay
includefamilymembers,teachers,andmembersofthewidersupportnetworkand
referencegroups.Thesocialenvironmentisthearenainwhicheducational,
economicandothertypesofresourcesaregatheredas‘socialcapital’thatallows
youthtobecomeavaluedmemberofhisorhersocialgroup(Oysermanetal.1995).
AtthePlainsStateUniversity20thAnnualConsidertheCenturyConference
heldOctober8th,2008thePresidentofSittingBullCollegeatFortYates,North
Dakotawasasked,‘TowhatdoyouattributethesuccessofSittingBullCollege
studentsasmeasuredbyretentionandgraduationrates?’PresidentLaurel
VermillionrepliedbyexplainingthatSittingBullstudents“Knowwhotheyareand
wheretheycomefrom.”Inshort,somestudentshaveastronganchorintheformof
ethnic(Indian)identitythatmayleadtoempowermentandacademicattainment.
38
ZitzowandEstes(1980,1983)haveproposedaHeritageConsistent—
HeritageInconsistentContinuumasacounselingapproachwithAmericanIndian
students.Thiscontinuumisusedtoassesstheextenttowhichanindividual’s
lifestylereflectsthemajorelementsofhisorherhistoricaltribalculture.Wherean
individualfallsalongthecontinuumisdeterminedaccordingtothatindividual’s
knowledgeofandparticipationinthematerialandnon‐materialcultureand
customsoftheirtribalgroup.Thispositioningonthecontinuumappearstohavean
impactonself‐concept,acculturation,internalconflict,andidentity.AsHuffman
(1999)reports,theseaspectsofethnicidentitycanhaveadeterminanteffecton
howtheAmericanIndianstudentperceivesthecollegeenvironmentandnavigates
hisorherwaythroughit.
AccordingtoHuffman(1999)studentswhoarelessassimilatedtothe
mainstreamculturewillexperiencemorecultureshockuponarrivalatcollegeand
willbemorelikelytodropoutandreturnhomewithoutsomesupportorservices
designedtofacilitatethetransitionfromthefamiliar,moretraditionalenvironment
tothemainstreamcollegeenvironment.Huffman(1999)hascreatedtaxonomyfor
classifyingNativeAmericanstudentsalongacontinuumofculturaltraditional
lifestylerangingfromAssimilatedatoneendandEstrangedattheotherend.
Huffmanexplainshow,whilefortheAssimilatedstudent,transitiontocollegeand
themainstreamcultureposeslittle,ifany,challengeorthreat;theEstrangedstudent
willbemostlikelytodropoutofcollegequicklybecausethatstudentwillfeel
threatenedbythemainstreamcampusenvironmentandseetheuniversityasan
39
institutionwhosesolepurposeisoneoftotalassimilationandtheeradicationof
traditionalNativevaluesandlifestyle.BetweentheAssimilatedandEstranged
students,inthistaxonomy,HuffmanclassifiesMarginalstudentsand
Transculturatedstudentsasthosewhoareable,tovaryingdegrees,tobalanceout
thechallengesposedbylivinginboththetraditionalandthemainstreamworlds.
AccordingtoHuffman(1999),theMarginalstudentisonewhoattemptstolive
simultaneouslyintheboththetraditionalNativecultureandthemainstream
culturewhilefittingcomfortablyintoneitherone.Conversely,theTransculturated
studentdrawsstrengthfromhisorherethnicidentity,whichservesasananchor
andstabilizingfactor,providingresilienceandconfidencefornavigationthrough
themainstreamsocialstructure.
Lee(2006:6)describesTinto’smodelofcollegestudentdepartureaswhat
Tintotermed“longitudinalandinteractional”(Tinto1975,1993).Accordingto
Tinto,astudent’sdecisiontoremainincollegeorleaveistheproductofaprocess
thatoccursovertimeandisshapedthroughtheinteractionofcharacteristicsofthe
individualstudentandthoseoftheinstitution.Themodelsuggeststhatthosewho
completecollegedegreesarethosewhowereabletoassimilateandbecomefirmly
integratedintothemainstreamacademicandsocialsystemsoftheuniversity
environment.Thisbecomesproblematicforsomestudentsofcolorbecauseit
requiresthemtoconformtheirethnicidentitiestofitintothepredominantlyWhite
institutionalenvironment(Lee2006).Tintohassincerevisedhismodelsothathe
nowallowsfortheneedforsupportivecampuscommunitiesandinclusive
40
universityenvironmentsforstudentsofcoloriftheyaretoberetained(Lee2006).
OtherresearchersstillchallengeTinto’smodelasonethatisstillfirmlyembedded
inaframeworkofnecessaryassimilationandacculturationbytheminoritystudent
ifthatstudentistopersistincollege(Ogbu1978;Rendon,JalomoandNora2000;
Tierney1993,2000;Lee2006).
InherworkEthnicityMatters:RethinkingHowBlack,Hispanic&Indian
StudentsPrepareFor&SucceedInCollege,Lee(2006),reviewsfourmodelprograms
designedtohelpethnicminoritystudentsachieveacademicsuccess.Several
commondenominatorsforsuccessinclude:timing,earlyandintensive
interventions(collegepreparatoryprogramsbeginningintheseventhgrade),
persistence,geography,communication,high‐leveladministrativesupportand
collaboration,financialsupport,and,datadrivenapproachesbasedonquantitative
andqualitativeassessments.Leealsocitescriticalmassasacommonfactorin
successfulprograms.Numbers,sheargues,countintheempowermentofethnicand
racialminoritiesandtheirabilitytoparticipateinthedominantsocialstructure.
Numbersofenrolledandgraduatedracialandethnicminorities,Leesuggests,
shouldbeproportionatetothepercentageinthegeneralpopulation.
Lee’s(2006)analysisofprogramssuccessfulinservingtheneedsofethnic
andracialminoritystudentsintheirquestforacademicsuccessshowsthatwhen
peopleworktogethertoaddresstheneedsofminoritystudents,andwhenthey
understandhowethnicitymatters,greatprogresscanbemade.Throughthe
implementationoftheaboveprinciplesdevelopedbythetrailblazersinthefieldof
41
highereducationforminoritystudents,therecanbedevelopedandimplementeda
newpedagogy,whatFreire(1974)calleda‘pedagogyofhope’inwhicheducation
becomesatwowaystreetbetweenthetreasureofhistoricalculturalknowledgeand
thatofthedominantsocialstructurewhichhasbeeninstitutionalizedintheworld
ofhighereducation.Oneapplicationofthisunderstandingisthedevelopmentofa
sharedspaceforAmericanIndianstudentsonpredominantlyWhitecampuses.
TheRoleofaSharedPlaceforAmericanIndianStudents
Oldenburg(1989)makesastrongcaseforwhatheterms‘thethirdplace’as
aplacewhereinformalpublicassociationservestofacilitateasenseofcommunity
wellbeingandsolidaritybasedonsharedvaluesandcommonlifeexperienceatthe
localcommunitylevel.‘Thethirdplace’,accordingtoOldenburg,isneitherhomenor
work,butonethatoffersthefamiliarcomfortofbothwithouttheirincumbent
responsibilitiesorsocialrestrictions.Inthe‘thirdplace’onefinds,throughinformal
associationwithothers,thesourceofrecreation,recuperationandrejuvenationas
wellasvalidationandsocialsupportforindividualsagainsttheoppressivegrindof
thedailylifeinthedominantsocialstructure.Inaddition,itprovidesasafeand
nurturingenvironmentthroughassociationwithlikemindedindividuals.Justasthe
localpub,thebarbershop,thecaféandtheGermanbeergarden,offerplacesfor
groupaffiliation,theNativeAmericanHouseonthecampusatDartmouth,and
similarsuchfacilitiesatotheruniversitiesacrossthecountrymayofferaplacefor
thedevelopmentofasocialsupportnetwork.
42
GarrodandLarimore(1997)compilednarrativesfromAmericanIndian
studentsatDartmouth.ContributorscitedtheexistenceoftheNativeAmerican
HousealongwiththeNativeAmericanStudiesprogramandthesupportofNative
Americanfacultyasprimaryfactorsintheircollegesuccess.TheNativeAmerican
HouseatDartmouthprovidedasafeplaceforstudentswhowereexperiencinga
typeofcultureshockarisingfromconflictbetweenacademicandtraditional
AmericanIndianvalues(GarrodandLarimore1997).Thegroupknownas“The
NativeAmericansatDartmouth”providedsupportandsolidarityforNative
studentsintheforeignworldofanIvyLeaguecampusintheNortheasternUnited
States.
TheUniversityofMinnesotarecentlyheldacelebrationinhonorofthefifth
yearofoperationoftheAmericanIndianCulturalHouse(AICH).AICHisa
“UniversityefforttohelpAmericanIndianstudentsadjusttocampuslife”(San
2008:1).AstestimonytotheeffectivenessoftheUniversityofMinnesota’sNative
AmericanCulturalHouse,oneNativeAmericanalumnaestated,“Asafreshman,itis
oftenhardtotransitionintolifeonyourown...TheCulturalHousegavemean
informaleducationabouthowtosurviveandhowtoincorporateNativetraditional
ways.Thehousegavemeahome;acommunityinwhichIbelonged…thebestthing
isthatbeingapartoftheCulturalHousewaslikehavingyourownfamily.Itwasa
goodsteppingstonetothecampusforfirstyearstudents”(San2008:1).
Theimportanceofasharedplacefortheformationofsupportivegroupshas
beenshownatbothDartmouthandtheUniversityofMinnesota.AmericanIndian
43
studentsprovidetestimonytothevitalroleplayedbythe‘NativeAmericanHouse’,
touseagenericterm,intheirsuccessfultransitionfromthetraditionallysupportive
environmentprovidedbytheextendedfamilyandcommunityfromwhichmany
AmericanIndianstudentscome,totheforeignatmosphereoftheuniversity
environmentthatistheinstitutionalizationoftheEuro‐centriceducationsystem
andthedominantmainstreamsocialstructure.Thereisampleevidencetosuggest
thattheexistenceofsuchahousemaybebeneficialtoAmericanIndianstudentsat
universitieswherenosuch‘third’placecurrentlyexists.
SummaryandConclusiontoLiteratureReview
AreviewoftheliteratureregardingNativeAmericaneducationwithafocus
onhighereducationattainmentshowsthatearlyattemptssoughttore‐educate
NativeAmericansintothemainstreamEuro‐Americanmold(Eastman1902;
Meriam1928;StandingBear1928;Collier1947;Berry1969;Berkhofer1978).This
re‐educationwaslargelybasedintheChristianvaluesandtheindoctrinationof
EuropeannormsandvaluesintotheNativesociety(Berkhofer1978;McBeth1983;
Oppelt1990;DeloriaJr.1994;Boyer1997;Calloway1999).
Historyshowsthesegoalstohavefailed,resultinginagapineducational
attainmentbetweenAmericanIndiansandotherethnicgroupsDeVoeetal.(2008).
Beginninginthelate1960stribalcollegesbegananewmovementinself‐
determinationforAmericanIndianhighereducation(Oppelt1990;Boyer1997).
ThisnewmodelforNativeAmericaneducationisbasedontribalculture.Tribal
44
collegesandmoreresponsivemainstreaminstitutionshavehelpedAmerican
Indiansachieveanupwardtrendineducationalattainment(Oppelt1990;Boyer
1997;DeVoeetal.2008).In2008,highpercentagesofNativeAmericanstudents
soughtassociate,andbachelor’sdegreesatbothtwoandfour‐yearinstitutionsand
receivedmoregraduatedegreesthaneverbefore(DeVoeetal.2008).
WhilemuchprogresshasbeenmadeinAmericanIndianhighereducation,
barrierstoeducationalsuccessforNativestudentsremain(Waxetal.1964;Wax
1967;Berry1969;Tierney1992;Carney1999).Amongthesebarriersare:lackof
familialandfinancialsupport,lackofculturallyrelevantcurricula,fewNativefaculty
andstafftosupportNativestudents,alackofculturallybasedstudentsupport
services,ageinappropriatenessforeducationallevelandinadequatepreparationfor
college(WrightandTierney1991;Tierney1992;Carney1999).
EducatorsworkinginAmericanIndianhighereducationhaveidentified
factorsleadingtosuccessandstrategiesforeducationalattainment(Waxetal.
1964;WrightandTierney1991;Demmert2001;HeavyRunnerandDeCelles2002;
Jacksonetal.2003Foxetal.2005).Amongthesefactorsare:familysupport,
increasedculturalidentity,personaldeterminationandgoalsetting,financial
support,improvedacademicskillspriortocollege,supportivementorsamong
collegefacultyandstaff,andculturallyappropriatecurricula.
Someresearchershaveidentifiedalinkbetweenethnicidentityand
educationalattainmentforminoritystudents.Forexample,ZitzowandEstes(1980,
45
1983),Oysermanetal.(1995,2001,2003,2006),andLee(2006)haveallfounda
linkbetweenthedevelopmentofastrongethnicidentityandacademicsuccess.
Oneapproachthatshowspotentialforenhancingeducationalattainmentis
theexistenceofaNativeAmericanhouseasaplacefortheformationofreference
groupsprovidingsupportandtheopportunitytodevelopastrongethicidentitythat
isseenasaculturalassetthatmayimproveretentionamongAmericanIndian
students.Oldenburg(1989)andGarrodandLarimore(1997)illustratethe
importanceofasafegatheringplacewherelike‐mindedpeopleformacommunity
andfindsupportotherthanthatfoundathomeoratwork.TheAmericanIndian
CultureHousehasimprovedthesuccessofAmericanIndianstudentsin
transitioningfromhometothepredominantlyWhite,mainstreamcampusatthe
UniversityofMinnesota(San2008).AsPresidentLaurelVermillionexplainedwhen
askedwhatfactorismostbeneficialtostudentsatSittingBullCollegeinachieving
academicsuccess,‘Theyknowwhotheyareandwheretheycomefrom.’As
HeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002)havefound,familyandthecommunityareof
criticalimportancetoAmericanIndianstudentsintermsoftheirretentionor
persistenceincollege.
Evengiventheprogressmadeinidentifyingbarriersanddeveloping
strategiestoovercomethosebarriers,thereremainstheneedtobetterunderstand
themechanismsthatimpacteducationalattainment,particularlyastheyapplyto
thelivesofAmericanIndianstudentsatpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionssuchas
PSU.
46
SociologyofEducation,CriticalRaceTheoryandCriticalEducationTheory
alongwiththeoreticalfocusontheformationandfunctionofreferencegroupswill
informthiswork.Theseperspectiveswillbecoveredinthenextchapter.
47
CHAPTERTHREE
TheoreticalOrientation
Thisstudyexploresthefactorsthatcontributetoeducationalattainment
amongAmericanIndianstudentsatapredominantlyWhiteuniversityinPrairie
State.Thecriticaltheoreticaltraditionprovidestheconceptualframeworkforthe
study.Worksrelatingtocriticaleducationtheoryandcriticalracetheoryare
identifiedasparticularlysalientforthisexaminationofretentionandgraduationof
AmericanIndianstudentsfromPlainsStateUniversity.
Thecriticalschoolofsociologicaltheory,commonlyreferredtoasthe
FrankfurtSchool,developedintheearly1900soutoftheMarxianperspective.
TheoristsmostassociatedwiththecriticalschoolincludeMaxHorkheimer,Theodor
Adorno,ErichFromm,HerbertMarcuseandinmoremoderntimes,Jurgen
Habermas(Bottomore1984).Criticaltheoryaimstouncoveraspectsofthesocial
worldthatmaybetakenforgranted,or,onthesurface,gounnoticedbutthatmay
beoppressiveorrestrictiveofthefreedomsofindividualsorgroups(Neuman
2000).Thebasicmotiveoftheearlycriticaltheoristswastocriticizelifeunder
capitalismandthedominantideologythatexplainedandpromotedit.Critical
thinkersstressedtheimportanceofcultureandwerecriticalofart,aestheticsand
themassmediaasproductsoftheoppressivedominantsocialstructure(Bottomore
1984;Neumann2000).Criticaltheoryisvalueladenandemancipatory,seekingto
liberatehumanexistenceandameliorateoppressivesocialconditionsthatare
48
dominatedbyvaluesofefficiencyandcontrolthroughtheuseoftechnology
(Bottomore1984;Neumann2000).Thecriticalperspectiveseekstocombinetheory
andactionaspraxis(Bottomore1984;Tierney1992).
Gramsci(1932)discussedtheconceptofhegemony.Culturalhegemonyisa
socialconditioninwhichtherulingclassmanipulatesculturalsymbolsinsucha
waythatleadsotherclassesorculturalgroupstoeffectivelycontributetotheirown
subordination(Gramsci1932).Thisformofdominationoperatesthroughvital
socialfunctionsinsocialinstitutionssuchaseducation(Friere1970),andisof
particularinteresttothisstudyofAmericanIndiansandhighereducation.
Ogbu(1978,1985)arguesthatlackofminoritystudentachievementin
school,andafterwards,istheresultofamacrostructuredesignedspecificallyto
keepthepowerinthehandsoftheWhiteEuro‐Americanmajority.Insupportofthis
position,Ogbu(1985)suggestsataxonomicclassificationsystemofminority
groups.Theseclassificationsrangeinlevelofoppressionfrombarelyseparated
frommainstreamasintheautonomousminoritiessuchasAmish,Jews,Mormons,
andWhiteEuropeanandAsianimmigrants,tothemostopenlyoppressedgroup,
castelikeminorities,includingNativeAmericans,AfricanAmericans,andMexican
Americans(Ogbu1985).
Feagin(2000),reportingonthecollegeexperienceofBlackstudentsat
predominantlyWhitecollegecampuses,statesthatprejudicialattitudesaboundon
WhitecampusesamongWhitestudents,facultyandadministrators.Ifracial
insensitivityhasbeeninstitutionalizedonmainstreamcollegecampusesintheform
49
ofEuro‐centriccurriculum,lackofinterestinAfricanAmericanstudents,andthe
expectationbyfacultythatindividualBlackstudentsarerepresentativeoftheentire
race,asFeagin(2000)suggests,thesamemayholdtrueforNativeAmerican
studentsonmajorityWhite,mainstreamcampuses.
Tierney(1992)describestherealisticchallengesofthecollegeanduniversity
experienceforAmericanIndianstudentsinEuro‐Americanmainstreamcolleges
anduniversities.ThetitleofTierney’s1992bookisilluminatinginitself:‘Official
Encouragement,InstitutionalDiscouragement’istherealityofcollegeexperiencefor
manyNativeAmericanstudents,heargues.Indeed,manyscholarscontendthat
barriersandobstaclestoacademicattainmentforAmericanIndiansaretheresultof
generationsofblockedopportunitiesformembersofsubordinateminoritygroups
(Waxetal.1964,Berry1969;Hertzburg1971;Oppelt1990;Tierney1992,2000;
Carney1999).
Fordham(1996)exploresstructuralbarrierscreatedbythemainstream
dominantsocietyagainstBlackAmericans(andotherracialsubordinategroups)
regardingachievementintheworkforce,marketplace,andeducationalsystem.
Suchbarriersinclude:prejudicialattitudesamongmainstreamstudents,facultyand
administrators(Feagin1996);fundamentalculturaldifferencesinU.S.mainstream
‘Euro‐American’andAmericanIndianculture(Wax,WaxandDuMont1964,Tierney
1992,2000,Carney1999);inadequatecollegepreparationfrompoorlyfunded
schoolsinminority(includingreservation)communities(Carney1999);
unsupportivemainstreamcampusenvironments(Wax,etal.1964,Tierney1992;
50
Huffman1999);inadequatefinancialsupportforNativestudents(Guilloryand
Wolverton2008);languagebarriers,lackofparentinvolvement,culturally
insensitiveteachertrainingprogramsandlowteacherexpectationsregarding
AmericanIndianstudents(Berry1969).
Fordham(1988)looksattheconflictbetweenBlackstudentsandtheir
culturalkinshiptiesandthecultureofhighereducationbuiltupontheidealsofthe
dominantmainstreamsocialstructure.Fordhampositsthatstudentsarepulledby
theirdualrelationshipsbetweenthecommunity‐focusedBlacksocialstructureand
theindividualisticemphasisofthedominantsocialstructurethatisthebasisforthe
competitiveideologyofthemainstreameducationsystem.
Forthecastelikesubordinateminority(Ogbu1985),theroadblocksto
academicaswellaslifegoalachievementaresignificant.Asethnic/racialgroup
boundariesaresetandmaintained,thecastelikeminoritymembersadoptnew
culturallyspecificwaysasareactionagainstnorms,valuesandexpectationsofthe
hegemonicmainstream.Someofthesemechanismsareseenasoppositional.For
example,aBlackstudentwillnotpartakeinschoolactivitiesthatwillbeseenby
peersormembersofhisorherin‐groupas‘actingWhite’.Inthisregard,itisseenas
bettertoremainloyaltothegroupthantobeseenasasellouttotheWhitemajority
powerstructure(Ogbu1978,1985;Fordham1988).
Fordham(1988)describestwomethodsadoptedbyracialminoritiesfor
dealingwiththenecessityofcompromisinginordertosucceedinthedominant
culture.‘Sellingout’referstodevelopingastateof‘racelessness’inorderto
51
downplayracial/ethnicculturewhileadoptingthevaluesofthedominantsociety.
Alternatively,studentsmayclingtothesolidarityofracialidentityanddownplay
thevaluesofthedominantsociety.ThisstrategyiscomparabletoHuffman’s(1999)
‘estranged’studentwhochoosesto‘dropout’ratherthan‘sellout’.
Huffman(1999)interviewedAmericanIndianstudentsathighereducation
institutionsintheupperMidwest,developingatypologytocharacterizetheirlevel
ofacculturation.AccordingtoHuffman(1999)theestrangedAmericanIndian
studentisimmersedinhisorhertraditionaltribalcultureandfeelslikeafishoutof
waterinthecollegeenvironment.FortheestrangedAmericanIndian,the
mainstreamcollegecampusseemsforeign.Theestrangedstudentismostlikelyto
dropoutofcollegeand,amongHuffman’stypes,isthequickesttodoso.Forthis
student,themainstreamEuro‐culturalvaluesofindividualismandcompetitionare
notwelcomingorcomfortable.Thisstudentseesthegoaloftheuniversityasthe
assimilationintothemainstreamculture.Thisthreattothestudent’straditional
valuesservestopushthemawayfromthecampusenvironment;concurrently,many
experiencea“pullback”totheirhometribalcommunity.
Whenthehighereducationsystemfailstorecognizethevalueofminority
students,thesestudentsmayfailtoachieveintheuniversityenvironment.Thisis
notafailureofthestudentorofthestudents’culturalgroups,Huffman(1999)
argues,butrather,thefailureoftheeducationalsystemsbuiltuponmainstream
values.
52
CriticalRaceTheory(CRT)hasitsontologicalrootsinthelifeexperiencesof
marginalizedpeopleofcolor(Yasso2005).Ithaslongbeenassumedthatifpeople
ofcolordonotadopttheworldviewofthedominantmiddleanduppermiddle
classes,thenthosepeopleofcolorlacktheculturalcapitalrequiredforsocial
mobility(Bourdieu1977;Ogbu1978,1985).Thoseinhegemonicmainstream
powerpositionsviewsuchalackofculturalcapitalfromthedominantclassesasa
deficit(Yasso2005).Thishashistoricallybeenthecaseinthefieldofeducation
regardingethnicandracialminoritystudents(Waxetal.1964,Berry1969;
Hertzburg1971;Oppelt1990;Tierney1992,2000;Carney1999).
CRTchallengestheconstructofracebyexaminingtheideologyofracism.
“CRTfindsthatracismisoftenwelldisguisedintherhetoricofshared‘normative’
valuesand‘neutral’socialscientificprinciplesandpractices”(Yasso2005:74).Itis
thegoalofCRTtochallengeracismbybringingtotheforefrontofconsciousnessthe
uniqueaspectsofaculturethatformthestoreofculturalwealth.Fromthe
recognitionofculturalwealthcomesthebeginningoftheprocessofempowerment
thatstartswiththereplacementoftheculturaldeficitframeworkandinitsplace
theviewthatculturalwealthisanasset.
Fordham(1988)andHuffman(1999)suggestthatremedying
underachievementamongAfricanAmericanandAmericanIndianstudentsrequires
amultilayeredapproach.First,minoritystudentsneedrolemodelsthatshowthat
theycanachieveinschoolandintheworkplacewithoutlosingtheirethnicidentity
ortheirmembershipinakinshipnetworkorextendedtribalfamily.Second,the
53
structuralandculturalbarriersthathavebeenseentoworkasroadblocksto
successmustbetorndown.
Yasso(2005)expandsonBourdieu’s(1977)workon‘culturalcapital’.
AccordingtoYasso,ratherthandefineminorityculturesasthosesufferingfrom
deficitofculturalpovertyanddisadvantageswhencomparedtothemainstream
Euro‐Americanculture,theycanbeseenasawealthofculturalknowledge,history
andconnection.Theseassetsprovideastrengthandstabilizinganchorforthe
minoritystudentsastheymaketheirwaythroughthesystemofhighereducation
thatisdevised,implementedanddominatedbypredominantlyWhitemembersof
themainstreameducationalhierarchy.Culturalwealthcanbeconceptualizedto
includebothmaterialandnon‐materialculturalitems.AccordingtoYasso(2005),
CriticalRaceTheorydefinesculturalwealthasasetofassetsratherthanaplatform
ofdeprivation.Yossodescribesformsofculturalcapitaltoinclude,“aspirational,
navigational,social,linguistic,familialandresistantcapital”(2005:69).Fromthese,
studentscandrawstrengtheningresourcesbasedontheirlifeexperiences,familial
bonds,andculturaltraditionsthatwillservetheminthecollegeclassroom.
Toovercomeeducationalobstaclesandcreateopportunitiesforminority
studentstoachievewithoutfeelingdisloyaltotheirgroup,educationalprograms
needtoincorporatewaysofinstillingculturalprideandtherecognitionofthe
groups’contributionstosocietyingeneral(Fordham1988;Tierney1992;Carney
1999).Thisrequiresanewwayofthinkingbothonthepartofeducatorsand
students.AsOgbu(1985:868)suggests,“Atthelevelofpractice,teachersand
54
schoolscandevelopprogramstohelpminoritystudentslearnhownottoequate
masteryofschoolcultureandlanguagewithalossofgroupidentityandsecurity”.
Tierney(2000)arguesthatthosewhoworkwithlow‐incomeorminority
studentsneedtoreorienthowtheythinkaboutandworkwithsuchstudents.
Programsthatenhancethestudents’culturalawarenesscanexpandtheirassets
allowingthemtoenvisionandenactapositiveachievementoutcome.From
Tierney’s(2000)view,studentswhoareencouragedtoembracetheiridentitymay
beempowered.Thisempowermentmayleadtoincreasedefficacyinschool
performanceandretentionforsomeminoritystudents.Tierney’swork(2000)
pointstotheneedformainstreamuniversitiestonurturestudents’ethnicidentity
asastrengthandassetforallmembersofthecampuscommunity.
Bybuildingapositiveracial/ethnicidentity,alongwithskillsin
understandingandnavigatingmainstreaminstitutions,studentefficacyisincreased.
ThishasbeenshowntobeeffectiveintheexampleoftheSouthCentralLosAngeles
interventionknownastheNeighborhoodAcademicInitiative(Lee2006).
Truebastressestheimportanceofcultureasafactorinschoolachievement.
AccordingtoTrueba(1988),cultureisimportantatthecollectivelevel,(i.e.ethnic
groupinamacrostructure),andatthemicro,(contextspecific)levelofthestudent.
Trueba(1988)supportsanemphasisontheuniquerolecultureplaysinthe
entireprocessoflearning.ForTrueba,cultureisparamounttotheacquisitionand
processingofinformation.Whencultureisaccountedforintheschoolexperienceit
allowsstudentstoovercomehegemonicforcesineducationbuiltuponahistoryof
55
colonialismandimperialism.AccordingtoTrueba,“Thereisagreatneedforthe
developmentofatheoryofacademicachievementthattakesintoconsiderationthe
homecultureofthestudents”(1988:279).
Theinclusionofcultureintotheeducationalprocessisachievedthroughthe
useof‘activitysettings’(Trueba1988)duringthelearningprocess.Whenculturally
appropriateactivitiesareincludedinthecurriculumthestudentisabletointegrate
themainstreamculturethroughtheeducationprocessbylinkingitwithculturally
specificexperiencesasheorshehasbeensocializedwith.Lee’sworkwithethnic
minoritystudentsinChina(2001)andinexaminingmodelprogramsinsupportof
studentsofcolorinpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsintheU.S.(2006)isfurther
evidenceofhowethnicitymattersregardingminoritystudentacademicsuccess.
GuajardoandGuajardo(2002)describetheLlanoGrandeprograminElsa,
Texasasaprojectdesignedtocapitalizeonminoritystudents’culturalassets.The
LlanoGrandeprojectwashighlysuccessfulinhelpingstudentsconceptualize
culturalassetssuchasfamilialbonds,oralhistory,andNativelanguageasabasisfor
culturalprideandempowerment.Bygivingthestudentsavoicetheywereableto
seethewealthoftheirethnichistoryandapplyittopossiblefutureoutcomes
towardpositivechange.(GuajardoandGuajardo2002).Thepositiveimpactsofthe
Llanoprojectincludethirty‐sixstudentsfromthecommunityattendingcollegeat
IvyLeagueschools.Otherstudentsattendlocaluniversities.Thereisatrendtoward
thesestudentsreturningtothecommunityafterreceivingtheiruniversity
educationstogivebacktothecommunity.
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GuilloryandWolverton(2008:59)citeseveralstudies(Belgarde1992;
BrownandRobinsonKurpius1997;Carney1999;CibikandChambers1991;Lin,
LaCounteandEder1988;PavelandPadilla1993;Wright1985”),showingthat
“...participationatAmericanIndianstudentcenterscanleadtoacademicand
socialengagementforAmericanIndianstudentsand,subsequently,cancontribute
toretainingthisparticulargroup”.ThesestudiesindicatesuchNativeAmerican
‘Houses’orstudentcentersacrossthecountrymayprovideculturallyappropriate
activitysettingsthatnurturethesalienceofethnicidentityandempowerstudents
forsuccessintheuniversityenvironment.
AccordingtoErickson(1963),thedevelopmentoftheindividual’ssenseof
selfbeginsasachildisabletodifferentiateitselfasanobjectseparatefromfamily.
Thissenseofselfasameaningfulobjectisdevelopedthroughtheprocessoffirst
takingtheroleofafewsignificantothers,mostlikelyparentsandsiblings,andthen
takingtheroleofthegeneralizedother(Mead1934).AccordingtoHewitt
(1994:90),referencegroupsare“socialgroupsthatprovidegeneralizedothersto
whomtheindividualrefers.”Singer(1981)explainsreferencegroupsasthose
groupsthatprovideanorientationforsocialcomparisonofone’sself.Reference
groupsprovideaframeworkfromwhichtheindividualisabletoshapehisorher
evaluations,attitudesandbehavior(Singer1981).
Referencegroupshavebeenconceivedofascomparativeandnormative.
“Theconsequenceofnormativereferenceorientationisconformity”whetheritbe
conformitytoabelief,attitude,avalueorabehavior(Singer1981:69).A
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comparativereferencegroupservesasa“standardofcomparisonforanappraisalof
eithertheselforother”(Singer1981:77).Stouffer’s(1949)theoryholdsthat
individualsusemultiplereferencegroupsinordertomakeevaluations.
Thisstudyexamineswhether,andtowhatextent,theformationofculturally
basedreferencegroupshelpAmericanIndianstudentsnavigatetheirwaythrough
predominantlyWhiteinstitutionsthatarebasedinmainstreamnorms,values,and
experiences;thusactingtofacilitatetheireducationalattainment.
Inaclassicstudyofnormativereferencegroupsperformedinthe1930s,
Newcomb(1958)notesageneraltrendofattitudechangefrom“freshman
conservatives”to“seniorneoconservativesamongBenningtoncollegestudents”
Newcomb(1958:275)concludesthatsuchattitudes“arenotacquiredinasocial
vacuum.Theiracquisitionisafunctionofrelatingoneselftosomegrouporgroups
positivelyornegatively.”
Oldenburg(1989)makesastrongcaseforwhatheterms‘thethirdplace’as
aplacewhereinformalpublicassociationservestofacilitateasenseofcommunity
wellbeingandsolidaritybasedonsharedvaluesandcommonlifeexperienceatthe
localcommunitylevel.‘Thethirdplace’,accordingtoOldenburg,isneitherhomenor
work,butoffersthefamiliarcomfortofbothwithouttheirincumbent
responsibilitiesorsocialrestrictions.Inthe‘thirdplace’isfound,throughinformal
associationwithothers,thesourceofrecreation,recuperationandrejuvenationas
wellasvalidationandsocialsupportforindividualsagainsttheoppressivegrindof
thedailylifeinthedominantsocialstructure.Inaddition,itprovidesasafeand
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nurturingenvironmentthroughassociationwithlikemindedindividuals.Like
mindedindividuals,sharingcommonvalues,commonlifeexperiencesandcommon
lifegoalswillformreferencegroupsforcomparisontoothers,bothinsideand
outsideoftheirgroupwhilealsoformingnormativereferencegroupsforthe
validationandcontinuationofsharednormsandvalues(Singer1981).American
Indianstudentsonmainstreamcampusesmayseeksuchaspecial‘thirdplace’.
TheMulticulturalStudentAffairsOfficeatPSUmayoffersuchaplaceforthe
developmentofasocialsupportnetworkthatservestoempowerstudentsthrough
thestrengtheningofacommonAmericanIndianidentity.Onepointofexploratory
interestinthisstudyiswhetherPSU’sOfficeofMulticulturalAffairs,whichutilizesa
‘Global’definitionofdiversity,whereinallminoritygroupsonthePSUcampusare
seenasaunified,‘non‐dominant’groupprovidessuchanenvironmentfor
developmentofacademicempowermentthroughaffiliationwithaculturallybased
normativereferencegroup,orwhetherthe‘GlobalDiversity’conceptfailsto
accountforeachminoritygroup’sculturalcapitalasuniquelyempoweringbasedon
eachgroup’sindividualculturalcharacteristicsratherthanbasedonthegroup’s
collectivestatus’asnon‐dominant.
Criticaltheorysuggeststhevaluesandstructuresofthedominant
mainstreamsocietyserveasbarrierstoeducationalattainmentofminoritystudents
intheU.S.(Bottomore1984).Culturalhegemonydescribeshowthoseinpower
manipulateculturalsymbolssothatotherclassesorculturalgroupseffectively
contributetotheirownsubordination(Gramsci1932).Thisformofsocial
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dominationisevidentthroughoutthehistoryofAmericanIndianhighereducation
(Meriam1928;Collier1947;Hertzberg1971;Berkhofer1978;McBeth1983;Oppelt
1990;DeloriaJr.1994;Boyer1997;Calloway1999Pewewardy2002).
Ogbu(1978,1985)illustrateshowstructuralbarrierssuchasprejudice,
inadequatefinances,andacademicpreparationarerealitiesforoppressed,
‘castelike’minorities.AccordingtoOgbu,thesestructuralfactorseffectivelylimitthe
opportunitiesforacademicadvancementandlifeingeneral.
Feagin(1996),reportsthatprejudicialattitudesarestillprevalenton
predominantlyWhitecampuses.Suchinstitutionalizeddiscriminationworksatboth
thestructuralandculturallevelstocreatebarrierstoacademicattainmentfor
AmericanIndianstudents.Additionally,Tierney(1992,2000)showsthewaysin
whichpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsofhighereducationarecreated,
implementedandmaintainedaccordingtoEuro‐Americanmainstreamvalues,goals
andperspectives.Thisorientationholdsthattheresponsibilityforacademicsuccess
restsexclusivelyuponthestudentwhoisviewedasdeficient.Conversely,the
criticalperspective(Tierney1992,2000)placesresponsibilityontheinstitutionto
adaptprogramsandapproachesthatbuildonstudents’ethnicidentityandcultural
backgroundasassetsthatcanleadtotheirempowermentandeducational
attainment(Tierney1992;Trueba1988;GuajardoandGuajardo2002;Lee2006).
Newcomb(1958)andSinger(1981)describetheformationofreference
groupsthatservetoprovideindividualswithaframeworkofsocialcomparisonand
fromwhichtogaugeandformulatepersonalnormsandvalues.Oldenburg(1989)
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describeshowthe‘thirdplace’servesasagatheringplacewhereindividualsmay
sharecommonsnorms,values,lifecircumstancesandconcerns.
Builtonacriticalconceptualframework,thisstudyexamineswhetherthe
formationofnormativereferencegroupsthroughprograms,supportstructuresand
a‘thirdplace’,suchasa‘NativeAmericanCulturalCenter’mayservetomitigatethe
structuralandculturalbarrierstosuccessthatAmericanIndianstudentsencounter
atpredominantlyWhiteinstitutions.Inaddition,otherfactorsthatcombineto
hinderorfacilitatestudentretentionandgraduationforNativeAmericanstudents
atPSUareexplored.
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CHAPTERFOUR
METHODOLOGY
Thisprojectemploysaninductiveresearchapproachtoexplorefactors
influencingsecondaryeducationalattainmentofAmericanIndians.Inkeepingwith
thecriticaltheoreticaltradition,themethodsofqualitativeethnographyprovidethe
frameworkfortheexplorationintotheresearchquestionsthatyieldthick,rich
descriptionfromtheinsider’sperspective.Theconceptof‘praxis’asintroducedby
Marx,remainsaguidingprincipleinthedesignandimplementationofthisstudy.
Praxishasasitsgoaltoameliorateoppressivesocialconditionsthroughthe
applicationofpragmaticactionthatisbasedintheoreticallygeneratedideas.This
studyisdirectedatenhancingunderstandingsothatmoreAmericanIndian
studentsareabletoattaintheirhighereducationaspirations.
Datacollectionincludedfocusgroups,intensiveinterviews,field
observations,anddocumentarydataanalysisincludingquantitativedataon
enrollmentandretentionofNativeAmericanstudents.Analysisofdatawasuseful
ingainingnewinsightandanenhancedunderstandingoftheresearchquestions
thatfollow.
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ResearchQuestions
Basedinthecriticaltheoreticaltradition,thisprojectinvestigatesthe
followingresearchquestionstodevelopanenhancedunderstandingofAmerican
IndianeducationalattainmentatPlainsStateUniversity.
1. WhatfactorsfacilitateorenhanceeducationalattainmentforAmerican
Indianstudents?
2. Whatfactorsactasbarrierstoeducationalattainment?
Basedonareviewoftheliterature,thisresearchincludestheexaminationof
issuesrelatingto:
a.Financialresources b.Campusenvironmentc.Familyrelationsd.Pre‐collegeacademicpreparatione.Facultyexpectationsf.Faculty,staffandstudentattitudesg.Curriculumh.Culturaltraditionsi.CulturallybasedReferencegroupsj.Culturalfactorsk.The3rdplacel.Supportprogramsm.Individual(personal)drivetowardacademicattainment
Themajorresearchfocusofthisstudyis:whatfactorscombinetofacilitate
orhindereducationalattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatamajor,
predominantlyWhite,universityinPrairieState?Themeasureofeducational
attainmentisdeterminedthroughcomparativeratesofretentionandgraduationfor
AmericanIndianstudentsandallotherstudentsatPlainsStateUniversity.
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Totalstudentenrollmentinthefallof2009,was12,376.Ofthose,8.4percent
werelistedasminoritystudents.AmericanIndianstudentsenrolledatPSU
comprisethesecondlargestofminoritygroupsenrolledat2.1percentofall
studentsenrolled.RecordsavailablethroughtheofficeoftheNativeAmerican
StudentAdvisorshow249studentsidentifiedasAmericanIndiansenrolledatPSU.
ThereisnobreakdownofthenumberofstudentsattendingtheRailtowncampusas
separatefromUniversityCenterorfacilitiesinanyotherpartofthestate.Forty‐four
Nativestudentsarelistedasfreshmen.Thirty‐ninestudentswereassignedrooms
oncampusinresidencehalls.
StudyInstitution
Students,AdministratorsandfacultyatPlainsStateUniversityprovidedthe
multiplevoicesandviewpointscontributingtothisstudy.ThehistoryofPSUhas
unfoldedconcurrentwith,andparalleltothehistoryofAmericanIndiansstateand
nationwide.
StudyParticipants
ThesamplepopulationforthisstudyincludesNativeAmericanstudents
currentlyenrolledatPSU.Inadditiontostudents,facultyandstaffwhoareinvolved
inprograms,servicesorcurriculathataredesignedspecificallyforNativeAmerican
studentsorthatarefrequentedbyNativeAmericanstudentsareincludedin
intensiveinterviewsandfieldobservations.Universityadministratorsare
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interviewedinordertogainaninsider’sperspectivefromthemainstream
institutionalpointofviewregardingtheissueofAmericanIndianstudentretention
andgraduation.Methodologicalapproachestoeachofthesegroupsaredescribed
below.
NativeAmericanStudents
PSUhasaNativeAmericanstudentpopulationlargelyfromtheplainsstates
oftheUpperMidwest.Assuch,thetribalaffiliationsofstudentsatPSUaremore
similarthanmaybeseenatsomeuniversitiesinpartsofthecountryfurther
removed,andwithamorediverseNativepopulation.Evengiventhesimilarityof
AmericanIndianstudentsattendingPrairieStateuniversities,thediversityamong
tribalgroupsandindividualstudentsmustbeacknowledged.Forthisreasonthe
term‘AmericanIndianstudent’willbehomogenizedintoamore‘pan‐Indian’
(Hertzburg1971)conceptofIndiannessbasedonsimilaritiessharedasPrairieState
AmericanIndianuniversitystudents.Thisiskeepingwiththeapproachusedby
GuilloryandWolverton(2008).
ThesampleofNativestudentsforthisstudywasdevelopedwiththehelpof
theNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwhoseofficeiscurrentlyhousedwithinPSU’s
MulticulturalAffairsOffice(OMA).HisfamiliaritywiththeAmericanIndianstudents
enrolledatPSUhelpedensureinterviewsandfocusgroupsincludedstudentswitha
diversityofages,genders,familystatus(whetherornotoneisaparent),yearin
college,majors,andfinancialresources.
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Giventhesimilaritiesanddifferencesofstudentswhenconceptualizedalong
culturaldimensionsitmuststillberecognizedthatIndiannessaside,therestill
remainindividualdifferencesamongAmericanIndianstudents.Becauseofhis
familiaritywiththeAmericanIndianstudentsandtheirpersonalandlife
circumstances,theNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwasofimmeasurablevaluein
developingthesamplepopulation.
UniversityAdministrators,TeachingandNonteachingFaculty
IndividualinterviewswithtwoUniversityVicePresidents,theDirectorfor
DiversityEnhancement,PSUAdmissionsOfficeMinorityStudentRecruiter,and
threefacultymembers,includingoneNativefacultymember,wereconductedonthe
campusofPSU.UniversityVicePresidentswereinterviewedbecausetheywere
consideredtobethe“voice”oftheinstitution,andthosemostdirectlyholdingthe
powertoshapetheinstitutionalculture(GuilloryandWolverton2008:68).
UniversityVicePresidentsatPSUaretheinstitutionalleadersresponsiblefor
implementingpolicythatdirectlyinfluencestheenvironmentinwhichAmerican
Indianstudentsexist.
TheDirectorforDiversityEnhancementprovidedadetailedhistoryofefforts
madetowardprovidingservicesforthewiderangeofstudentsfromdiverseracial,
ethnic,andculturalbackgrounds,aswellasformembersofPSU’smainstream
populationincludingfaculty,staff,andcommunitymembers.
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Thefacultymemberswereinterviewedbecauseoftheirabilitytodirectly
impacttheexperienceofthestudentsthattheyencounterthroughteachingand
advisement,(Astin1982;CibikandChambers1991;Hornett1989Pascarellaand
Terenzini1991).
TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwasinterviewed.Heprovidedan
invaluableinsightintothedailymilieuofthePSUNativestudentpopulation.In
additiontothisinsight,healsoprovedtobeavaluableliaisonbetweenPSU
administration,facultyandstudents.
IndepthinterviewswerealsoconductedwithUniversityStudentSupport
StaffhousedintheGrassrootsCenteronthecampusofPSU.Theseprogram
directorsprovidedadetaileddescriptionofstudentsupportservicesavailableto
Nativestudentsandtheextenttowhichthoseservicesareutilized.
Adigitalaudiorecorderandhandwrittennoteswereusedtorecord
responsesandobservationsineachinterview.Inallcases,interviewswereheldat
theofficesofthepersonsbeinginterviewed.Fieldnotesweretranscribedwithin24
hoursoftheinterviews.Audiorecordingsweretranscribedverbatimwithin1‐2
weeksfollowingtheinterviews.
ResearchDesign
ThisstudyisdesignedasacriticalethnographyfocusingonNativeAmerican
studentsuccessatPlainsStateUniversity(PSU).Organizationalcasestudy(Denzin
andLincoln1994)providesthemethodologicalframeworkforacriticaldetailed
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description.Embeddedwithintheorganizationalcasestudyareindividualcase
studiesofstudents,staff,facultyandprograms.Documentarydatarelevanttothe
researchquestionswereinvestigatedtoprovideafuller,richerdescriptionof
comparativecases.
Fortheimplementationofthisstudy,contactwasmadewiththefaculty,
staff,andstudentsatPSUandarrangementsweremadetosecureparticipationin
carryingoutthemethodologicalstrategies.Inkeepingwiththetenetsofthecritical
perspective,thisstudyutilizedqualitativeethnographictechniquesinordertogain
aninsider’sviewthroughtheuseofindepthinterviews,observations,and
participantobservationsofinstitution,students,supportprogramsandgathering
placesonthecampusofPSU(BogdanandBiklen1982).Theultimategoalofthis
criticalqualitativeethnographywasanenhancedunderstandingofvariousfactors
thatworkindependentlyorincombinationtocreateacampusenvironmentand
universityexperiencethateitherfacilitatesorimpedessuccessforNativeAmerican
students,asmeasuredbyretentionandgraduationrates.
Methods
Researcher’sPlaceintheResearch
IamapersonofancestraldescentfromtheMeskwakipeopleofIowaandthe
CherokeepeopletheSoutheasternUnitedStates.IhavebeenaroundNativepeople
andcommunitiesallofmylife.Ihaveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunities
inMinnesotaandWisconsin.IhaveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPow
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Wowsacrossthecountry.Ihavelongbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacing
AmericanIndianpeople,particularlyhowtoimprovetheconditionsforeducational
successforAmericanIndianstudents.IhavebeeninvolvedwithPSUfor
approximately12yearsoverwhichtimeIhavebecomeveryfamiliarwiththesocial
realityoflifeonthiscampus.DuringthistimeIhavebeenacasualobserverof
AmericanIndianstudentlifeandofthesocialstructureoncampusandinthe
Railtowncommunity.
FocusGroups
Focusgroupinterviewswereemployedasadatagatheringmethodinorder
tocreateanenvironmentinwhichtheNativestudentparticipantscouldfeel
comfortable.Thesestudentswerefamiliartoeachotherandprovidedmutual
supportinasituationwheretrustwasnotimmediatelyestablishedbetweenthem
asparticipantsandmyselfasresearcher.
Inordertoestablishrapportandbuildtrustearlyinthefocusgroup
interview,IimmediatelyintroducedmyselfinthecontextofmyownNative
AmericanfamilyheritageandmypersonalinvolvementwithAmericanIndian
peopleandcommunitiesthroughoutmylifeexperiences.Towardthisend,I
providedthegroupwithanintroductoryletterattachedtoagroupintroductionand
demographicinformationformthateachparticipantcompletedattheoutset.See
AppendixFforintroductoryletter.
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ThreefocusgroupinterviewswereconductedwithNativeAmerican
students.ThefirstfocusgroupwasheldinlateAprilof2009andtookplaceatthe
PSUStudentUnion.Thenumberofintervieweesforthefirstgroupwasnine.The
secondtwofocusgroupswereconductedearlyinthefallsemesterof2009atthe
conferenceroomintheofficeoftheDeanofHonorsCollege/InterimDirectorof
DiversityEnhancement.Thesecondgroupincludedsixinterviewees.Thethird
groupalsoincludedsixinterviewees.Thetotalnumberoffocusgroupparticipants
was21.Threegroupswereconductedinordertoinvolveanumberofparticipants
usefulingainingadetailedpictureoftheNativestudentexperienceatPSU.The
greatestchallengeinconductingthesefocusgroupswasinschedulingtimesthat
wouldworkconsideringthevariousschedulesofstudentparticipants.
Sessionslastedbetween90to180minutes.Oneachoccasion,oneormore
studentsstayedlatertofurtherdiscusstheseissues.Anaudiorecorderand
handwrittennoteswereusedtorecordthestudentresponsesandobservations
duringthefocusgroupinterviews.Inaddition,personalbackgroundinformation
wasobtainedthroughabriefquestionnairedistributedatthebeginningofthefocus
groupsessions.Betweenthethreegroups,anadequatenumberofparticipantswere
includedtoensureasamplerepresentativeofthediversityofAmericanIndians
enrolledatPSU(Berg1984).
Thestudentschosenforthestudywerepurposivelyselectedbasedon
availabilityandexperience.Everyeffortwasmadetoensurethatwithinthe
populationofstudentsavailabletoparticipate,asamplewasobtainedthatreflected
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thediversityofAmericanIndianstudentsandtheirexperiences.Towardthisend,a
cross‐sectionrangingfromfreshmentograduatestudents;traditionallyandnon‐
traditionallyagedstudents;genderrepresentationproportionatetotheAmerican
IndianpopulationatPSU;studentshighlyinvolvedintheuniversitymilieu,suchas
NativeAmericanclubpresidents;andstudentcommuterswithlittlecampus
involvementwaspurposivelysought.Studentswereinvitedtoparticipatebya
primarycontactfromthePSUNativeAmericanStudentAdvisor.
Intensiveinterviews
Anin‐depthpersonalinterview(DenzinandLincoln1994)wasconducted
withPSU’sNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorattheOfficeofMulticulturalAffairson
thecampusofPlainsStateUniversity.InterviewswerealsoconductedwithNative
AmericanstudentsandfacultyandadministratorsonthePSUcampus.Among
administratorsinterviewedweretwoUniversityVicePresidents,theDirectorof
DiversityEnhancement,twoDirectorsofStudentSupportServiceprogramsandthe
AdmissionsOfficeMinorityStudentRecruiter.Also,fourindividualNativeAmerican
studentswereinterviewedapartfromthethreefocusgroupsconductedwithNative
students.Theseindividualstudentinterviewsprovidedforanin‐depthexploration
oftheNativestudentexperienceatPSUonamuchmorepersonallevelallowingfor
anevengreateremicperspective.Thesestudentswereextremelyeloquentand
articulateinthedescriptionoftheirhistory,andtheirlifeexperiencesinRailtown
andatPSU.
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FacultymembersinterviewedincludeoneNativeAmericanprofessorand
threeprofessorshighlyinvolvedwithNativeAmericanstudents.Thesefour
dedicatedprofessorshavedemonstratedextraordinarycommitmenttoNative
studentsthroughtheircontinueddedicationandserviceatPSU.Eachinterviewwas
conductedindividuallyandprovidesaninsider’sperspectivefromthestandpointof
Nativestudents,PSUfaculty,andstaffand,fromuniversityadministrators,an
institutionalvoice.
Aninterviewprotocol(Berg1989;Babbie2007)wasusedtoguide
questionsregardingactivitiesandservicesprovidedbythestaffoftheorganization.
Thegoaloftheinterviewswastoprovideanenricheddescriptiveexplanationofthe
socialprocessesinherentwithmainstreamuniversitylifethatservetofacilitateor
hindereducationalattainmentofNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU.Theinterview
guideusedwasmodeledafterthatusedbyGuilloryandWolverton(2008)with
permissiongrantedbyDr.RaphaelGuilloryofEasternWashingtonUniversity.The
interviewprotocolfocusedonthesensitizingconceptspreviouslydiscussedas
derivedfromareviewofrelevantliteratureandwasdesignedtogainanemic
understandingfromstudents,facultyandadministratorsoffactorsfacilitatingor
hinderingeducationalattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Avigilant
eyewaskeptfortheemergenceofnewmeanings,concepts,andthemesthroughout
theinterviewprocess.Follow‐upinterviewsand/oradditionalinterviewswere
conductedwithkeyinformantstoclarifyinformationandgainadeeper
understandingofmeaningfromtheinsider’sperspective.
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Observation
Fieldobservations(Berg1989;DenzinandLincoln1994;Babbie2007)were
conductedasanongoingprocessthroughoutthespringandfallsemestersof2009
PSU.Observationsfocusedonmanyareasoforganizationalstructureandsocial
interactionsuchasthephysicalenvironmentofthecampus,theeconomic,social,
andculturalenvironment,thesemanticenvironment,andthehumanenvironment
ofteachers,students,andstaff.
ParticipantObservation
Myinvolvementwiththestudents,officers,andactivitiesoftheNative
AmericanClubwasinvaluableingainingthehighestpossibledegreeofemic
understanding.ClosecontactandcooperationwiththeNativeAmericanStudent
Advisormadeitpossibleformetobewelcomedandacceptedbytheclubmembers.
Whileitisalwaysaconcernforthesocialresearchertomaintaintheappropriate
distancefromtheresearchsubject,IbelieveIhaveaccomplishedthiswhilealso
developingmanyfriendshipsbasedonagenuinefondnessofandcommitmentto
thepeoplewhoarethefocusofthisstudy.
DocumentaryDataAnalysis
Qualitativedescriptionandinductiveexplorationalsoguidedtheanalysisof
multipledocumentarydatasources(MilesandHuberman1984;Berg1989;Denzin
andLincoln1994;)providedbyeachuniversityentitydealingwithNativeAmerican
73
students.ThesesourcesincludecurriculumofAmericanIndianStudiesprograms
listedinthePSUcoursecatalog,literatureforincomingstudents,NativeAmerican
webpagesonuniversitysites,calendarsofAmericanIndianculturalevents,
testimonialsfromcurrentandformerstudents,andothersourcesthatwere
discoveredthroughouttheresearchprocess.Thiswidearrayofdocumentary
materialsservedasbackgroundtoprovideanenhancedcontextualunderstanding
ofwhatPSUcurrentlyoffersitsNativeAmericanstudentpopulation.University
recordsofretentionandgraduationratesforNativeAmericanstudentswerealso
collected.
DataCollectionandAnalysis
Fromthebeginningofthisproject,theprocessofdatacollectionwas
continuouslyintertwinedwiththeprocessofdataanalysis.
DataCollection
Duringeachinterview,handwrittenfieldnotesweremadeontheinterview
guideandconsistedofthecondensedaccountasdescribedbySpradley(1980).
Immediatelyaftereachinterview,thesecondensednotesweretransferredintoa
moredetailedfieldjournal(Spradley,1980).Thisjournalcontainsdetailed
descriptionsofthetoneoftheinterview,includingmyimpressionofthe
interviewee’slevelofinterestin,andcommitmenttotheinterview,aswellasmy
ownreflexiveinterpretationoftheexperience.Inallcases,fieldnotes,including
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condensednotesandfieldjournalwereattendedtoandcompletedinasmuchdetail
aspossiblewithin24hoursoftheinterview.
Fullfieldnotesconsistedofverbatimtranscriptsofexactcommentsmadeby
eachinterviewee.Thesetranscriptswereaccomplishedthroughtheuseoftwo
redundantsystemsofdigitalrecording.
EachinterviewsessionwasinitiallyrecordedusingtwoOlympusDigital
VoiceRecordersmodelVN‐3100PC.Theserecorderswereplacedinabalanced
positionrelativetoallspeakersinvolvedintheinterviewinordertoensurethebest
possiblesoundquality.Anotherreasonforusingtworecorderswasasaredundant
systemincaseoneoftherecordersmalfunctioned.Freshbatterieswereinstalledin
eachrecorderpriortoeachinterview.
Immediatelyaftereachinterview,Itransferredthedigitalaudiofilesonto
GatewayPClaptopcomputerusingsoftwareprovidedwiththedigitalrecorders.
Eachfilewaslabeledusingindicatorsfordate,time,interviewsubjectorfocus
groupidentifiers.Oncethedigitalaudiofilesweretransferredtothelaptop
computerandwereverifiedtobesound,theoriginalrecordingsweredeletedfrom
theOlympusdigitalrecorders.Thiswasdoneinordertoensurethesafeguardingof
participantconfidentialityasthedigitalrecorderscouldhavebeenmisplaced.The
digitalaudiofilesstoredonthelaptopremainedsecurelylockedinmyoffice.
In‐processmemosreflectedthecontinuallydevelopinginterpretationof
qualitativedataaswellastheunfoldingofmyownreflexiveprocessasthe
collectionandinterpretationdataprogressedthroughoutthetranscriptionprocess
75
andsubsequentinterviewsessions.Thesememosarecontainedwithinthe
interviewtranscripts,as((parentheticalComments)).Theyarealsocontained
withinfieldworkjournalentriesandcondensedfieldnotesontheinterviewguides.
DataAnalysis
Theprocessfortranscribingeachinterviewsessionwasconcurrentwiththe
processofdataanalysisthroughtheformationofcategoriesrelevanttotheresearch
question.Foreachseparateinterview,thatprocessstartedasIlistenedtothe
interviewinitsentirety.Duringthisaudioreview,Imadefurtherdetailednoteson
theinterviewguide.Thesenoteswerefocusedonrelevantpointsandthe
connectionbetweensuchpointsandthosemadebyotherinformantsorinother
interviews.Thesenoteswereaccompaniedbytimemarkerstakenfromthecounter
providedbythedigitalaudiosoftwarethatwasalwaysvisibleonthePClaptop
display.Inthisway,Iwasabletoreferdirectlytoanygivenstatementmade
throughouttheinterviewandquicklyretrieveitifnecessary.Thisinitialaudio
reviewwasveryvaluableinallowingmetobecomeincreasinglyfamiliarwiththe
contentoftheinterviewswhilesimultaneouslyallowingforsomefoundational
categorizingofthesubstantivedata.
Thenextstepinthetranscriptionprocesswasbyfarthemosttime
consumingandlaborintensivestepintheprocess.Thiswastheactualverbatim
transcriptionofeachinterview.Thiswasaccomplishedthroughlisteningtoand
typingeverywordthatwascontainedintheaudiorecordings.Throughoutthis
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processIalsomadenotesregardingmood,toneofvoiceandemotionsthatwere
evident.Thiswasatediousprocessthatrequiredconstantlystoppingandre‐
windingtherecordinginordertoaccuratelytranscribeeachinterview.Greatcare
wastakenthroughoutthisprocessinordertoassurevalidityofthedataby
transcribingtothehighestpossiblelevelofaccuracywhileconstantlysafeguarding
theoriginalmeaningincontextandcontent.Thecompletionofthetranscription
phaseleftmewithahighqualitytextualformofdatagainedintheinterviews.The
nextstepintheanalysisofthedatawouldbethecategorizingofdatainto
meaningfulgroupingsofdatarelevanttotheresearchquestion.
Basedonsensitizingconceptsgleanedfromareviewofcurrentrelevant
literature,acodingschemewasdevelopedallowingforthecategorizationofdata
gainedfromfocusgroupandintensive,in‐depthinterviewtranscripts,andthe
resultantfieldnotesandreflexivememos,intotheoreticallymeaningful‘databins’.
Thesedatabinswerethenfurtherrefinedintoincreasinglydetailedunitsof
meaningcomingdirectlyoutofinterviewtextsanddirectlyrelatedtotheresearch
questionasindicativeoffactorsthatserveaseitherfacilitatorsorbarriersto
AmericanIndianacademicattainmentatPSU.Thecodingschemewascolor‐coded
usingahighlighterfunctionavailableonMicrosoftWordforMac2008.
Thebinlabeled‘Facilitators’wascolor‐codedYELLOW.Thebinlabeled
‘Barriers’wascolor‐codedGRAY.Thebinlabeled‘Culture’wascolor‐codedBLUE.
Thebinlabeled‘Place’wascolor‐codedRED.Thebinlabeled‘ReferenceGroups’was
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color‐codedGREEN.Thebinlabeled‘EmergentThemes’wascolor‐codedPURPLE.
And,thebinlabeled‘NormativeStatements’wascolor‐codedTURQUOISE.
Oncethecodingschemewasdevelopedandtestedagainstthefoundational
categorizationofdataascarriedoutfromthebeginningof,andconcurrentwiththe
processofdatacollectionandanalysis,theprocessofactualcodingcouldbedone.
Towardthisend,Ire‐readeachinterviewtranscriptandappliedthecolor‐coded
highlighttoalltextfallingunderaconceptualcategoryaslabeledinthecoding
scheme.Forexample,inapplyingthecodingschemetoFocusGroup#1interview,I
readthatinterviewtranscriptfromtoptobottomandappliedaYELLOWhighlight
toanyandalltexthavingtodowiththeconceptuallabel‘Facilitators’.Likewise
weredonewiththeconceptuallabel‘Barriers’andtheGRAYhighlight.Andsoon
throughoutthetext.Thisprocesswasappliedtoeachinterviewtextforeachofthe
conceptuallylabeledcategories.Theendresultofthisprocesswastheapplicationof
multiplecoloredhighlightedtextsthroughouttheinterview.
Itshouldbenotedatthispoint,thatinmanyinstances,ablockoftextmight
applytomorethanoneconceptualcategory.Forexampleagivenquotemightbe
dealingwith‘Culture’color‐codedasBLUE,andhowculturecanbeafacilitator,
color‐codedasYELLOW.
Thenextstepinthecodingprocesswastheactualseparatingoutfromeach
interviewofconceptuallycolor‐codedtextsintocategoricalbins.Thisprocesswas
againachievedbyre‐readingeachinterview.Atthisstephowevercodedcategories
weretakenfromwithinthecontextoftheoriginalinterviewandputintoanewbin
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specifictoagivencategory.Forexamplealltextscodedas‘Facilitators’and
highlightedYELLOWwouldbecutandpastedintoabin.Duringthisphase,text
blocksorquoteswerecategorizedbyintervieweeclass.Forexample,afacilitator
binwaspartitionedforallquotesmadebyfacultyoradministrators,orstudentsand
soon.Thisprocesswascarriedoutforeachconceptualcategory.Theresult,atthis
pointwasabineachforfacilitators,barriers,culture,place,referencegroups,
emergentthemesandnormativestatements.Eachoftheseconceptualbinswas
partitionedaccordingtointervieweeclass,i.e.faculty,administration,students,or
staff.
Thefinalphaseincodingthedatainvolvedfurtherrefiningthecategories
intoevenmoredetailedbins.Thecontentsoftheserefinedbinsincluded
subcategorieswithineachconceptuallycategorizedbin.Forexample,thefacilitator
binwasfurtherrefinedtoincludeabreakdownofallfacilitatorsincluding,support,
family,finances,andsoon.Furthermore,thefacilitators/supportbinwasthen
refinedintomoredetailedsubdivisionsincludingfacilitators/support/faculty,or
facilitators/support/peerreferencegroup,orfacilitators/support/family.This
refiningofeachcategoricalbinintomoredetailedsubdivisionswasappliedtoeach
oftheoriginalsevenconceptualcategories.
Throughthecarefulapplicationofthiscodingschemetothepainstakingly
accuratetranscriptionofqualitativeinterviewsIwasabletodeveloptheensuing
richdescriptionoftheAmericanIndianexperienceatPSU.Itistheemerging
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insider’sviewpointthatallowsforilluminationofwhatfactorscombinetofacilitate
orhinderacademicattainmentforthesestudents.
ValidityandReliability
Issuesofvalidityandreliabilityareconcernsinallresearchandespeciallyso
inqualitativeresearchprojectssuchasthis.Whencollectingdataintheformof
narratives,theissuesconcerningvalidityhavetodowithboththeresearcherand
thosesubjectsprovidingthenarrative.Detailingtherelevantcontextofobservation
isofparamountconcerninstrivingtoachievereliability(KirkandMiller1986).
Towardthisend,fourseparatekindsoffieldnoteshavebeenkept.Theseinclude;
condensed,intheformofnotestakenthroughouttheinterviewprocessand
recordeddirectlyontheinterviewguide,anexpanded(verbatim)account,inthe
formofdigitalrecordingskeptonfile,afieldworkjournal,includingnotesand
reflections,andarunningrecordofanalysis(Spradley1980).
Validityisindicatedbytheconstanttestingandretestingofemergingand
repeatedthemesoverthecourseofdatacollectionanddataanalysis.Throughout
thedatacollectionprocessthesamethemesemergedfromnumeroussourcesat
varioustimesandfromunconnectedsources.Thepointwasreachedwherethe
interviewguidesbecamelessusefulasanavigationaltoolandmoreofamile
markerofpredictability.Atthispoint,itcouldbesaidthattheoreticalsaturation
wasreachedandfurthersamplinghadreachedapointofdiminishingreturns.
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Validityisalsoenhancedthroughthetriangulationofqualitativemethods
includingintensiveinterviewing,fieldobservationanddocumentarydataanalysis.
Towardthatend,interviews,focusgroups,observation,anddocumentarydataall
contributedtoaholisticunderstandingoftheAmericanIndianstudentexperience
atPSU.Avalidstudyisonethatstrivestoderivemeaningfromtheperspectiveof
theinformant(KirkandMiller1986).Interviewschedulesandobservationguides
werepre‐testedandre‐tested.Throughoutthedataanalysisphase,acontinuous
processofcodingandre‐codingtheinterviewdatayieldedintra‐raterandinter‐
raterreliability.
Inanadditionalattempttoensurevalidity,draftsofcodeddatawere
submittedtotheCoordinatorofPSU’sAmericanIndianStudiesProgram,andthe
NativeAmericanStudentAdvisorforadoublecodingfromtheNativeperspective.
Bothwereaskedtoreviewmycodingscheme,myapplicationofthatschemetothe
data,andforpossiblealternativeinterpretationsofthedata.Thesetwooutside
codingadvisorshadnodisagreementswiththedataascoded.
ConsiderationofHumanSubjects
Thepurposesandproceduresofthisstudywereclearlystated,informed
consentwasobtained,andallparticipantswereinformedoftheirrighttorefuseto
participate.Allsubjectswereassuredthattheirresponsesaretobeheldinstrict
confidence.Allinformantswereassuredanonymity.Assoonaspossible,all
identifyinginformationwasseparatedfromdata.Copiesofthedissertationwillbe
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madeavailabletothosewithinterestandwillbeprovidedtothosestudy
participants.
Confidentiality
Focusgroupsessionsandpersonalinterviewswererecordedusingadigital
audiorecorder.Noindividualidentificationinformationwasattachedtothese
recordingsexceptforthetime,dateandplaceofthefocusgrouporinterview.
Respondent’sidentifyinginformationandtheirresponseswerekeptstrictly
confidentialwithnopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinany
reportsorarticlesarisingfromthisresearchproject.Interviewtranscriptswere
organizedusingacodingsystemwithidentitycodeskeptseparatefromactual
identification.Allidentifyinglinkstodataweredestroyedoncedatacollectionand
analysiswascompleted.Interviewrecordingswerekept;alongwithoriginal
identificationinformationandconsentformswerekeptinasecurelocation.Any
respondentsmentionedinthefinalresearchreportwereidentifiedusinga
pseudonym,andbirthplaceorplaceofresidencewaskeptconfidential.Anyplace
namesused,suchasspecificreservationcommunities,arereferredtousingonlyby
genericregionalidentifiers.Eachinterviewwastranscribedinthequickestpossible
mannerafterwhichoriginalrecordingsweredeleted.
Aftertranscriptionofpersonalinterviews,respondentsreceivedafull
transcriptfortheirreview.Followupcontactsweremadewitheachparticipantin
ordertoconfirmtheiragreementordisagreementwiththecontentastranscribed.
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Therewerenodisagreements,andinmostcases,participantswantedtoaddmore
information.
Recruitment
StudentswereinvitedtoparticipatethroughprimarycontactbyNative
AmericanStudentAdvisorinPSU’sMulticulturalStudentAffairsOffice(OMA).I,as
theresearcher,madenocoldcontacts.Oncecontactwasmade,studentsinterested
inparticipatingweredirectedtocontactme.Ithenscheduledindividualinterviews
andfocusgroupdates.Pizzaandsoftdrinkswereprovidedfortheparticipants,
facilitatinganinformal,comfortableatmosphere.ANativeAmericanfacultymember
wasalsopresentatthefirstfocusgroupmeeting.Thishelpedcreateanatmosphere
oftrustandfacilitatedmoreopencommunicationamongthegroup.Nosuch
measurewasneededforsubsequentfocusgroups.
Administratorsandfacultymembersweresentaletterofintroductionalong
withadescriptionoftheresearchprojectandaninvitationtoparticipate.
Appointmentswerethenscheduledthroughtheappropriatechannels.
Praxis:thePracticalApplicationofResearch
GiventhecontinuingdisparitybetweengraduationratesofAmericanIndian
andnon‐Indianstudents(Paveletal.2008),theimplicationsofthisstudymayhave
widerangingapplicationsfortheimplementationofculturallyrelevantprograms,
policiesandcurriculafocusedonincreasingretentionandgraduationratesfor
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AmericanIndianstudentsinhighereducation.Towardthisend,Iwillorganizeand
executeseminarswhereverandwheneverpossible,startingatPSU,forall
stakeholdersinterestedinthefindingsofthisresearchandhowthesefindingscan
beimplementedtoenhancetheunderstandingoffactorsthatcombinetohinderor
facilitateretentionandgraduationofAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Inkeeping
withthecriticalperspectiveofthisresearch,myhopeisthatincreased
understandingofsuchfactorswillleadtopolicychangesthatgreatlyincreasethe
chancesforeducationalattainmentforNativestudents.
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CHAPTERFIVE
Findings:Quantitative
AQuantitativePictureofDiversityatPSU
ThePrairieStateBoardofRegentsFactBookforthefiscalyear2010
providesaquantitativesnapshotintimeofthediversityofthePSUstudent
population.Forthefallsemesterof2009thetotalnumberofstudentsenrolledat
PSUwas12,376.At10,577,WhiteNon‐Hispanicstudentsaretheoverwhelming
majorityat83.9percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.At436,thegroupidentified
asAsian/PacificIslandersisthenextlargestgroupandthelargestofallminority
studentgroupsat3.1percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.Accordingtoseveral
administratorsIinterviewed,themajorityofAsianstudentsatPSUaregraduate
student/researchassistants.NativeAmericanstudentsnumber249andcomprise
thesecondlargestethnicgroupatPSUat2.3percent.Thereare168students
identifiedasAfricanAmerican/BlackNon‐HispanicatPSU,comprising1.5percent
ofthetotalstudentpopulation.Thegroupnumberingthefewestofanyidentified
ethnicpopulationisHispanicstudents,at122,or1.3percentofthetotalstudent
population.
RegardingthequantitativecategorizationofPSU’sminoritypopulations,the
caveatmustbemadethatanyaccountingofminoritynumbersisdependentonhow
minoritystudentsplacetheirownethnicidentityinthehierarchyofsalienceatany
giventimeandinanygivensituation.Forpurposesofthisresearch,whileallowing
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forthepossibilitythatthegroupnumbering824studentswhorefusedinformation
orarelistedas‘unknown’mayinfactincludemembersofanyethnicminority
group,includingAmericanIndianstudents.This‘unknown’grouphasbeenexcluded
fromtheaccountingofethnicgroupsexpressedasapercentageofthetotalstudent
populationduetotheunknownnatureofthediversemake‐upofthegroup.This
leavesonlythoseindividualswhoself‐identifyasamemberofthegroupslisted,
includingthosewhoselfidentifyasNativeAmerican.Table5.1displaysthe
diversityofthePSUstudentpopulation:
Table5.1
EthnicOriginPSUStudentPopulation:
Source:PrairieStateBoardofRegentsFactBookFY2010,RegentsInformationSystems.
AmericanIndian/Alaskan 249 2.3percent
Asian/PacificIsland 436 3.1percent
AfricanAm/Black,Non‐Hispanic 168 1.5percent
Hispanic 122 1.3percent
InformationRefused 81 0.7percent
Unknown 743 7.2percent
WhiteNon‐Hispanic 10,577 83.9percent
TotalEthnic/RacialOriginPSUStudentPopulation 12,376 100percent
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AComparisonofRetentionandGraduationRates
StatisticaldataonretentionandgraduationratesforallPSUstudents
categorizedbyethnic/racialgroupisavailablethroughthePSUOfficeof
InstitutionalResearch.Forthepurposesofthisresearch,andinkeepingwiththe
researchquestion,IwillmakecomparisonsonlybetweentheNativeAmerican
studentpopulationandallotherstudents.
Tables5.2and5.3showcomparativeretentionandgraduationratesofthe
first‐time,full‐time,Bachelor’sDegreeseekingstudentpopulationcategorizedas
NativeAmericanstudents(5.3)comparedtothetotalnumberoffirst‐time,full‐time
Bachelor’sDegreeseekingPSUstudents(5.2).Thisdatarangesintimefromthefall
semesterof2000throughthefallof2009.Somestudentsbeginningin2000arestill
continuingintothetenthyear.Dataislimitedforstudentsbeginningin2008and
willbeoffurtherinterestwiththepassingoftime.
Someobservationscanbemadefromthesedata.Firstisthevastdisparityin
cohortsize.Overthecourseoftimedepictedinthetable,someyears,incoming
NativeAmericanfreshmanstudentswereoutnumberedbyover100:1when
comparedtoallotherincomingfreshmen.
Anothersignificantdisparityisquicklyobservableinthenumberofstudents
thatcontinuefromthefirsttothesecondyear.Forthetotalincomingfreshman
studentstheretentionratefromfirsttosecondyearis77percent.Bycomparison,
theretentionratefromfirsttosecondyearforNativeAmericanstudentsis48
percent.
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Thestudynowturnsitsattentiontoenhancingunderstandingoftribal
students’experiencesatPSU.Intheensuingchapters,qualitativedatawillbe
presentedfrominterviewswithadministrators,faculty,staffandstudentsto
developfurtherinsightintofacilitatorsofandbarrierstoeducationalattainmentfor
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.
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CHAPTERSIX
Findings:Facilitators
“Somuchofitisaboutrelationships.It’snotjustthebricksandmortarofaplaceforcommunity...it’sabouttherelationshipsthatpeoplebuild.It’sfromthatcommunity—thoserelationshipsthatpeoplefindthestrengthandthesupporttheyneedtosucceed—inanythingreally.”
Analysisofthedatarevealsthatseveralfactorsactasbothfacilitatorsand
barriersdependingoncontextandthepeopleinvolved.Thischapterwillexplore
thosefactorsthatprimarilyactasfacilitatorstoacademicattainmentforAmerican
IndianstudentsatPSU.
Table6.1liststhosefactorsmostcommonlycitedasfacilitatorsofacademic
attainmentforNativeAmericancollegestudentsatPSU.Facilitatorsarelistedfrom
topdownwiththemostsalientlistedfirst.Thisrankorderwasderivedfroma
compilationofdatafromadministrators,faculty,staffandstudents.Whereasany
onegroupmayrankfacilitatorsdifferently,thistablecombinestheviewpointsofall
groupsforanoverallbestfitofallfactorscitedasfacilitators.
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Table6.1:FacilitatorsofAmericanIndianEducationalAttainmentatPSU.
Facilitator SampleQuotationSupport Itboilsdowntosupport...makingan
environmentwherestudentsfeelsupported.(SupportStaff)
Culture
...Buttheseelders,theyshowedmethatmyreligion...wasimportantwhenIwasgrowingup...Thatwasmystrength,formetofamiliarizemyself....sweat‐‐‐andthat’slikeourchurch....andeventuallytheSunDance.(NativeAmericanStudent)
Financial ...wedohaveseveralNativeAmericanscholarships…theonly[ethnic]grouponcampusthathasspecificscholarshipsgearedtowardthem.(Administrator)
Amongthosefactorsthatactasfacilitators,inthisstudy,offoremost
significanceistheover‐archingthemeofsupport.Containedwithinthesupport
themeareseveralmorespecificareas,orissuesencounteredbyNativestudents
whereinsupport,orlackthereof,isthenumberonefactorimpactingeducational
attainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withoutsupport,thecollegecareer
ofaNativeAmericanstudentatPSUmaybeshortlived.
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Facilitator:Support
SupportiveFamily Amongfacultyandadministratorsinterviewed,therewasuniversal
agreementthatfamilysupportplaysanimportantroleincollegesuccessfor
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Amongthesevoicesisthenon‐NativeDirectorof
arecruitmentandstudentsupportprogram:
Ithinkfamilyishugelyimportantinourstudents’success.Manyofoursuccessfulstudentshavestrongfamilysupport.Familycanbequiteanumberofdifferent‐‐Ilookatfamilyasvery,verybroadsense.Itcouldbeaspouse,itcouldbeapartner,children,itcouldbeparents,itcouldbeguardian,aunts,uncles,grandmothers,whatever,butsomanyofoursuccessfulstudentsdohaveafamilynetworkthatsupportsandbolsterstheireducation...Wearetryingtoincorporatefamilymoreintoourholisticapproachtohelpingstudentssucceed.SoIthinkthat’sahugefactorinAmericanIndianstudentsuccess.
TheWhitemaleCoordinatorofUniversityDiversityEnhancementagreed
withtheimportanceoffamilysupportforNativeAmericanstudents:
Familyisextraordinarily,extremelyimportant.Whileit’simportantforeveryone,it’sespeciallyimportantforNativestudentsbecausetheyhavetraveledfromoneworldtoanotherandwhentheyarrivehere,theyoftenarequiteisolatedfromthekindofemotionalsupportthatafamilycanprovide...Significanceoffamilyfornativestudents,especiallythoseraisedtraditionallyonthereservationsis,inmyopinion,farmoresignificantthanforthetypicalnon‐Indianinthisparticularculture.
ManyPSUNativestudentscitefamilyasamajorsourceofsupport.Family
membersprovideemotional,motivationalandlogisticsupportforstudentswho
oftenfeeloutoftheirelementonamainstreamuniversitycampus.
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SeveralNativestudentscommentedontheimportanceoffamilysupportof
theircollegeexperience.Afemalestudentfromareservationcommunityspokeof
familysupport:
Mymomdidn’tfinishcollegelikea‐‐‐whatdoyoucallit?Traditionally.ThenshewentbacktoSinteGleskaandshegotherdegreeforteachingNativeAmericanStudiessoshe’sreallyexcitedthatI’mgoingtocollegeandgettinganeducationandsheencouragesit,nomatterwhatandshethinksit’sthemostimportantthingbecauseshedidn’tgettodothat.Anotherfemalestudentraisedinareservationbordertownsaid:
Likemyfamilyisthemostimportantthingtome.Weareverycloseandit’sjustashardformetoomoveaway.Athirdfemalestudent,alsofromareservationbordertown,agreed:Personally,Ihave100percentsupportfrommyfamily.Noquestionsaskedinanyaspectofanything.100percentsupportthere.
NotallNativestudentsatPSUarefromtheMidwest.Addingabitofdiversity
amongNativestudents,onegraduatestudentspokeoftheimportanceoffamily
supportofthecollegeexperiencefromtheviewpointofasouthwesternNative
Americanfamilybackground:
Myfamilyhasplayedahugerolethroughoutmyschoolsanddegrees.MysisterwenttoNotreDame.Bothofmyparentsweremigrantfarmworkers.Theydidn’tgetaneducation‐‐‐wellmymotherhadasixthgradeeducation,myfatherhadaneighthgradeeducation.ButhealsogothisGEDat25yearsold.Butatanearlyagetheywouldalwaystellus;education,education,betteryourself,betteryourself.Youknowand—sometimesit’seasiersaidthandone.Alotoftimespeoplewhodon’thavethemeansgointothemilitary.Andthensometimesyougointhereandlearndiscipline.Butmyfatherdidn’twantustogointothemilitary.Onethingthathelpedus,mysisterandI,isthatmymothertookusoutwhenIwas10andmysisterwas9tohelpinthefields.Weworkedoutthereoneday.That’sallittookandIsaid,“nothisisnotforme.”Andthenwhenwegothome,mydadtoldus;“Ifyoudon’tgetaneducation,thefieldswillneversaynotoyou.There’salways
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ajobforyououtthereinthefieldswithoutaneducation.”SoIwouldthinkfamilyisthebest—orthemajorthing.Familymembersoftenprovidelogisticalaswellasemotionalsupport.Thisis
especiallytrueforsingleparentswhorelyonfamilyforhelpwithcaringforyoung
childrenwhileparentsareinschoolorworking,oftenatmorethanonejobwhile
alsotakingafullcreditload.Anon‐traditionalstudentcitedtheimportanceof
familyhelpwithchildcare:
ThereasonI’mstayinghere,thenumberonereasonismyMomandmydaughter.WithoutmymomIwouldn’tbeabletocontinuedoingwellinschool...theonlyreasonIamstayingisbecauseIhavesomeonetohelpmewithmydaughter.
SupportiveFriends Afterfamilysupport,anetworkoffriendswascommonlycitedasan
importantsourceofsupport.OneNativestudentsaid:
Ithinkpeopleareanasset.Youknow?Peoplethataretheretosupportyou,andpeoplethatencourageyouandsay‘youcandoit’.‐‐‐Wekidaroundbutit’sakindofsupportforeachothertogetthroughcollege.
Onefacultymemberpointedtotheformationofsupportiverelationshipsas
ofprimaryimportancetostudentsuccess.Theserelationshipsarenotrestrictedto
friendshipsorfamily,butalsoincludementorshipbyfacultyandstaffinandaround
thecampusenvironment:
Somuchofitisaboutrelationships.Ithinkthatwhenwe’reinourowncommunitywithpeoplewhoarelikeus,that’saloteasiertopulltogetherthanwhenyou’realone.Butsomuchisaboutrelationships.It’snotjustthebricksandmortarofaplaceforcommunity.Thatdefinitelycanhelp,butyoucandoitinatentorwherever‐‐‐it’sabouttherelationshipsthatpeoplebuild.
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It’sfromthatcommunity—thoserelationshipsthatpeoplefindthestrengthandthesupporttheyneedtosucceed—inanythingreally.
NativeCommunity TherewasalmostuniversalagreementamongPSUfaculty,staffand
administratorsontheimportanceofaNativecommunityandpeerreferencegroup.
SeveralNativestudentsspeakopenlyabouthowasupportivegroupofpeersisa
facilitatortocollegesuccess.Anon‐traditionallyagedmalestudentfroma
reservationcommunitycitedtheimportanceofasupportnetwork:
Regardlessand,likeIsaid,ifyouhavethatfamily,awayfromhome—thenwecanmakeit.Youknowlikehere—there’sagroupofalotofus—there’smanyofusbutthenweallsicktogetheranditjustbranchesoutandwealltrytokeepeachotherhereand...Atraditionallyagedfemaleupperclassman,fromabordertown:YouknowIthinkmorethananything,wekeepeachotherhereratherthanPSUkeepsushere.Imean—
And,atraditionallyagedmaletransferstudentfromareservationtown
mentionedtheimportanceofthepeersupportedfoundintheNativeAmericanClub:
Yeah,Ihavealocalnetwork.Imean,IcomeinandImeettheseguys.IseethemmoreasmyfriendsthanthepeopleIknewbeforeIcametoschoolhere.It’sbecausewehavesomuchmoreincommon.Andit’slike;IlovetheNativeAmericanClub.That’smyfavoritethingaboutthisschool.Icome,hangoutwithpeoplewiththesamekindofbackground,thesamesenseofhumor.It’salotmorerelaxingandIthinkifwehadahouseitwouldevenbealotbetter.
SeveralstudentscommentedabouttheimportanceofhumoramongNative
students:
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That’sagoodpointwiththatsenseofhumorpart.Becauseifyoucanimagineyourselfherewithoutthatclub,howoftenwouldyoubelaughing?AndwhatishumortoNativepeople?It’saformofsurvival—Sowhetheryouregisteritthatway,that’swhatoneofthethingsisforyou.Itjusttakesalotofthestressaway—fromeverythingelse.
Manyfacultyandstaffmembersshareanunderstandingequaltothe
studentsthemselvesoftheimportanceofacommunitytoNativestudent
persistence.Onecommented:
WellIthinkthattheyneedtofeelathomehere,andtheprimarywaythattheycanfeelathomeisiftheycanmakeconnectionwithothertribalstudents.SotheNativeAmericanClubisespeciallyimportantforsomeofthem‐‐‐andorsomekindofsupportgroupofotherNativestudents,whichgivesthemsomesenseofcommunity.Ithinkthat’simportantforthemtohavetribalrolemodelshere.SoIthinkit’sveryimportantforthemtohaveaNativeAmericanStudentAdvisor,aNativeAmericanClubAdvisor,andNativeAmericanfaculty,which,wehavesomeofthat—butnotnearlyenoughofit.
AWhitefemalestudentservicesupportprogramdirectordrawsananalogy
tootherpeergroupswhoprovidesupportivecommunityfortheirmembers:
Andthenagainfindingaplacewheretheycanallcongregatetogether,justlikeeverybodyelsedoes.Butlikesstickwiththelikes,andIdon’tknowifthat’sabadthing.Butithappensallover;footballplayers,basketballplayers,Greeks,theaterpeople,studentgovernmentpeople,rodeopeople‐‐‐allofthesepeoplefindagroupofpeoplelikethemselves,withcommoninterestsandcommonbackgrounds.Yougowithwhoyouhavestuffincommonwith.It’sthesamewithcareersandmajors,allthepeoplewithcommoninterestshangtogether…Whatpeoplealwaysgetsohunguponis;‘Whydotheyalwayswanttobetogether?Whyshouldweencouragethatsegregation?ButItrytoexplaintopeople,it’slikethatwhereveryougo.IfIgotoaconference,I’mgoingtositwithagroupofwomen.I’mnotgoingtogotoatablefullofmenandsay;‘Hey,how’sitgoing.’Whereveryouare,youlookforlikepeople.
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SupportiveFaculty AmericanIndianstudentsatPSUpointedtotheimportanceofsupportive
facultymembersincontributingtocollegesuccess.Anon‐traditionallyagedmale
studentfromareservationcommunitysharedhisperceptionsofsomefaculty
members:
Someteacherswilltotallyunderstandwhereyouarecomingfrom—andahh—likeyourfamilyissuesandlike,youknow,yourculture.Anothermalestudentfromareservationcommunityaddedhisthoughts:Thereareprofessorsherethatknowaboutthecultureandthehistoryandtheyteachthesubjectsfromtheheartandfromarealdeep‐seatedinterestinNativeculture,history,andpeople.And,fromatraditionally‐agedfemalefromabordertown:Imeanthegenuinepeople...theyfoughtforus.Theyreallycared.Theywouldbeherehourslaterthantheyhadtobe—doingwhateveritwasthatweneeded....Ithinktherearesomeinstructorsthat,nomatterhowmanystudentstheyhaveintheirclass,they’llgotoanylengthstomakesurethatstudentlearns.Somearereallycommittedandsupportive.
AmongPSUAmericanIndianstudents,andothersinterestedinAmerican
Indianeducationatthisuniversity,itisgenerallyagreedthatthereisacoregroupof
facultyandstaffthataredeeplycommittedtothefosteringofapositiveeducational
experienceforthisuniversity’sNativestudents.Thiscadreofsupportiswellknown
andcommonlymentionedinvariouscirclesandcontextsregardingtheNative
studentexperience.Throughoutmyinterviewsconcernwasrepeatedlymentioned
forthetimewhenthesesupporterswillbegintoretire.Students,administrators
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andfacultyhaveallpointedtotheneedtobringinnewfaculty,staffand
administrationthatwillcarryonthistraditionofsupport.
Onestudentsaiditespeciallywell.“Itmakesyouwonderwhatwillhappen
whenthesepeopleretire.Iftheyarenotreplaced‐‐‐‐thenwe’llhavenoone.Ifit
weren’tforacoupleofthem,thiscampuswouldbethreedecadesback.We’dbe
evenfurtherbehindthanweareifitwasn’tforthem.”
Ahigh‐rankingadministratoralsomentionedaparticularprofessorwhois
seenasachampionofAmericanIndianstudentsandmirroredthissentiment.That
professorspeaksofprogressmadetowardincreasingfacultysupportoncampus:
I’mencouragedthesedaysbythefactthatmoreandmoreofmycolleaguesaretryingtobemoreinclusiveintheirthinkingandintheirteaching.Andadministratorsareshowingsomesignsofwantingtobemoreproactiveandtodothekindsofthingsthatarelongoverdue....They(thestudents)needanunderstandingfaculty—andbythat,Imeanfacultymemberswhohavesomeappreciationoftheirhistoryandculture,wherethey’recomingfromandwhattheyarehopingfor.Wecertainlyhaveimproveddramaticallyinthatareathroughtheyearsandvariousprograms.Iwouldsaythatmostofthetribalstudentswhogiveitachance,findsupportivefacultymembers.
SupportiveAdministration WithoutuniversityadministratorssensitivetoissuesparticulartoAmerican
IndianstudentsandinterestedinprovidingaqualitycollegeexperienceatPSU,
chancesforNativestudentsuccesswouldbelimited.IndicationsarethatPlains
StateUniversitydoeshaveaverysupportiveadministrationdedicatedtocreatinga
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universityenvironmentconducivetoacademicsuccessforitsNativeAmerican
studentpopulation.
InJulyof2009,PSUappointedanewProvostandVicePresidentfor
AcademicAffairs.Onefacultymemberwhohasplayedapivotalroleinhelping
AmericanIndianstudentsmaketheadjustmenttolifeonamainstreamcollege
campusspeaksofthesupportofandcommitmenttoacademicsuccessforNative
students:
OurcurrentProvostisjusthugelysupportive.I’vesaidthismanytimesinmanycontexts‐‐‐theirworkonthe2+2+2program‐‐‐justsetthemodelforAmericanIndiancollaboration,andforthesuccessofAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Andbecauseofthewaytheydidthings,theyweresoinclusive,‐‐theywerenotonlywonderfulmodels,andwonderfulinnovators,‐‐um—andenergeticleaders,butintheprocessof2+2+2,theybroughtinsomanypeople,likeme,whojustlearnedfromthem.SoourProvost,fromtheacademicsideishugelysupportive.
InthewordsoftheProvostherself:
Ithinkprimarily—well,letmestartoutbysayingthatthereareseveraldifferentofficesandgroupsofpeoplewhoreallyhavebeenchargedtofurtherdiversityeffortsoncampus.Thenwehavesomeadvisorygroups.Wehaveadiversityadvisorygroupthat’smadeupofabout16people.ItincludesStudentAffairsandAcademicAffairsfacultyandtheymeet,generallyaboutonceamonth.AndtheyreallytakeondiversityissuesandtrytoprovideadviceandcouncilbacktotheDirectorforDiversityEnhancementwhothenkindofcarriesoutthework.
…Havingsaidthat,thereareawholelotofotheradvisorygroups,andI
won’tbeabletotellyouallofthembut—forexample,Athletics,hasadiversityadvisorygroup.Imeantherearemanyotherthingsoutthereaswell.SoIcan’tjustpointtoonepersonandsay‘theydoit’,butyetwekindofhavethisUniversityDirectorofDiversityEnhancement,andthenwehavealotofotherthingshappening.Wekindofaskthatpersontokeeptheirfingeronthepulseofwhat’shappeningoncampus.Tobringissuesup,totrytodoprogrammingandotherthingssothatwecanbeasdiverseofacampusaswecanpossiblybeatPSU.
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SoIthinkwhatwe’vereallytriedtodoistoprovideveryovertwaysthattheycanhaveavoice.Forexample,oneofthosewaysisintryingtohaveanactiveaspossibleofaNativeAmericanClub.Wheretheycancometogetherandtheycanbeanidentifiablegroupandwheretheydohaveavoice.Where,iftheydohaveaconcern,theyhaveanavenuethattheycantakethatup.Youknow?‐‐throughtheirclub,throughtheiradvisorandsoforth.SoIthinkthat’sawaythatwe’vereallytriedtoenhanceminoritystudentsonthiscampus.Wehaveanumberofprogramsthatwehavetriedtodevelopthatnotonlyrecruitsthemtocomeherebutalsotriestohelpthembesuccessful.
UniversityCommunitySupport TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisordescribedthecampussupportsystem
thisway:
IthinkthereisalotofsupportforNativeAmericanprogramsoncampusindifferentareas.Somehavesuggestedthatit’sthesizeoftheschoolthatcanbeintimidating,butIthinkifyoufindacommunity,it’snotthatbig.Youknow?Spreadoutwise—numberwiseit’sbig.Butnostudenthereknowsall12thousandofthePSUstudents.That’swhycommunityisimportantinprovidingsupportthattheymayhavehadateitherboardingschoolorattheirhomecommunity...likeasortofextendedsurrogatefamily.
SupportServices FromtheviewpointofthePSUAdmissionsOfficeMinorityStudentRecruiter,
supportservicesforminoritystudentsareofutmostimportance:
Theidealsituation‐‐‐‐Youknow,forme,Ijustkeepcomingdowntostudentservices.That’swhatitcomesdownto,forme.Ifstudentsfeelliketheyaresupportedthroughstudentservices,Ifeelliketheycanexcel.Again,thereisnooneanswer,butIdofeelthatstudentservicesmakeabigimpactonhowcomfortableastudentfeels.AndIhadtosay;well,actually,wedohavealittlebitmorethansomeplaces.
SomeNativestudentsareawareofStudentSupportServicesandhavemade
useofthehelpavailable.Onestudentspokeofhisexperiencewithsupportservices:
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Tutoring.TheWritingCenter.Ididn’tknowaparagraphorasentencehadtohaveanounoranadjective.Ijustwrote.WhenIdidadiagnostictestinEnglish1,itwasallmarkedup.So,IwenttotheWritingCenterandthatlastpaperthatIwrote,Iwroteonmyown.IgotanAonmylastpaper.Thathelpedmealot.SodidtheChemistryonetoo.StaffatPSU’sStudentSupportServicesCenteroffersavarietyofservicesfor
qualifiedNativestudentsinterestedingettinghelpinadjustingtocollegelife.The
directorofStudentServicesexplains:
Wetryveryhardtomakethemawareoftheopportunitiesthatareavailable.Whentheyarestillinhighschool,wetrytosendtheminformationbywhatevermeanswecan,aboutthepossibilitiesandwhat’savailable.Wehaveaprettygoodnetworkwithinthisstate,withintheTrioorganizations.ThereareactuallydifferentprogramsthatfallundertheumbrellaofwhatiscalledTrio.Prettymuchallofthemarebasedinhelpingstudentsthatarelowincome,firstgenerationstudentswithorwithoutdisabilities,togaincollegeaccess.Wehaveacoupleofthemhereoncampus,StudentSupportServicesistheoneIworkwithandthenUpwardBoundistheotheronehereoncampuswhichisacollegeaccessprogramthathelpsthestudentstokindofmakethatbridgefromhighschoolintocollege.Andbeyondthat,wealsohavetheacademicprogramsinplacethataddress,atleasttoanextent,theminorityacademictraining.Forexample,wehavetheAmericanIndianStudiesProgram.Wehavearetentionprogramwiththatandit’sopentoallAmericanIndianstudentsandthatinvolvesastudytableforAmericanIndianstudents.ItinvolvesblockschedulingsothatstudentscangetintothesameclassestogethersotheyarenottheonlyIndianinaclasshereatPSU.Italsoinvolvescommunalhousing.
StudentSupportServiceprogrammingisbased,inpart,onthebeliefthat
sociabilityiskeytoafulfillingcollegeexperience:
Ahugepartofwhatwedoinourprogramwithallofourstudentsistohelpthemcometocampusandputdownrootsandfeelcomfortablehere,andfeellikethisishome.Itisabsolutelyimportanttohavethatpersonalcontact.Tryingtofind–evenifit’sjustoneortwopeople—butsomebodywho–maybeasastudent,youlookuptothem,maybenot,maybejustsomebody
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youjustmeetatorientation.Butthey’reafriendlyface,somebodythatknowswhatyournameisandwhyyou’rehereandwhatyou’reupto.Iwillhavestudentstellmethattheyjusthadsomebodytakeaninterestinthemfor30secondsatorientation,butthatmadeadifference.Itreallymadeadifference,becausesomebodycaredwhatmynamewas,whyI’mhere,whereI’mfrom. Ifwecanjustmakethatconnection,thenonthewayhome,theytakeawaythefeelingthatsomeonereallycared.Thatlittlestuffgoessofar.Afriendlyfaceoranoutgoingpersonalitycanbetremendouslyinfluential—itdoesn’thavetobefaculty—itcanbeafoodserviceworkeroracustodianinaresidencehall.Justbecausethatpersonsaid‘goodmorning’asthatstudentwasheadingoutfortheday.Sillylittleinsignificantthingsthatmakepersonalconnectionsaresuchhugedealsforstudents,especiallywhenthey’reinacircumstancewheretheyreallykindoffeelliketheyareanalieninadifferentworld.
StudentsupportservicesandthededicatedstaffatPSUappeartobean
importantfacilitatorofNativestudentcollegesuccess.Ofparticularinteresttome
asIinterviewedsupportstaffwastheirobviouslevelofcommitmenttohelping
Nativestudentssucceed.Asidefromthecommentstheymade,non‐verbal
communications,includingbodylanguage,voiceinflectionsandevenanoccasional
tearyeyewereevidenceofthedeeplyfeltmeaningthattheirjobsasfacilitatorsof
successheldforthem.
Facilitator:FinancialResources
Acrosstheboard,studentscitedfinancialconcernsassignificantlyimportant
regardingcollegesuccess.Interestingly,itwasnotmentionedasthemostsalient
factor.Infact,whilefinancialresourcesareimportanttoallstudents,theNative
studentsIinterviewedgenerallydidnotbringupthetopicunlessaskedspecifically
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aboutit.Thedatarevealsamixtureofviewpointsabouttheamountofand
availabilityofscholarshipsforNativestudents.Forexample,oneadministratorand
oneNativestudentsaidthattherewerenotverymanyscholarshipopportunitiesfor
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Anotheradministratorsaidthattherearean
abundanceofscholarshipsspecificallyforNativestudents.Furthermore,atPSU,
AmericanIndianstudentsaretheonlyminoritygrouptohavescholarshipsdirected
specificallytowardthem.
Itappearsthatthisdiscrepancyismainlyamatterofbeinginformedof
financialaidopportunities.MyinterviewwiththeDirectorofthePlainsState
UniversityOfficeofFinancialAidmadeitabundantlyclearthatfinancialaid
resourcesareavailabletoNativestudents.AlistofscholarshipsavailabletoNative
studentsisincludedintheappendices.
However,evensubsequenttothatinterview,Icontinuedtoheardivergent
opinionsabouttheavailabilityoffinancialaid.Financialrealitiesare,infact,
differentforeachstudent,asarethesourcesofpotentialsupport.Onefinding
relatingtothisistheneedforgreaterawarenessamongNativestudentsofthe
opportunitiesforfinancialassistancethatareavailabletothematPSU.
IaskedthedirectorofFinancialAidaboutthepercentageofNativestudents
whorelyonfinancialaidtoattendPSU:
Ahighpercentage—91percentofallofthestudentsatPSUreceivesometypeoffinancialaid.AndsotheNativestudents,iftheyareenrolledinadegreeprogram,andiftheyapplyforascholarship,andiftheyhaveothereligibility,meaningthattheyareacademicallypreparedinthesenseofhavinga2.0orhigher,theyarereceivingsometypeofascholarship.Sothe
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answerasapercentageis100percentifenrolledfull‐time.Now,thereissomemisunderstandingaboutfinances,becausethereisnofreeridefortheNativestudents.Andascostshaveincreased,otherfundingsourceshavenotkeptupwiththeincreasedcosts—andsomoststudents,includingNativestudentsaretakingoutsignificantstudentloans.It’samisperceptionamongmanypeoplethatNativestudentsaregoingtoschoolforfree.InPrairieState,therearenostateprograms.SomestatesdoallowstudentswhoareNativetotheirstatetogowithnotuitionandfeeexpenses.
Oneadministratorlistedscholarshipsasafacilitatorrelievingfinancial
strain,“Financial...wedohaveseveralNativeAmericanscholarships...morethan
foranyotherminoritygroup.Actually,that’stheonlygrouponcampusthathas
specificscholarshipsgearedtowardthem.”
Thereisanextensivelistofscholarshipopportunitiesavailablespecifically
forNativeAmericanstudents.ManyofthosearespecificallyforPSUwhilemany
othersareavailableforAmericanIndianstudentsregardlessofwheretheyattend
college.
Oneinterestingnoteforconsiderationisthatofallstudentsinterviewed,
nonementionedfinancialaidofanykindasafacilitatortocollegesuccess,rather,it
wascitedbyadministrators.Ihavelearnedfromvariousadministratorsthatseveral
NativestudentsatPSUaretherecipientsofscholarshipawards,someofwhichare
quitegenerousasinthecaseoftheGatesMillenniumScholarship.Onepossible
conclusiontobedrawnmaybethatstudentsseesupportintheformofhuman
interactionssuchasanencouragingwordorawarmgreetingasofprimary
significanceoverfinances.
AppendixGlistsscholarshipsavailabletoNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU.
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Facilitator:Culture
Justasfamilysupportemergesasaprimaryfacilitatorforcollegesuccess,the
issueofcultureemergesasanintegralpartoftheAmericanIndianstudent’s
identity.Culture,familyandidentityareintertwinedandcanprovideastrong
buttressagainstthediscomfortthatcancomewiththeculturaldiscontinuityof
movementfromthereservationcommunitytothemainstreamuniversity.Howthat
culturalidentityisnurturedandexpressedthroughoutthePSUexperiencemayplay
apivotalroleinthesuccessoftheNativestudent’scollegecareer.
NothingdescribesthisexperiencebetterthanthevoiceofanAmerican
IndianPSUstudent:
Iwasthinkingofoneofthethingsthatisimportantfromastudent’sperspective,notonlymyselfasanon‐traditionalstudent,istheirself‐confidence—andbeinginthistypeofsetting.Becauseoneofthethingsthatneedtobeconsideredis,wheretheycomefrom.Whatkindofrelationshiptheyhadwiththeirfamily—theirrespectedelders—evenliketheirteachers,orsomeoneinauthority.So‐‐‐‐youknow—inthatenvironmentathome,ofcoursethere’sconfidence.
FortheNativestudentwhobringsfromhomeandfamilyastrongsenseof
culturalidentity,cultureprovidesasortofempoweringsenseofcomfortina
strangeenvironment.
Oneofthecommonthemescitedasafacilitatorwastheopportunityforthe
NativestudentsatPSUtoexpressorparticipateintraditionalculturalactivities.
WhilesuchanopportunityisuniversallyseenasapositiveexperienceforPSU
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Nativepopulation,itmustbementionedconversely,thatlackofsuchopportunities
presentabarriertocollegesuccess.
Onestudentsharedhisperspectiveofcultureasafacilitatorinthisway:
OnethingIkeepgettingchoppedofffromsayingis‐‐‐‐umm‐‐‐justgrowin’upandcomin’‐‐‐Ihadalotofdeadtimeaftertheservicejustdrinkin’andpackin’onthepoundage‐‐‐Doin’nothin’yaknow?Iwastedthattimebut‐‐.Ididn’thavethatsupportingcast–fromthebeginning.Youknow?Ihadtofinditonmyown.And‐‐‐Istartedgrowin’myhair‐‐‐and‐‐‐notshavin’anymore,notrunnin’anymore(laughterfromeveryone.)Youknow?‐‐‐Buttheseelders,theyshowedmethatmyreligion‐‐‐whatIthoughtwasimportantwhenIwasgrowingup‐‐‐cuzonmydogtagsitsaidRomanCatholic.AndIknowI’mnotRoman,‐‐sowhyamICatholic?Yaknow?SoIreverted,Iconvertedbackto‐‐‐okay‐‐‐Iwatchedallthesehistoricalmovies;RabbitProofFenceandah‐‐‐BuryMyHeartatWoundedKnee,andaTattooonmyHeart,Running’Brave‐‐‐Butthat’swhatIreachedouttowhenIstartedtorealizemyidentityandthatwasmysupportingcast.Thatwasmystrength,formetofamiliarizemyself.Isaid‐‐‐okayum‐‐‐sweat‐‐‐andthat’slikeourchurch.…andeventuallytheSunDance.Ittookme15yearstoquitdrinkingandtosurviveoffthereservation‐‐‐Ilearnedthatintheservice‐‐‐but,tocomebackhometoPrairieState,nothin’changeshere.Imeanstuffdoesbut‐‐‐youknow,asfarasthisIndiansandWhitesthinggoes,it’salwaysgonnabethere.It’slikegangs,drugs,violenceitnevergoesaway.Soforme,thatsupportingcastofhelpingmefind‐‐‐likeare‐birthofmyspirit‐‐‐thathelpedmesoIcanbeheretoday.So‐‐‐nomatterhowmanyscarsIgotonmyface,oronmyknuckles,Idon’tcareanymore.I’llwalkthroughherelikeasorethumbandIdon’tcare‐‐‐People,Ithink,theyjustkindalookatmeandjustkindawalkawayandlookaround.Idon’tcare.I’mheretogotoschoolso‐‐.
WhenI’mdone,Iwanna‐‐‐IthinkIwouldbemore‐‐‐morehelpfuloutside‐‐‐outwithintheNativeAmericancommunitiesratherthanbeontheoutside.ButI’dliketoworkontheoutsidetogetexperience.AndIthinkIwouldprobablyhavealreadywithoutgraduatingrightnow,butIwannagraduatesothatwayIcanatleastgobackandhavethatwithme.‐‐‐Butthat’simportantforme.It’sgonnabeathankyoubacktothekids.Youknow?SomeofourkidsgrowupwiththeirGrandparentsbecausetheirparentsstillwannadrinkandparty.The‘youonlyliveonceattitude.’But,youwasteallthattime.And,Ididthatso‐‐‐Idon’tknow,I’dliketokindahelpbea
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supportingcastforyoungadolescents.Andwhetheritbecoachingor(unintelligible)…Iwantsomethingbetterthanthat,butifIcanrelatetokids‐‐‐youknow?That’simportanttomebecausealotofreservationkidsdon’thavethat.Theydon’thavethatsupportingcast.
ThemostsignificantwayconsistentlycitedbyAmericanIndianstudentsfor
facultytobeapartofthat“supportingcast”wasthroughculturalawareness,
culturalsensitivity,understandingandacceptance.
Conversely,oneofthemosthurtfulbarrierscommonlycitedbyNative
studentsweretheirexperienceswithculturallyinsensitiveorhostilefaculty.Inthe
nextchapterIwilladdresssomeoftheseexperiencesalongwithotherbarriersto
academicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.
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CHAPTERSEVEN
Findings:Barriers
Fromthereviewofliterature,onecanseemanybarriersencounteredby
AmericanIndiancollegestudentsarerootedinthehistoryofeducationasatoolto
forceassimilationandattemptstodestroyindigenouscultures(Berry1969).
Thoughasoutlinedintheprecedingchapter,positiveprogresstowardeducational
attainmenthasbeenmadeintheeducationofAmericanIndians,manybarriersstill
remain.StrideshavebeenmadetowardAmericanIndiancollegesuccessatPSU,
basedoncomparisonofqualitativedatagathered,indicationsarethatforthe
subjectsparticipatinginthisresearch,barriersoutweighfacilitatorsbymorethana
2:1ratio.
Table7.1providesalistofthemostsalientbarrierstoacademicattainment
forAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Barriersarelistedfromtopdownwiththe
mostsalientlistedfirst.Thisrankorderwasderivedfromacompilationofdata
fromadministrators,faculty,staffandstudents.Whereasanyonegroupmayrank
barriersdifferently,thistablecombinestheviewpointsofallgroupsforanoverall
bestfitofallfactorscitedasbarriers.
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Table7.1:BarrierstoAmericanIndianEducationalAttainmentatPSU.
Barriers SampleQuotationInstitutionalBarriers
Ithinkthatinstitutionalchangeisinorder,butisverydifficultbecausethisisthewayit’salwaysbeen.(Faculty)
PoorHighSchoolPreparation
OneofthegreatestshortcomingsIseewithNativeAmericanstudentscomingintoouruniversityispreparation.(SupportStaff)
PrejudiceorRacism
Ithinkabarrierisracismoncampus.Ithinkthatthereisalotofit.(NativeAmericanStudent)
LackofSupport
Butforus‐‐‐wejustwanttohavepeopleonourside...ifsomebodycomesherefromtherezanddoesn’talreadyhavethatconnectionitwouldbeharderforthem...(NativeAmericanStudent)
Family Some…parentshaveactuallyputintheirkidsheadsthattheuniversityisoutto‘makeyouoneofthem.’...Infact,I’vehadmorethanonestudentwhowouldbedoingverywell,academically,butaregettingcallsfromhomethataresaying;‘Youneedtocomehome.Youdon’tbelongthere.’(SupportStaff)
FinancialResources
Sofewofthestudentscomeinwithamplefinancialbacking.Thesestudentscomefromsuchincrediblypoorbackgrounds.(SupportStaff)
Community Well,PrairieStateisactuallytheheartofIndianandWhiteracism.(NativeAmericanStudent)
Culture Yeah,IjustthinkPSUgenerallydoesn’t…theyreallydon’tembraceNativeAmericansatall.(NativeAmericanStudent)
DominantCultureReferenceGroup
OneofthethingsInoticedwasthatalotofthestudentscomefromsituations,which‐‐‐theWhitesociety‐‐‐ormainstreamAmericaviewsdifferently.(SupportStaff)
Place(AIECC)
Firstofall,we’retheonlyschoolforhundredsofmilesaroundwithasignificantNativepopulationthatdoesn’thaveaNativeAmericanHouse.So‐‐‐youknow‐‐there’sahugegapinservicehereandwhatshouldbejustanaturalpartofwhatwedohere.(Faculty/Administrator)
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DatacollectedatPSUforthisresearchsupportspreviousresearchcitedin
theliteratureindicatingthatinstitutionalstructuralbarriersmaybeasignificant
factorhinderingacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.
EveryoneIinterviewedagreedthatsocialchangefocusedonimprovingthe
chancesforAmericanIndianacademicsuccessatPSUmuststartwiththePSU
administration.Somediscusseditintermsoftheinstitutionalmission.
InstitutionalBarriers
AveteranprofessorspeaksofthehistoryoftheAmericanIndiancollege
experienceatPSUspecifically,howthatcollegeexperiencehasbeenaproductofan
institutionalizedstructure:
Ithinkthatinstitutionalchangeisinorder,butisverydifficultbecausethisisthewayit’salwaysbeen.GenerationsworthofIndianpeoplebeingjustabliponthescreen,ornotonthescreenortangentialorperipheral,orsubordinate,orwhateveryouwanttocallit.It’sprettyhardtounlearnthat.There’snomodelforitintheeducationalexperiencesofmostPh.D.s.They’vejustbasicallygonethroughtheirvarioussystemswithoutmuchofaninterestindiversity.Diversityingeneral,letalonediversityofAmericanIndians.Ithink,historically,theuniversityhasbeenreactiveratherthanproactive.Andsothere’sbeenquiteafewthingsinresponsetoaccreditationreportsandaccreditationteamscominghereandevaluatingprograms,andsoforth,NorthCentralandotherwise—evaluatingprogramsandpointingoutthatweneedmorediversityemphasis.So,we’vebeenbehindthecurveforasmanyyearsasI’vebeenhere.Buthistorically,here,likeotherplaces,it’sbeenmostlyreactive.Andtheproblem,ofcourse,withthatisthatyoucan’tinstitutionalizechangethatwaybecauseit’ssomethingthatlooksminimallysatisfactoryonpaperbutitdoesn’tfundamentallychangetheinstitution—andso,ifyou’regoingbeproactive,Ithinkyouhavetore‐thinkthewholesystemandmakechanges
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thataretrulyfoundationalsothatyouarenotonlyaccommodatingdiversity,butwelcomingitandimmersinginitandlearningfromit.
RegardingtheLandGrantMissionoftheuniversity,thesameprofessor
continues:
...It’sbeenaglaringomissionactually,thattribalkidshavebeenunderserved....Universityadministration,asastructurefromthetopdown,doesn’tdirectlytakeresponsibility,asapriority,foraddressingissuesofdiversity,particularlyrelatedtoNativestudents,butrather,thatresponsibilityfallstoindividualpockets,orenclaveswithin.It’ssafetosaythatthroughtheyears,thecentraladministrationhavebeenreactiveratherthanproactive.Sometimesresponsivetowhatsomeofusaredoingandaskingfor,butrarelyareinitiators.Exceptforgivinglipservicetoit,ofcourse.Theyarereally,reallygoodatthat.
OneuniversityadministratoraddressesissuesconcerningthehistoryofPSU
andremainingbarrierstoAmericanIndianacademicattainmentfroman
institutionalperspective:
Idon’tknow,structurally,andI’mtalkingorganizationally,ifwe’vequitelandedonthebestorganizationtoworkwithdiversity.So,Ithinkwe’resiloey,ifthatmakessense.Youknowweliveinourlittlesilos,andIdon’tthinkwehaveenoughcrossintegrationhappeningwithourwork.Letmegiveyouanexample;Idon’tknowhowwellAdmissionsgoesoutandrecruitsNativeAmericanstudents.Idon’tthinktheyaredoing‐‐‐Iprobablyshouldn’tsaythisbut—Ithinkwecouldimprove...Admissionsofficethatisnotdoingverymuch.Sothat’sanexamplewhereImean,Idon’tknoworganizationally,ifwe’rereallyworkingacrossthewayweshouldandifwehaveeverybodyonboard.SometimesIthinkwegetsocomfortableworkinginourlittlerealmofthecampusworld—thatwe’renotdoingenoughtogether...wehavegottodoabetterjobofbringingacademicsandstudentaffairstogether.Theykindofoperateintheirownlittleworldsrightnow.Sothat’sanPSUproblem.Anditimpactshowwellwedoouttherewithrecruitingandactuallyservicingstudentswhentheycomehere.
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TheissueofPSUcommitmenttominorityrecruitingisonethatwas
continuouslyquestionedbyallinterviewees,includingadministrators,facultyand
staff.Oneadministrativestaffmemberspeaksfranklyaboutpriority,historically,
forminoritystudentrecruitment,includingrecruitingNativeAmericanstudents:
Wedon’thaveaveryextensive—(sigh)recruitingprogram.Wedon’thaveveryextensiveinformationforminoritystudents....ButIfeellikeatPSU,wewerenotreallygettingthatfromanywhereelse,youknow?...We’renotreallygettingthatpushfromanywheresowe’renotdoingit.
OnefacultymemberhasworkedtowardenhancingdiversityatPSUfor
decades.Amonghismanypassionswasworkingtowardanenhancedappreciation
forNativeAmericanstudents,andanappreciationforindigenouscultureasanasset
totheuniversity.
I’moftheviewthatwearenotfulfillingourmissionandpurposesverywell.Weneedtoreallyfocusonthatanddoabetterjobofit.Butit’sthere.It’sinthemission.It’swhatwearetobedoing.Wearetobemakingourinstitutionatleastreflectthediversitythat’swithinourownstate,becausewearetoembraceallofthepopulation.Butwealsoneedtorecruitindividualsintohighereducationtoprovidethosediversityexperiences.Forexample,therearehighschoolsthroughoutthereservationsthatarenevervisitedbyPSUeventhoughthenon‐nativeschoolsareallvisitedbyPSU.Theviewthat’sbeenpresentedtomeisthattheyieldofstudentswhoactuallywillcometoPSUissmall,andthatfundsforrecruitmentarebetterspentelsewhere.So—Ithinkthatthereisanimmediateconflicttherewithourmission.Theadmissionsofficeseemstobelookingmoretowardtotalnumbers,whilethemissionoftheuniversityislookingtowardservingallofthepeople.Andthosetwomissions,thosetwoapproacheshavenotyetbeenproperlyintegratedinmyview.Theadministration,inmyopinion,needstobothbetterfundandbetterinsistthatminoritystudentsberecruitedandretained.Thatis,thereneedstobedirectionfromhigheradministrationthatminoritystudentsarerecruited
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andthatfundingbeprovidedforthatpurpose.Wehaveminimalfundsdirectedtothateffortrightnow.So—theadministrationdefinitelywantstoseeithappen—buttheorientationtowardsmakingithappenjustdoesn’tseemtohavematerializedasyet.Theyseeitasaproblem,butnotonethattheywanttospendalotofmoneyon.Orevenverymuchmoneyon.It’saproblemthat’sbeenassignedtootherswhoareunderfundedandhavedifficultymakingithappen...Soitgetscomplicatedmakingthesethingshappen.ButIwouldsaytheadministrationjusthasn’tproperlyfundedordirectedittohappen.Butifyoutalkwithanyadministrator,they’lltellyoudiversityisimportantandthey’dliketoseemoreofit.Theyarejustnotmakingithappen.It’snotaveryhighpriority.Totalnumberssadlyseemstobeahigherprioritythandiversitywithinthosenumbers.
Itquicklybecomesapparentthatoneofthebarrierstoacademicattainment
forAmericanIndianstudentshasitsgenesisinthedivergentviewpointsconcerning
whattheprioritiesareinaddressingdiversityissues.Morespecifically,howthe
officialuniversitypolicyaddressesAmericanIndianstudentswithintheoverall
issueofdiversityhasadirectimpactontheNativeAmericancollegeexperience.
Anotheruniversityadministratordiscussestheirperspectiveondiversity
andeventhedefinitionoftheterm.Clearly,itisabroadissuethatextendsbeyond
theparametersofthisresearch:
Ithinkitwasveryinterestingtome—andIthinkit’sstillastumblingblock,toreallydefine‘what’sdiversity’.Youknow‐somepeopleareverypassionatethatitincludeseverything,ethnicity,sexualpreference,thewholegamut,includinggender.Andthereareotherpeoplethatreallywanttonarrowittojustethnicity,andthatdon’twanttodealspecifically,withsexualpreference—that’ssupposedtobeahotpointforsomepeople.ButIjustfoundthatverycurious.Mysenseandmyapproachisthatdiversityisveryglobal,andthatweneedtoberespectfulofallpeople.Andthatthatincludesnotonlyyouknow,peopletendtofocusonwhat’seasy,whichisthecolorofsomeone’sskin,andweseemtobeable,asasociety,toseewhat’spoliticallycorrectthere.ButIalsothinkthatmyviewisthatweneedtoberespectfulofwomen,andIstillthinkthereareissueswithgender.Nothere,butnation
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wide—Imeaneverywhere.AndIthinksexualpreferenceisamajorissue.AndI’dsaythatwhenyoutalkaboutdiversityinPrairieState,obviouslyworkingwiththeNativeAmericanpopulationisbigforPrairieStatebecauseofthenumberofreservationsandourmakeup.ButIwouldtellyouthatsexualpreferenceisanotherhotbuttoninthisstate.Andthatisanareaofconcernforusworkingwithstudentsbecausethat’sanothermajorprejudicethattendstopopup.Andthatdoesn’tmeanthatyougivepreferencetooneareaoveranother,butthatyouneedtoworkonallareasifwe’regoingtobeacommunity,auniversitythat’srespectfulofalldifference.
FromaDirectorofoneofthestudentsupportservicesoncampuscomes
furthertestimonyregardingtheconfusionofwhatdiversitymeans,whoisdefined
asdiverse,andwhereprioritieslie:
Ithinktherearepeopleonthiscampuswhodon’tincludeNativeAmericankidsaspartoftheiroutlookfordiversity.Whichissilly.Whenyoulookatthepopulationofourstate,Imeantheincrediblewealthofpotentialabilitythat’sthereintheNativekids—howwecannotlookonthatasaresourceisasinine,tome,frankly.Um—buttherearethosewhowanttomakediversityaeuphemismforworldly.Ah‐who‘wantkidsfromKuwaitandwewantkidsfromNepal,andwewantkidsfromwherever.’‐‐ontheothersideoftheglobebecausethatmakesusamoreworldlyuniversity.Andthere’ssometruththere.Imeanthatabsolutelyhassomeworththere.Buttocloseoutonegroupinfavorofanother,kindofdiffusesthewholemeaningoftheworddiverse.
AfacultymemberwhohasremainedveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndian
studentsformanyyears,addressestheissueofdiversityandexpressesdeep
concern:
IguessifyouareaNativeperson,aWhiteinstitutionisnotattractivetoyouespeciallyifthatinstitutiondoesn’thaveagoodreputationasbeingwelcomingandvaluingtheNativeculture.Sometimes,yougetthefeelingthat—wellmaybeit’smorethanafeeling—sometimestheworddiversityisthrownaroundbecauseit’spoliticallycorrectandit’ssomethingthathastobeaddressed,ratherthansomethingthatisaddressedbecauseit’sauniversallyheldvalue‐‐addressedfortherightreasons.
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AfacultymemberwhohasadministeredasuccessfulprogramforNative
studentsdiscussedhowtheuniversitydealswithdiversity:
Inaword,insufficiently,Ithinkwe’vemadealotofprogress,butstill,alotofpeopledonotappreciatethestrengthandthebenefitthatcomesfromhavingdiversefacultyanddiversestudentswhoareapartofthewholebigworldwelivein.Iwouldsaythereislessopenracism,butwestillhavealotofeducationtodowhenyouhavepeoplewhohavebeenhereforeverinleadershippositionsandtheyreallydon’tunderstandit...Andtherearestillalotofpeopleherewhohaveneverbeenexposedto–toknowhowitcanbenefitthisinstitutionandthemastheirownperson.
Oneprofessordiscussedadministrativesupportasfundamentaltotheinstitution’smission:
ThefirstthingthatpopsintomyheadaboutthatistheknowledgethatthisisalandgrantinstitutionandthatTribalCollegeshavethelandgrantstatusaswell.Andthatmeansweshouldallbeinthistogetheraboutusingourresourcestomakepeoplebebetterthrougheducation.
AnotherfacultymemberwhoisprimarilyinvolvedwithNativeAmerican
studentscomments:
ThisisaLandGrantinstitution.Anditissignificanttosaythatinthisstate,wehaveninereservations,andthosereservationsoccupy20percentofourlandmass...Ifourmissionistoservethepeopleofthestate,andwedon’tgetthatthosepeopleintermsof,certainlypeopleofcolorareAmericanIndianpeopleandthatisourcalling,thenwe’vereallysortofmissedtheboat.Ifourmissionisservingthepeopleofthestate,wehaveagiganticunderservedpopulation,righthere,whoare,intermsoftheuniversity,whoareourneighbors...ourfrontyardsjoineachother.Andforalargepartofourhistory,thehistoryofPSU,andthesystemofhighereducation,thegateshavebeenclosedtoourneighbors.Andso,tome,it’satotalno‐brainer.It’stotallyobviousthatcollaborationwithAmericanIndiancommunitiesandservicestoAmericanIndianstudentsisfirstandforemostinthemissionofthisuniversityandwhatwedohere.
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PoorHighSchoolPreparation
Congruentwithfindingsfrompreviousresearch,highschoolpreparation
wasacommonbarriertocollegesuccessmentionedbyadministrators,faculty,staff,
andstudentsatPSU.
ANativeAmericanupperclassman,workingtowardamajorinMathspeaks
ofhisexperienceinhighschoolinareservationtown:
Myparentsbothtaughtandtheysentmeto(Publicschool)justbecausetheeducationtherewas—welltheirmathandscienceprogramsarewaybetterthan(Tribalschool’s).(Tribalschool’s)highestmathclassisgeometry,whichisridiculouslylowifyouhadanyhopesofbecominganengineer.Cuzyouneed‐CalcandTrig—butanywaysImeanum—at(Publicschool),it’slikeanuphillbattle.Whenyougointoaclassroom,you’renoteven‐‐teachersdon’tevenlookatallthestudentsequally.AndI’mnotsayingthatalloftheteachersarelikethis,butmostofthemare.AndbeingNative‐‐youreallyhavetoproveyourselfthere.Imean,onceyouareconsistentlyontheirAorBhonorroll,thentheywillstarttorespectyou,butyouhavetodothateverywhereyougoat(Publicschool)...
AnotherupperclassmanworkingtowardadegreeinRangeSciencerecalls
histribalhighschoolexperienceinadifferentreservationtown:
Icanrememberinmyfouryearsthere,thestaffwouldselectcertainstudentsthatweredoinggoodacademicallyandtheywouldsolelyconcentratetheireffortsonthosestudents.Therestofthemprobablygotleftbehind.Andsowhenthey‐‐‐(pausesandcoughs)Alright,I’llputitthisway.WhenIwasafreshman,wehadabout160studentsinmyclass.Whenwegraduated—therewasonly48ofusthatgraduated.Therestofthemeitherfellbackbecausetheteachersjustweren’tgivingthetimeofthedaytoactuallyhelpthemwiththeirstudies—makingsurethattheylearnedthematerialfortheclasses—allofthat.Ummm—alotofteacherswouldratherhaveoneofthegoodstudents—theonesthatweregettingAsandBscomeinafterschoolanddoextrastuffforclassesandearntheextracreditorwhatever.Soalotofstudents—Ihadacouplefriendswhojustthought;‘what’sthepointofbeinginschool?’‘What’sthepointofgoingtocollege?’Thoseteachersdon’tcareaboutus...andoutofthe48ofusthatgraduated;only12ofuswentontocollege.
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ANativegraduatestudentrecountsherexperienceatatribalreservation
highschool:
Iactuallywentto(Tribalschool),wherethehighestmathwasgeometry.TheyofferedAlgebra2onlinewithlikeallofPrairieState,butitwasridiculousbecausetheteacherwouldalwaysbecalling(TribalSchool)out.They’dbelike;‘(Tribalschool),youaretwochaptersbehind.’Wewerelike;‘We’retryingtoteachourselvesthanks.’SoIwenttocollegeterrifiedofanymathorsciencecourses.
Somestudentsspeculatethatonefactorleadingtosubstandardhighschool
educationatreservationhighschoolsstemsfromabadfitbetweenreservationhigh
schoolsandpersonaltraitsthatsomenon‐Indianteachersbringtothoseschools.
Onesharedhisperspective:
Teachersthereareterrifiedtoteachattribalschools.SometimeswhenIdogoby(Tribalschool)orI’llgoandtalktomymom,theteachers—theyjusthavethehardesttimecommunicatingwithNatives.Theyjusthaveahorribletime.Idon’tknowwheretheinteractionbreaksdown.Idon’tknowwhatthecauseandeffectsare.Idon’tknowifit’sbecauseyouhaveabunchof‐‐‐basically,abunchofWhitepeopleyouknow—it’swhatwe’refightingwithhereatPSU–theyjustreallydon’tknowtheculture.Theyjustreallydon’tknowNativeAmericanpeople.Theyjustdon’tknowhowtodealwiththem.Andtheyhavejusthugeproblemstryingtoteachthemanythingbecausetheydon’tclicklikethat.Alotofteacherswillgothereandjustgettheirtimein.Andthen‘boom’oncetheirtimeisin,they’reoutofthere.Andduringthattime,theydon’ttaketheinitiative—that’salltheyarethereforisjustajob.Theydon’ttakethetimetogettoknowtheculture,orknowthearea.
Agreementamongthestudentsindicatesthatthisisacommonexperience
forstudentsattendingreservationhighschools.Anotherstudentrecallsher
experienceofconflictbetweenNativestudentsandnon‐Nativefaculty:
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Yeah,Ithinkwehadpeoplelikethattoo.Liketheywouldjustbethereforalittlebit.LikeIactuallywentintocollegeknowingthatmyguidancecounselorwrotemycollegealettersaying;‘She’snotgonnamakeit.’‘Idon’tthinkshe’spreparedforthecoursesyou’regoingtobeofferingher—andIdon’tthinkthatyoushouldaccepther.’AndsoIwaslike,‘Okay.’Andmyparentswerelike,‘Ignorethat.’‘She’ssomeWhitewoman—justignoreher,youcandoit.’
Anotherstudentfromaruralreservationcommunityattendedareservation
highschool.HerecalledtheconflictbetweenAmericanIndianstudentsandhigh
schoolfaculty:
Therewerestudentsdownto(Reservationtown)thatwerethesameway,butitwastheattitudeofthestaff—wellforone;theydidn’tliverightin(Reservationtown).Theycamefrom(Bordertown#1),youknow—(Bordertown#1)and(Bordertown#2)areknownfor(pause)the(Bordertown#2)SchoolDistrictisknownforhatingtheirownIndianstudentsintheschooldistrict.Ithinkalotofteachersfrom(Bordertown#2)and(Bordertown#1),bothtowns,don’tlikeIndians.Soobviouslythey’regoingtohavethatattitude.Andit’sweirdforthem,comingfromthosetowns,toteachataschoolonareservation,where98percentofthestudentsareIndian.
Whateverthecause,everystudentIinterviewedagreedthatthereisa
differenceinthequalityofeducationbetweenreservationhighschoolsand
mainstreamhighschools.SomeoftheNativestudentsIinterviewedattended
mainstreamhighschoolsanddidnotexperiencethesameeducationaldeficitupon
enteringcollege.Thismayindicatethattheproblemiswithreservationschoolsand
notwithAmericanIndianstudents.
OneNativeAmericanPSUstudenthadhighschoolexperienceinboth
mainstreamandreservationhighschools.Sherecallsthedifferenceandtheeffects
thatdifferentialqualityhaveonNativestudentsfromreservationschools:
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IwenttoschoolinacityschoolinRapidCity.SoIfinishedthatcitycurriculumsoIwentto(Tribal)HighSchoolonthereservation.And—Iwasinvolvedinactivitiesrangingfromdramatobasketball,torunningandeverythingattheseWhiteschools.AndthenIwentto(Tribal)andIwasinvolvedtheretoo.But,Icouldseeabigdifferenceintheatmosphere—andjustwhattheydosociallyandthewaytheycommunicate,andthewayofdress,ImeaneverythingwasjustsodifferentfromthatWhitesociety.AndthenIthinkwhenkidsgethere,theyfeellikesuchanoutcast...Butum—thereservationschoolswerejustnotuptopar.Andthatisveryhardbecauseyouhavestudentscomingherethatcouldmaybereadokaybutonlyata10thgradelevel.Ornotreadasfastandcomprehendthat.Sotheyhavespeciallearningcircumstances,wheretheseclassesaresohardforthem.Imeanevenjustgeneralclasses.Iwasroomedwithagirlfrom(Tribal)HighSchoolwhoIbecamefriendswith–andshecamehere,butshedidn’tlastthatyearbecauseshecouldbarelydoanything.ItriedtohelpherasbestIcouldandstuff,butitwasjusttoohardandoverwhelmingforher.AndwhenthereweretraditionalWhitestudentsspending10hoursinthelibrarytostudyforthisreallyhardpathologycourse,theseNativesneedlikedaystoprepare.Youknow?Itisjusthardforthem.Theydon’tlearnthosestudyhabits.Theydon’tlearnthat.Theydidn’thavethesameopportunitiesbeforegettingtocollege.Soitisveryhard.Theyareplayingcatchup.
AnotherNativestudentwhoattendedamainstreamcityhighschoolspeaks
oftheexperienceofstudentsfromreservationschools:
Iknowalotofpeoplethatbecauserezschoolsarenotadvancedassomeotherschools,whowereabigdealinhighschoolandthentheycomehereandtheirwritingskillsarebehind,ortheirmathskillsorscienceskillsorwhatever.Andthentheycomehereandit’slikethisdefeatforthemrightaway.Andsothentheythink‘wow,Ican’tdoit.I’mnotassmartasIthoughtIwas.’
AnotherchallengeconcernsNativestudentswhocometoPSUfromboarding
schools.TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorwhoworksespeciallycloselywith
incomingfreshmanstudentsmanyofwhomhavebeeninahighlystructured
environmentthroughouttheirentireschoolcareerdetailedthispossiblebarrierfor
me:
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Anotherthingthatmightbeabarrieristhestructure,orthelackofstructureforstudentswhocometocollegefromaboardingschool.Intheboardingschoolseverythingindailylifeishighlystructured.Butthisgoesbothways.Therewasone,whofelt,because(SupportProgram)isveryregimentedandstructured,hefeltuncomfortablebecausehesaiditmadehimfeellikeaspecialneedsstudents.Hefeltcategorizedorseparatedasifhewerein‘SpecialEd’.Sohehadadifficulttimefullyparticipatinginthatprogrambecausehe‐‐‐butyetwithoutit,hewouldn’thavebeenhere.Sothat’sthedifficulty.Andthenalotofthestudentstalkaboutapartofthetroublesgoingbacktothefactthatalotofthestudentscomestraightherefromsomeofthetribalschoolshavebeeninboardingschoolsmostoftheirlivessotheyareusedtothatstructure.Andtheygethereandtheydon’thavethat.Andpartofthatstructureevenincludeshomeworktimeandstudytimeandtutortime.Whereasit’snotquiteasstructuredherethroughtheprogram,butyetatthesametime,thereissomuchmorefreedomthattheyarenotusedto.Andmostofthemhavecomethroughanentiresystemofboardingschools,starting,probablyfromelementary,throughmiddleschoolandhighschoolsothat’swhattheyknow.Andtheyjusthaveahardtimewithithere.
SomeNativestudentscometoPSUunpreparedforcollegelevelwork.There
isextantdetailedliteratureonthissubject.Faculty,administration,admissionsstaff
andthestudentsthemselvesarewellawareoftheeducationalhandicapmany
AmericanIndianstudentsbegintheiruniversitycareerwith.Anadmissions
counselorcommentedonhighschoolpreparation:
Gettingbacktoenrollmentandwantingstudentstosucceedhere;oneofthethingsthatIfoundkindofsurprisingand—well—it’sjustveryinteresting…frombeingonreservationsmyself,‐‐umm‐justseeingwhatkindofschoolstheNativestudentscomefrom‐‐.AndIthinkthat’spartoftheproblemtoointhatsometimestheschoolsdon’tpreparethemtocometocollege.Sowhentheygethere,wecan’talwaysadmitthem—youknow?Ortheycomehereandtheydon’tdowell.
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Amongthosewhomaybemostqualifiedtospeakonthisissuearethosewho
workintheareaofStudentSupportServices.Asupportservicesadministrator
spokeatlengthonthistopic:
OneofthegreatestshortcomingsIseewithNativeAmericanstudentscomingintoouruniversityispreparation.Weneedtogobacktothatpreparationthing,andhelpingourstudentstocomeintothesysteminamannerinwhichtheyhaveanabilitytosucceed.Becausethewaythey’recominginnow,they’restandinginahole3feetdeepthedaytheywalkinthedoor—metaphorically—andtheyjusthavesuchadisadvantage.ThequalityandthedepthofpreparationoftheNativestudents,simplyissofarbelow,I’msorrytosay,thatofthegeneralpopulation.Andonecanlookattheboardingschoolsofcourse,whichwedealwithquiteoften.Um—onecanlookatthesomeoftheprivateschoolsversusjustthegeneralpopulationofthereservationschools,andtherearesomevastvariancesinthequalityofpreparation.Notsurprisingly,moreoftenthannot,theprivateschoolstendtosendthestudentstouswithalittlebitbetterpreparationamongstthosegroups.Butoverall,theacademicpreparationis‐‐wespendsomuchtimetryingto,forlackofabetterphrase,makeupthedifference—catchthoseNativestudentsup,justsothey’reatabasiclevelofunderstandingwithmanyoftheotherstudentscomingin.It’satruedisadvantagetothosekids.Somanyofthemendupcominginandimmediatelygettingpluggedintoremedialclassesinthehopesthat,perhaps,theycandosomecatchingup.And—boyfrankly,sometimestheycan,andsometimesit’sjustsuchacolossaltaskbecausesomanyofthemhave—justdon’thavethebasisofunderstandingtoevenknowwheretostartonalotofthosesubjects.That’sahugedisadvantage.Theystartoutfromabighandicap.YouunderstandthatI’mlookingcomparativelywithotherstudentsthatIamworkingwiththatarealsolowincome,thatarealsofirstgeneration,perhapswithvaryingtypesofdisabilities.Imeanthesearenotjustyoureveryday,walk‐inoffthestreetstudentseither.Imeantheseotherstudentsaredisadvantagedaswell,buteventhough,whenyoucomparethetwogroups,still,theNativekidsarecominginsopoorlyprepared.Anditit’s‐‐‐Ifeelterribleforsomanyofthembecausetheyhave—absolutely,fromanintellectstandpoint,andanabilitystandpointofgeneralknowledge,theyhavethetools—withoutquestion.Manyofthemcomeinwithsomewonderfulscholarshipopportunitiesandsomevarioustypesofbackingfromthetribesandwhatnotthatfinancially;oftentimesgivethemsomegreatopportunities.Buttheyjust,oftentimes,don’thavethebasistoutilizethat.It’sashame.It’sahorribleshame.
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Sooften,thesestudentshavetoldmehowatalotofthesegeneralreservationschools,somanyoftheteachersandtheadministratorsarefocusingsomuchoftheirtimeonjusttryingtokeepthepeace.Andtryingtoholdthephysicalbuildingtogether,thattheopportunityforadvancementisvery,verylow.Andthen,ifastudentdoesexcelinthatenvironment,it’sstillcomparativetolowstandards.I’vebeentoldthatsomestudentscomefromareservationschoolthinkingtheywereanacademicsuperstar,onlytofindthattheyarestillbehind.Hence,ahandicap,evenforastudentwhocameherewithconfidence.Sotheymayfeelthatseparationhappeningveryquickly.Ofcoursewecannotgeneralize.AndIdon’twanttosaythatthecardsarestackedagainstthem—butoverandover,Ihearthestatement;thattheyfeelliketheyareontheoutsideofPSUlookingin‐‐thattheydon’tfeellikePrairieDogfreshman,rathertheyareNativestudentsatPSU.
PrejudiceorRacism
Thevoicetobestdescribeexperiencedracialprejudiceisthatofthe
AmericanIndianstudentsthemselves.Thereisnoshortageofsuchstories.During
thefallsemesterof2009,Iwasmadeawareofacaseofthreateningmessages,
includingdeaththreatsdirectedatanincomingfreshmanlivinginaresidentialhall
oncampus.ThecasewasreportedtotheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorandto
theUniversityPoliceDepartment.Investigationswereconducted,butnopersonor
personswereeverdeterminedtoberesponsibleforthemessagesnorwasanyone
heldaccountable.Whilethestudent’sResidentAssistantandotherstudentsonhis
floorweresupportivethroughouttheordeal,thesourceofthethreatsremains
undeterminedleavingthatstudentwiththelingeringdiscomfortoftheknowledge
thatsomeonecloseenoughtoslipwrittenmessagesunderthedoorofhisroommay
wanttodohimharm.
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AnotherNativestudentrecallshisfirstyearoncampus:
Myfirstyear,myfreshmanyearhereIlivedinaresidencehall.Ilivedonthefourthfloor,theverytopfloor.Iwastheonlypersonofcoloronthefloor.AndtherewastwoincidentswhereIhadtwofloormatescomeuptomeandtellmethey“F’nhateNativeAmericans”.AndI,youknow,Ididn’tgetscaredoranything.Ijustsortofsay‘Okay,thanksforlettingmeknow”.Uhh‐Isaid,“I’lltrynottocreateanduncomfortablesituationforyou”.“I’lltrytoavoidyouatallcosts.”But,thatwasoneincident.Uhm,andthere’sbeensomethingsinafewofmycourses.
Regardlessofwhetheraspecificincidentisrecalled,NativestudentsatPSU
agreethatracismdirectedtowardAmericanIndiansisacommonreality:
Well,PrairieStateisactuallytheheartofIndianandWhiteracism.That’sallitbasicallyis.AlotofpeopleinmyclasshaveevenadmittedthattheycomefromcommunitieswhereitispredominantlyWhite,wheretheyonlyreallyinteractedwitheachother—like...Asmuchaspeoplewillpreachortalkuntiltheyareoutofbreathsayingitdoesn’texistinPrairieState‐‐itdoes.Itdoes.Everywhere.
AnotherNativestudentexpressedherawarenessofracismoncampus
alludingtothecomplexityofNativestudentidentity:
Ithinkabarrierisracismoncampus.Ithinkthatthereisalotofit.IknowalotofotherpeopleI’vetalkedtothatfeltthattherewereracistattitudesinclassroomsthattheywentintoandtheygetlookedat.IknowonegirlwhoisalmostfullbloodOjibwa,andshe’sprettydarkskinned.Shewastellingmethatshegetslookedatallthetime.Peoplelookatherandtheythinkshe’smeanandallthisstuff,andtheyjusthavethisassumedattitudeofherbecauseshe’sdarkskinnedNative.So—andthenthere’stheflipside.Ihaveanotherfriendwhoislighterskinned.Shedoesn’tnecessarilylookNativewhenyoufirstlookatherandshedidn’tgrowupfeelingNativeandsoshehastroublecomingintoherownbeingNativebecauseshealreadysensestheracismoncampus.Andsoshedoesn’t—soit’sabigstressforher.
WhileracismundoubtedlystingstheworstforAmericanIndianstudents
wholiveit,othersarealsoawarethatitdoesexist.OneNativeAmericanfaculty
memberhasseenitfromtheperspectiveofstudentandprofessor:
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Racism.OvertheyearsI’veseenandheardofincidentswhereIknowsomestudentshavereallyhadahardtimeinsomeoftheirclassesbecauseteachershavemaderacistremarks....SoracismisaliveandwellandIknowstudentshaveexperiencedracistattitudes.
LackofSupport
Manyfactorscombinetoaffecttheuniversityexperienceandchancesfor
academicsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Dependingoncontext,many
ofthosefactorsactasfacilitators,barriers,orboth.Asseenabove,itappearsthat
supportmaybethemostsignificantfacilitator.Conversely,thelogicalconclusion
canbedrawnthatalackofsupportmaybethemostsignificantbarriertocollege
successforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Thelackofsupporttakesmanyforms
includingfriends,facultycommunityenvironmentandfamily.
LackofSupport:Friends Onenon‐traditionallyagedNativemalestudentcommented:
HowIcameupheretogotoschoolwasIknewsomepeoplehereandIcameuptovisitthem.Andeventually,Icametoschoolhere.Itwasthesamewaywithmybrother.Butforus‐‐‐wejustwanttohavepeopleonourside...butifsomebodycomesherefromtherezanddoesn’talreadyhavethatconnectionitwouldbeharderforthemiftheydon’tknowaboutthecluborhavesomebodytointroducethemandhelpthemalong.
AnotherNativestudentrecallshisfirstyearatPSUbeforehedevelopeda
supportnetworkoffriends.“Myfreshmanyear,inthefallof03,Ihadnoideathat
theNativeAmericanClubexisted.Honestly,thatfirstyearandahalfwasthehardest
formebecauseIfeltIwastheonlyNativeAmericanstudentoncampus.”
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NonSupportiveFaculty
TotheAmericanIndianstudent,alreadyfeelinglikeastrangerina
potentiallyhostileenvironment,amongthemosthurtfulexperiencesareencounters
withnon‐supportive,culturallyinsensitive,oropenlyhostileprofessors,
administratorsorstaff.ManyofthestudentsIinterviewedwereeagertosharesuch
experiences.Itwasevidentthroughvoiceinflectionandbodylanguage,aswellas
thecontentoftheirstories,thatthesehadbeenhurtfulexperiencesOnenon‐
traditionallyaged,butculturallytraditionalNativestudentrecalledsuchexperience:
Thereareprofessorsthatneedtounderstandthatsometimewedohavetogohomeforsomereason,maybefamilyoradeathorwhatever.Professorsneedtounderstandthatifsomebodyneedsaweektogohomethatthey’renotgoingtofallbehindorgive‘emgriefforit.I’vehadfriendsinthepastthathadtogohomeandtheprofessorjustdidn’twanttogivethemachancetocatchup.Iftheyweren’tsickoriftherewasn’tsomesortofuniversityreasontomissclass—itwas...ifit’safuneral,theyexpectyoutobeanimmediatebrotherorsister.Youcan’tevenbeacousintogobackforit.Imeanbecauseweknowonreservations—likeoutatPineRidgeit’skindofbig,butnormallythey’reprettysmallsoyouknoweverybody.You’repracticallyrelatedtohalfofeverybody.Idon’tknow.Ihadtogohomeandburyacousintoo.AndIwastoldtobringafuneralprogramback,andtheprofessorsaid‘ohwhere’syourname?Wereyouacasketbearerapallbearer?Isaid“no”.
Atraditionallyagedandculturallytraditionalfemalestudentalsorecounted
herexperienceswithculturallyinsensitiveprofessors:
Someteachersaresoclosedmindedthat“no”—youknowtheyholdyoutothatsameWhitestandard‐‐that‐‐‘youshouldbeabletoleaveyourfamily’—thatyouhavenoconnection,thatyourfamily’sdoinggreatwithoutyou.Like,theythinkthatandtheyholdyoutothatstandard.ButasIndianpeople,Imean,thisyear,I’vehadmylittlesister.Youknow,theydon’tunderstandthat.Theyjustthink‐‘ohwell,that’stheirchoice’,orsomething.Butit’sthatclosefamilytie.Theydon’tcaretoknowyourstory.Theydon’tcaretounderstandyou.AndIthinkthat’sreallyhardsometimesforsomeofthesecases.
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Somefacultyactionsreflectedalackofculturalunderstanding:
Iknowofaninstancewherethestudenthadtotalktotheprofessorandtheydidn’tmakeeyecontact‐‐‐outofrespectfortheteacher,theydidn’tlooktheteacherintheeye.Because,backhome,that’swhatyoudo.Wellthatteacherjustblewupaboutnotlookingthemintheeye.Youknow,thatstudentwasouttheredoingsomethingright,anditwasjustabigconfusion.
Othertimes,thislackofculturalunderstandingwasexplicitintheclassroom.
Averyculturallytraditional,non‐traditionallyagedmalestudentspokeofa
professor’shandlingofasacredritualinaclasslecture:
Ithinkthatforthoseinstructors,therearesomeculturalsensitivitiesthattheyjustoverlook.Youknow‐‐‐justterminology‐‐‐youknow‐‐‐brieflyflyingoveradescriptionofaSunDance…And,forme,inmymind‐‐somethinglikethat‐‐that’sapartofourcultureyes.And,it’s‐‐‐theirpurposeistoteach‐‐‐butthat’snotanythingtobe‐‐‐‐spokeofalot‐‐‐especiallyataschoolsettinglikethat.But,whatI’mgettingatisthatsensitivity…
Anothernon‐traditionallyagedmalefromareservationcommunityshared
anexperiencewithinsensitivity:
Iwasinaclasswheretheinstructorsaid‘Indianwrestling’‐‐‐andIsaid;‘what’sIndianwrestling?’andhesaid;‘Well,don’tyouwrestlewithyourlegs?’Youknow‐‐‐nobodycantaketheirdegreesaway.Butthatdoesn’tmeantheycanjustsaywhatevertheywant,iftheydon’tknowwhattheyaretalkingabout.
Insomecases,culturalinsensitivitydoesnotstemfromhostilityto,oralack
ofunderstandingtraditionalculturalpracticesorculturalidentity,butratherfroma
lackofunderstanding,orrecognitionofmoderntriballifeasitrelatestomodern
technology.Theseissuescanbepresentinawiderangeofacademicdisciplines.A
NativeAmericanRangeSciencemajorexplainshowaprofessorcouldtakesuch
socialdifferencesintoaccountinthecurriculum:
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Iknowforme–mostofmyclassesareagriculturebasedsoit’sallintheAnimalRangeSciencedepartment.I’mtheonlyminorityinthoseclassesandsoalotoftimeswhenwe’readdressingissuesaroundagriculture‐‐‐Iconstantlyhavetoraisemyhandandsay‘Well,youknow,I’mfromRosebud‐‐‐fromthataspect,it’salotdifferent.Ialwaysfeltthatforrangeprofessors,orevenanimalscienceprofessorshereatPSU‐‐‐there’snineSiouxtribesinPrairieState.IwouldhavealwaysthoughttheywouldhaveanunderstandingasfarasreservationsandNativeAmericanagricultureproducersandhowtheyoperateaswell.Ihavethatconstantfightthat‐‐‐Idon’tknowwhichisrightandsosometimesIhavetoaddressitwiththeprofessor.Likewe’retalkingaboutthis‐‐‐butIwanttoaddressitfrommyperspectivebutitdoesn’tapplytoyourlecturebecauseifIapplyit,thenyou’renotgoingtounderstand‐‐‐youknow.IcanrelatetoitbutIhavetoputmyself‐‐‐IhavetoputmywayofthinkingasaWhiteperson.Butthensometimes,ifIapplymyperspectiveonsomething,Ialwaysgetweirdlooksfromsomeoneorotherstudentsinclasswillbelike,‘wellwhatdoesthathavetodowiththisclass?’SosometimesIwon’tsayanythinginclassjustbecauseofthat.
Somefacultymembersareawareoftheseissuesandpointtoneededchange.
OneveteranProfessorsaid:
Ithinkthatweneedmuchmorefacultyre‐educationinregardtoNativeAmericanhistoriesandculturessothattheyhaveabetterunderstandingofNativestudents,andarebetterabletoencouragethemandbesupportiveofthem.Youknow,it’snotuncommonfortribalstudentstohavetheexperienceofafacultymembermisrepresentingtribalissues,andmysteriesandsoforth,stereotypingIndiansinvariousways‐‐‐notbeingsensitivetoculturalcontext....Maybeafteraninitialbadexperiencesomestudentsgetdiscouragedandhangitup,orforvariousotherreasons,don’tdowhattheyneedtodotohanginthere.
OneAmericanIndianProfessorsawthefacultyissuethisway:
Thereisindifferenceamongfaculty.Somedon’tcare‐‐‐theydon’tcare.Iknowinmydepartmentthere’sfacultywhowouldn’tdothingsunlesstheywereforcedtodoit‐‐‐soIthinktherearejustsomepeoplewhodon’tcarewhethertheyhaveNativestudentsornot.Andthentherearesomewhocareforthewrongreasons.…Ithinkifyouareanoutstandingstudent,youhaveagoodrelationshipwithyourteachers.Youknow?Andtherearesometeachers,um,‐‐whetheryouareNativeornon‐Native,ifyouhaveproblems,theycouldcareless.
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Inappropriatecommentsfromtheprivilegedpositionoffacultyinthe
universitysystemcanhavelastingnegativeimpacts.Anothercommentfroman
AmericanIndianfaculty:
IknowthatwhenIwasinschoolthereweresomestudentsthatreallyhadahardtimehere.AndonereallyhadahardtimewithprofessorswhowereprejudiceorderogatorytowardsIndians.AndtherewasoneincidentwheresheREALLYhadahardtime;shewasveryupsetonetimeinaclasswhereherprofessorsaidthatgonorrheacamefromIndians.Shewassoupsetthatshedidn’tgotoclassthenexttime‐‐‐andshecried‐‐‐
PSU’sadministrationisalsoawareofthevariousattitudestowarddiversity
ingeneral,andspecificallyAmericanIndianstudentsandthedivergentlevelsof
commitmenttotheircollegesuccess.Accordingtooneadministrator,“Theproblem
stillremainsthatwehavealotoffacultymemberswhojustdonotunderstandor
appreciateNativeAmericanstudentsortheirconcerns.”
OneUniversityVice‐Presidentputitthisway:
Wedon’thavealotofpeopleatPSUwhooutrightsaythingslike‐‐‐Idon’tthinktheyarebigots.Idon’tthinkwehavealotoffolkslikethat.Maybethey’remoresubtle,butthey’renotvocalaboutit.Wehavepeoplewhomaybecouldstepupanddomoreanddon’t.Youknow,we’vegotagrouptoworkon.Oneuniversityadministratorseesdiversityinall‐inclusive(global)terms:So,goingbacktothatglobaldefinitionofdiversity.Arewe,asauniversity,goingtosay;‘weneedtomovetowardrespectforalldifferences.’Wehavefacultywhoputdownstudentsofdifferentsexualpreference.WehavefacultywhomakenegativecommentsaboutHispanicstudentsandHispanicculture...Ithinkacampusthatmakesinappropriatecomments,makesstudentsfeelunwelcome.Nowwe’vetalkedaboutsomeofthat.Ithinkthat(pause)soalackofsensitivity.That’sabetterwaytosaythat‐‐‐alackofsensitivitytoourstudentsofcolor,obviouslyincludingNativeAmericans,sometimeswestilldon’tgetit.
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BarrierstoSupportServices ANativeAmericanupperclassmanrecallsherfeelingsofdiscomfortand
thoseofherfriendsandclassmatesaboutusingtheuniversitystudentsupport
servicesforacademicassistance:
AlotofNativestudentsarealwayskindofscaredtotellsomeonethatthey’renotdoingwell.Theydon’twanttogotoatutoringcenter,theydon’tlikegoingtothosecentersfortutoringhelpbecausetheyfeelliketheymightgetjudgediftheyaskforhelp.Iftheygotothetutoringcenterthey’regonnagointhinkingthatthepeopletherearegonnasay‘OhherecomessomedumbNativestudentwhoneedshelpwithclass.’SoalotofNativepeopledon’twanttoadmitthattheyneedhelpsotheydon’tgothere.Theydon’twannasaythat‘Idon’tknow...
Family
SomeNativestudentsmayexperienceeitherapulltowardthefamiliar
comfortofhomeoraculturalpushbackhomefromtheunfamiliarenvironmentof
themainstreamcommunity.Whetherthestudentfeelsapushorapullisdependent
uponcontext,thedegreetowhichastudentisimmersedintraditionalculture,the
strengthoffamilytiesandtheabilitytoreconcilethosetieswithculturalshockand
thetransitiontothecampusenvironment.Theconceptofaculturalpushbackhome
willbecoveredinmoredetaillaterinthesectiondealingwithculturalbarriers.
Asdiscussedabove,familysupportcanbeapowerfulfacilitatortoAmerican
Indiancollegepersistence.However,itmustbekeptinmindthatgeneralizations
cannotbemaderegardinganyfactorservingasafacilitatororabarrier.Indeed,
whereasforsomestudents,Nativeandnon‐Native,familyactsasafacilitator,
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conversely,forothers,familyfactorscanbebarrierstostudent’seducational
attainment.
FormanyAmericanIndianstudents,theimportanceoffamilyisanintegral
partoftheirculture.ThismaybeespeciallytruewhentheAmericanIndian
student’sfamilyisverymuchanchoredintraditionalNativecultureandis
suspiciousofthemainstreamuniversityasonewhosegoalistheassimilationof
theirNativestudent.Insuchacase,thefamilyactsasapullbackhome.Whetheror
notthestudentadoptsthisperspectivemaybelesssignificantthanthefamily
applyingpressuretothestudenttoreturnhomeoutoffearbasedinseeingthegoal
oftheuniversityasassimilationtomainstreamcultureandawayfromthe
traditionalworldviewbywhichthefamilybackhomestilllives.
ForsomeNativestudents,theirfamilyisadamantlyopposedtotheirstudent
attendingamainstreamuniversityawayfromhome.Suchcasescanbe
heartbreakingasdescribedbyaDirectorofStudentSupportServiceswhohasoften
seenstudents’hopesforacollegeeducationoverriddenbyfamilypressure:
There’safeelingonthepartofmanyoftheNativestudentsthatIdealwith,thatastheycomeinthedoor,theyareexpectingustobeanadversary.Thedaytheywalkinthedoor,theyareexpectinganadversarialrelationship.Itcouldpossiblybenotfromanythingofourdoing.Itcouldbefromanyoneofahundredthings.Itcouldbefromsomethingtheypickedupintheirhomeschools.Itcouldbeparental.I’vecertainlyhadNativekidsthatIhaveworkedwith,thatIhavecounseledinmyprogram,wherewe’vereallyhadtoworkonundoingalotoftheattitudesthatweregivenbytheirparents.AndI’mcertainlynotsayingthatwearetheallknowing,ortryingtodestroybeliefsystems,butwehavekidswhocomeinwhohaveessentiallybeen,eitherpurposefully,ornon‐purposefullybeeninstructedbytheirparentsthatCaucasianpeopleare‘againstyou’,thatthey’re‘workingagainstyou’andthattheyaregoingto‘keepyoufromsucceeding’,‘assimilateyourcultureout
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ofyou’.Someoftheseparentshaveactuallyputintheirkidsheadsthattheuniversityisoutto‘makeyouoneofthem.’I’veheardthatphrasebefore.Infact,I’vehadmorethanonestudentwhowouldbedoingverywell,academically,butaregettingcallsfromhomethataresaying;‘Youneedtocomehome.Youdon’tbelongthere.’Icanthinkspecificallyaboutoneyoungladythat,itjustbrokemyheart,wasaGatesscholarum‐‐‐waspursuingahealthcaredegree,incrediblybrightanddoingwellacademically,andjusthadsuchabrightfutureandsomeoneIwasluckyenoughtoworkwithindividually.Andthatwasoneofthoseconversationswehadjustabouteverytimewemeet.Which,attimes,wasonceaweek.Andthatwas;‘Ijustgotoffthephonewithmydad.Ijustgotoffthephonewithmymom.Shetoldmetogetmyasshome.’‘Idon’tbelongthere.Idon’tknowwhatyou’redoingthere.’‘Weneedyouhere.’Andmyfirstquestionwasalways;‘Whatdotheyneedyoutherefor?’‘Whydotheyneedyouthere?’Anditwasusuallyjustamatterof;‘Because,yournotbeingherebreaksupthefamilyunit.’Herparentsworkedonhersoconstantly.Andtheydid,theycompletelyunderminedit,anditwaslike2½semestersandshewasgone.Shewenthome.She’sneverbeenbacktoschool.
Ithinkthisispartofthatperceptionofsomepeopleonthereservations–thosewhopersuadetheirkidstodropoutandreturnhome‐‐‐theperceptionisthat‘thisisusandwearen’tgonnagoanywhere.’WhenNativestudentscomehere,theycarrythatlabel‐‐‐they’renotjuststudents,they’reNativestudents,andtheyknowthat.Andsoeverythingthattheydo,orareseentodohappensthroughthatlensorthatidentityasaNativestudent.Weneedtodoawaywiththatfilter.
Otherstudentsfindthesupportnormallyofferedbyfamilyinsubstitute
placeswhileattheuniversitybutstillfeelapullbackhome.Thispullmaybeoutof
responsibilityforhelpingwithvariousfamilyresponsibilitiesthatmayinclude
contributingtofamilysupportorcaringforyoungersiblings.Atraditionallyaged
femalestudentfromabordertownsharedherthoughts:
Ithinkpeopleareanasset.Youknow?Peoplethataretheretosupportyou,andpeoplethatencourageyouandsay‘youcandoit’.Because,sometimeswedon’tgetthatawayfromhome.Youneedtobeincollegebutsomefamiliesdon’tsupportthat.Theywantyouhometohelptakecareoftheiryoungeronesorsomething.
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Financial
FinancialResources
AmongallthoseIintervieweditappearsthatthemajorityofAmerican
Indianstudentsdonotcomefromabackgroundoffinancialwealth,or,inmany
cases,evenfinancialstability.Again,itmustbereiteratedthatsweeping
generalizationscannotbeappliedacrosstheboardregardingthePSUAmerican
Indianpopulationasawhole.HoweverwhenlookingspecificallyatPrairieState’s
Nativepopulation,itisrelevanttonotethatnoneoftheninereservationsinthe
statearewealthyascomparedtosomeofthewealthiestinthenationwithsmall
tribalenrollmentsandhugegamingprofits.
Faculty,staffandadministratorsareallwellawareoffinancialneedasa
significantbarriertocollegepersistence.Aprofessorcommented:
Andyouknow,anotherobviousobstacleisfinancial.Alotofthesestudentscomefrompovertyregions.Andtheydon’thavethefallbackfundsthatalotofnon‐Nativestudentshave.Theycan’tnecessarilycountonfamilyfinancialsupportwhencomingfromareaswhereunemploymentis60,70,80percent.Andthat’soneofthebigmythsaboutNativestudents‐‐‐‘thattheygetallthismoneytocometoschool’andthat’syetanotheruntruth‐racistassumptionatworst.So‐‐‐youknow‐‐‐finances‐‐‐gettinghereandstayinghere‐‐‐that’sabigpartofit.
Anadministratorofferedthisview:
Thetypicalstudentsthatcomeherehavebackupinavarietyofwaysthat’softenunrecognized.Moststudentscanaskafriend,afamilymember,aparentforextrafundingiftheyneedtosay‐‐‐suddenlymakeatriphome.ANativestudentoftendoesn’thavethatkindofbackup.Theirfamiliesdonothaveextramoney.
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BeyondthegenerallackoffinancialresourcesheldbyNativestudentsand
theirfamilies,somePSUsupportstaffIinterviewedpointedtothelackofmoney
managementskillsthatAmericanIndianstudentspossessupontheirarrivalas
incomingcollegestudents.Asaprimarysupportperson,theNativeAmerican
StudentAdvisorhasseenthisasasignificantissue:
OneofthebarriersthatIhaveseenthroughmypositionwiththestudentsisalackoffinancialunderstanding,financialpreparedness.Theyhaven’thadthekindofinstructionalbackgroundinfinancingtomanagetheiraffairs.Ithinktherewereacoupleofstudentsfromafewyearsagothatleftbecausetheygothookedintosomeofthequickloantypethingsorcreditcards.Iknowonegirlthatleftbecauseshetookasemesteroff,andsheleftingoodstandingwiththeschoolbutshewasjustdrowningincreditcarddebt.
TheDirectorofStudentSupportalsodealswiththemoneymanagement
challenge:
Sofewofthestudentscomeinwithamplefinancialbacking.Thesestudentscomefromsuchincrediblypoorbackgrounds,thatnotonlydotheynothaveanymoney,buttheyhavenoconceptofthemoney,ifthereissomedroppedintotheirhands.It’sjustanentireeducationthathastogoon.
PerhapsnooneIinterviewedismorequalifiedtocommentonfinancial
resourcesasabarriertocollegesuccessthantheDirectorofthePSUFinancialAid
Office:
Well,thebarrierswouldbefinancesintheoverallpicture.Lookingatitfrommyperspectiveisthattheyaretakingloans—theyarereluctanttotakeloansbecause,culturallyit’ssomethingthattheyhaven’thadexposureto.Andtofillouttheformsit’s‐‐‐it’snoteasyforthem.Sometimes,youhavetodoitforthesestudents;otherwiseit’snotgoingtogetdone.Andthenwheredoyoustopandsay;‘Well,eventually,you’regonnahavetodoityourself.’That’sthehardpartofit.Howdoyoutell—wheneachpersonisdifferent—doyoucontinuetokindadoitforthem?Ordoyouletthemmissout?
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Thereseemstobesomedifferenceofunderstandingamongsome
administrators,faculty,staffandstudentswithregardtoavailabilityoffinancialaid
intheformsofstudentloansandscholarshipsandgrantsforAmericanIndian
students.Onecampusadministratortoldmethattherearenotmanyscholarships
available.“Wehaven’ttalkedaboutitbutfundingisanissue.Thecost‐‐‐andwe
don’thaveverymanyscholarshipstoofferthem.SoIthinkcostisanissue,much
moreforthatpopulationthanwegiveitcreditfor.”
ANativeAmericanupperclassmanwasadamantaboutthelackoffundingfor
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU,“ThepurelackofscholarshipsforNativestudents
isaproblem.AmericanIndianStudiesonlyhasonescholarshipandit’sfor$500.00
forthefullyear.Ithinkthat’sridiculous.”
Thisstudentfurtherrecountshowherdealingswiththefinancialaidoffice
hasbeen,fromherperspective,lessthanrewarding:
FinancialaidisanightmareherebecausethereisnoonewhoiseitherwillingorabletohelpNativestudentswithallofthethingstheyneedtoknowbutdon’tevenknowthattheydon’tknoworneedtoknow...IwentintotheFinancialAidOfficeonetimeandIleftcrying.IcalledmymomrightafterwardsandIwasbawlingupsetbecauseIcouldn’tgotosummerschoolbecauseeverythinghadgottensoscrewedupandnoonetoldmeIhadtotake12creditstogetfinancialaid...AndthenIhadtore‐doallofmyfinancialaidandIhadtoverify‐‐‐Iwasjustcompletelyupset.IwalkedoutcryingIwasjustlike‘Ican’tbelievethis!’andhowitallsetmeback.ThenIplannedongraduatinginDecemberof2010‐‐‐andnowIcan’tbecauseIgetsetbackawholesemesterbecauseofthepeopleinFinancialAid...Sothisisthekindofthingthatmakespeoplefeelfrustrated.Becausenoone‐‐‐there’snot‐‐‐thereneedstobesomeonespecificjustforNativestudentsonthingslikefinancialaidandallthesethings.Someonewhocantellthemthethingsthattheyneedtodo‐‐‐insteadofgoingintothatoffice…
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Asafollowuptothesecomments,IaskedtheDirectorofFinancialAid
questionsspecificallyaboutfinancialaidtoAmericanIndianstudents.
Whilethereisculturalawarenesstrainingforfinancialaidstaff,accordingto
itsdirector,manyNativestudentsdonottakefulladvantageofitsservices:
Moststudentsdonottimelycompleteapplications,includingformsneededfortribalhighereducationawards.ThePSUNativeAmericanscholarshipsareawardedafterstudentscompleteascholarshipapplicationthatiseithermailedoremailedtothem.Thetribalgrantsvaryamongthevarioustribesdependingonavailabilityoffundsandwhetherthereisareservationbasedpostsecondaryschool.
Hecontinuedwithamoreindepthdiscussionofissuesfacedwhendealing
withsomeNativestudentsinaddressingfinancialneed:
ThefinancialawarenessismorelimitedforNativestudents,especiallytheFISandotherboardingschoolstudents.It’struethatsomeofthestudentswhoarefromtheFISorsomeotherboardingschoolarrangement,wheretheyhavethathighdegreeofoversight,orinothersituationswheretheyhavebeenusedtoahighlevelofstructure,donotdowellwiththeirmanagingoffinancesortheirdiningplanorwhateverthingstheymighthavetodooutsideoftheacademicclassroom.Thereservationstudentsalsohavemoredifficultyinfinancialawarenessinbudgetingtheirdiningplansandmoney.Culturalchange,financialchange,iftheyhavesomeresourcesandtheyjustdon’tbudgetwellascomparedtootherstudentswhomaybudgettothinkaboutwhathappensafterwards,theyareprobablytoogenerousinasenseofsharing,iftheyhaveamealplan,withsomebodyelse,orinafamilysituationwheretheymaybewillingtohelpsomeoneout.Andtheymaynotunderstandsomeofthethingsbecausetheyarenotusetohavingtopayforitemsormeals‐‐andtheymaynotchoosetherightamountsofthingsthattheybuy.
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Community
Localcommunity ThebestwaytounderstandwhatitislikecomingtoapredominantlyWhite
mainstreamcitylikeRailtown,PrairieState,fromareservationcommunityor
reservationbordertownisthroughtheexperiencesofthoseAmericanIndian
studentswhohavelivedthetransition.Itisthroughthesensesofthosestudents
thatwemaybegintogainaninsider’sperspectiveofcultureshockandadjustment
theyexperiencewhentheycometoPSU.
OneNativestudentcomparesthemovetoRailtowntothesafetyand
confidenceofthehomecommunity:
Cuzalotofthethingsthatneedtobeconsideredis;wheretheycomefrom.Whatkindofrelationshiptheyhadwiththeirfamily—theirrespectedelders—evenliketheirteachers,orsomeoneinauthority.So‐‐youknow—inthatenvironmentathome,ofcoursethere’sconfidence.Sowhentheygethere—youknow‐‐‐Where’sthatconfidencego?Whydoesitdropoff—rightthen?
AnotherNativestudentrecallstheexperienceofgrowingupinRailtownand
beingeducatedasaminoritystudentintheRailtownschoolsystem:
Wegottreatedlikecraphere.Wegotteasedallthetime.Wegotthepeyotejokes.Wegotallkindsofstuff.Youknow,weweretheonlyNativestudentsinourhighschool.Andgrowingupmeandmybrotherwereconstantlyteased.Wegotteasedbeyondbelief.Fromelementaryschoolup,wegotteased.Ididn’tevenwantMomtocomeonNativeAmericanDay,toourclass.Becausethatonlymadeitmoreobviousthatweweredifferent.LikeIjustfeltsoooo—Youwerejusttryingtofitin.Anditwasallthetimethatpeoplewouldjustknowthatyouaresomethingdifferentandtheywouldteaseyouandhurtyou.SoIjustdidn’twannabe—Ididn’twannabeIndian.Iwasso‐‐‐andthenmydadwasinourtextbooksinhighschool.Wewouldwatchvideosinourclassandthenmyunclewouldbeonit.Iwaslikeohhhhmorecraptoremindmethat‐‐‐youknow?Andso,Ididn’twannabeanIndian.
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Oneveteranprofessorcommented:
PSUisinaveryseriouscircumstance,inmyview,inthatitisbothgeographically,socially,andtoalargedegree,politicallyisolatedandourcurrentcompositionisoverwhelminglyWhite.Wearenotaverydiverseuniversity.Weareabout95percent—94percentWhite.
IfthelocalRailtowncommunityisperceivedasgenerallyuncomfortablefor
AmericanIndianstudents,howdoestheuniversitycommunityenvironmentcreate
afeelingofcohesivewelcomeorisolationfortheNativestudent?
Universitycommunity
Afaculty/administratorwhoisveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndianstudent
successspeakscandidlyaboutthecampusclimate:
Ithinkwehavesomesignificantissueshereintermsofthecampusclimate.Youknowwecancreateaveryprotective,loving,supportiveenvironmentforourstudents,thatnurturestheirsuccess,butthatdoesnotnecessarilyalwaysprotectthemfromtheslingsandarrowsthattheyfaceinthelargeruniversitycommunityortheRailtowncommunity.Thatprejudice,racism,discriminationareallverypainful,verydamagingtoidentity,verydamagingtosuccess,verydamagingtoone’sselfconfidence,selfesteem,senseofself.SoIthinkthat’ssomethingthat’sreallyabarrier.
AnAmericanIndianstudentcommentsonthefeelingofstandingoutas
differentinacrowdofuniformity:“Forme,itwouldallgobacktotheconfidence
andcomfort.HowcomfortableandconfidentisanyonesittingintheStudentUnion
likethedarkspotinthemiddleofapieceofpaper?”
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Astudentsupportstaffmemberspeaksthroughonevoicethethoughtsthat
wererepeatedthroughoutallofmyinterviewsregardingthelackofanyvisiblesign
thattheNativeAmericancultureisvaluedandcelebratedonthecampusofPSU:
Idon’tthinkwehaveanythingoncampuslikeaplaqueorastatueoranythinglikethatthatsignifiesthatthiswasIndianland,youknow?‐‐‐Anythinglikethat.ImeanthereisnoacknowledgementanywherethatthiswasonceYanktonSiouxland.It’snottaughtintheclassesandnoonehasaclue.Indianpeoplearenotevenreallyrecognizedletalonecelebrated.PSUcoulddosomuchtobringitselfuptodateandreallyembracethecultureofthepeoplewhowereherelongbeforetheuniversityorevenWhitepeople.NativestudentsandNativeculturecouldbe,shouldbeseenasaresourceforthisuniversity.
Arecentlyretiredadministratormirroredthesamethoughts:
Weneedtohaveacampusthatiswarmandwelcomingandhasthekindofdécorexhibitedthatletsthestudentsknowthattheircultureisrecognized,thatitiscelebrated,thatit’sunderstoodthatthelandthatthisinstitutionisonislandthatwascededbytheNativeAmericanpopulationatsomepointinthepast.ThatwearealandgrantinstitutionandthelandthatwasgrantedtofundthisinstitutionwasoriginallyNativeland.Sowedoneedtodothat.Wedon’thave,inmyopinion,anyexternaldécoronthiscampusthatwouldindicatethatnativecultureiscelebratedandappreciated.Andwedoneedtodothat.
Culture CultureShock Cultureshockcanmakeforatraumatictransitionforanyoneentering
college.Manyfaculty,staff,andadministratorsIinterviewedwerequicktomake
thispointregardinghowmostincomingfreshmenmustmakethisadjustment.For
manyAmericanIndianstudents,however,thisadjustmentiscompoundedbymany
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factors.NotonlymusttheNativestudentdealwiththeadjustmenttocollegelevel
work,andlivinginanewenvironmentamongstrangers,butformanyNative
studentsthesechallengesareismagnifiedthroughdifferencesinphysical
appearance,culturaltraditions,beliefs,andpracticesandthegeneraldisconnected
feelingonehasas‘notfittingin’.Thisisespeciallysignificantsincethemajorityof
AmericanIndianstudentsattendingPSUarefromPrairieStateorneighboring
states.Foranunderstandingofwhatitfeelsliketobeastrangerinone’sownhome
state,thebestvoicesarethoseofthestudentswhohavelivedtheexperience.Here,
twostudentvoicesspeakformany.
Atraditionallyagedmalefromaveryruralreservationcommunityrecalled
hisfirstexperienceatPSU:
SometimesIfeellikeIhavemoreincommonwiththeforeignstudentsthanIdowiththelocalWhitekids,whichshouldn’tbehappening.Somepeoplelookatuslikewe’resomesortofcartoonthing.Theythinkstereotypes,thescaryIndians.Ithinkthethingswetouchedonbefore,comingoffofthereservation,thecultureshockisabigpartofit.Myfreshmanyear,IhadnoideathattheNativeAmericanClubexisted.Ialsodidn’tknowthattheMulticulturalAffairsOfficeexisted...honestly,thatfirstyearandahalfwasthehardestformebecauseIfeltIwastheonlyNativeAmericanstudentoncampus.SoIhadtoadjustfrombeing‐‐‐tocomingfromthereservationtobeingmyownindividualselfinapredominantlyWhiteuniversity.Ihadtolearnhowtoliveintwoworlds.IntheWhiteworld—hereattheuniversityandthen—convertwhenIgobackhometobeingonthereservation.So—thatformewasachallenge.Ihadtolearnhowtobalancethat.OtherwiseifIdidn’t—aftermyfirstyear,Iprobablywouldhavequit.ButIsawthechallengeandIhadtoaddressit.ThankfullyIadaptedtoit.Sothatconnectiontothecommunityisanimportantthing.Otherwiseyoumightfeellikeyouarealoneontheoutsidelookingin.
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Anon‐traditionallyagedbutculturallytraditionalmalefromanother
reservationcommunityalsocommented:
Youknow,whenaNativeAmericancomesfromhome,uptoagreatbigschoollikethis,youtakehimoutofthatcomfortzone—andinstantaneously,whenthey’rejusttryingtoblendinthey’llfeeltoobuckytoevenasksomebodyfordirections—likewhereisthisbuildingorwheredoyoudothis?They’lljusttrytodoitallontheirown.CuzIdidthatso...
Somecampusadministratorsareawareofthisdifficulttransitionforthe
Nativestudent:
Thefactthatyou’rebringingsomebodyhowmanyhundredsofmilesawayfromhomeandoffthereservation,whichhasbeenhome,andthat’stheircomfortlevel,andyou’rebringingthemtothisplace,which,youandIthinkisjustfine,butthisisahugeplacetosomebodycomingfromaPineRidgeorRosebudorwherever.SoIthinktherearesomerealculturalissuestoo.And,they’recomingtoapredominantlyWhitefaculty,whodon’tnecessarilyunderstandtheircultureortheirbackground—sotherearemorebarriersthere.
CulturalPushBackHome
Thisdynamicmaybeatworkforthestudentwhoisstronglyanchoredinthe
Nativeculturebutseestheuniversityenvironmentasathreattothatculturalwayof
life.Inthiscase,theuniversityenvironmentcreatesapushtowardthesafetyand
comfortofhomeandfamilyasarefugefromtheperceivedthreat.Ineverycase,
contextisanimportantconsideration.SomeNativestudentsmayhaveadifficult
timeadjustingtolifeatPSUforavarietyofreasons,whetherconcerningcultural
differencesornot,theescapefromwhichcanleadtoseekingcomfortathomewith
thefamilyoneisusedto.
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Studentswhoarelessassimilatedtothemainstreamculturewillexperience
morecultureshockuponarrivalatcollegeandwillbemorelikelytodropoutand
returnhomewithoutsomesupportorservicesdesignedtofacilitatethetransition
fromthefamiliar,moretraditionalenvironmenttothemainstreamcollege
environment.
TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorrecallsaverytraditionalstudentfor
whomthemainstreamcultureofthecampusenvironmentwasnotacomfortablefit:
Ihadthatverysamediscussionwithayoungmanlastyear.Hecameinveryquick.Hesawnoconnectionbetweenwhathewasdoinghereandwhathegrewupdoing,culturally.Andhisdesirewastobemoreofaleaderinthatcommunity.Tobemoreofa–ah‐‐,prettymuchhewasonaspiritualjourney‐‐‐tobealeaderamonghispeople‐‐culturalleader,aspiritualleader‐‐‐andhejusthadnoconnectionwithwhathewasdoinghere....Ithinkpartofittoowasculturalinsensitivity,becauseonedaywhenhecamein‐‐‐hehadreallylonghairandhehadcut‐‐‐oh,I’msure,10inchesoff.And,youknow,foryouandI,weunderstandthat’sasign,that’stellingusthathe’sgoingthroughsomething.Something’shappened,therewasareason.Itwasn’tforthelook.Itwasn’tastyledecision.Atthetime,thereweresomeotherstaffmembershereandtheywerelike“Ohmygosh!Why’dyoucutyourhair?Ican’tbelieveyoudidthat!”Youknow,therewasnoconsiderationof‐‐‐Hejustkepttryingtoshrugitoff.Andatthesametime,Iknowthatmadehimveryuncomfortable.Icouldseeitinhisface.Icouldseeitinhisposture.Andthatmademeconsiderthedifference,theculturaldifferenceofbecomingaman‐‐‐ofgrowingupinaman’scultureandthisculture.Andallofasuddenyouareinaplacewherewomenareprofessors,orwomenarestaffthatdirectwhatyoudo.Youknowthosearetwothingsthatareindirectcontrastofwhattodo.AndsoIthinkthatwasapartofhisstruggleof;‘whatdoIdowiththat?’‘HowdoIhandleit?’Ultimately,hedidleave.Hejusthadadifficulttimecomingtothatbalance.AndIdo,Iunderstandthattoo.There’salotoftimeswhereIfacesituationswhere,youknow,okay,I’mhereandtheydon’tunderstandwhat’shappeningsoIkindofgowithit.Butatthesametime,Ireallyidentifywithwhathewasstrugglingwithandhejustsawnoconnectionbetweenbeinginschoolhereandwhathereallydesired,inhisheart,tobeathomewithhispeople.
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Lackoftraditionalcultureopportunity Priorresearchindicatesthatthemaintenanceofculturalidentityand
traditionswasfoundtobeinstrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthe
postsecondarylevel.ThevastmajorityofNativestudentsIinterviewedcitedthe
lackofsuchopportunitiesasamajordrawbacktolifeatPSU.Oneveteranprofessor
citedtheimportanceforopportunitiesforthepracticeofculturaltraditions:
Inthiscommunitywehave—Idon’tknowhowmanychurches.Itseemsthere’sachurcharoundeverycorner.WehavefourorfiveLutheranchurches...wehaveaCatholicchurchofcourse,andBaptistchurchesandsoon,justalotofchurches.WehaveamosqueforIslamicah‐Muslimstudents.WedonothaveanyfacilitiesforNativestudents.AsweatlodgeissomethingthataNativeAmericanCentercouldprovide,butwedon’thavethat.Studentswhoarefeelingaspiritualneedandarenativereallyhavetoogobacktothereservation.SothatisanotherareainwhichIthinkthereisabarriertostudentsbeingcomfortablehere.Unlesstheyhaveasetoffriendsandcolleagueswhoaresupportiveofthatparticularneed,theyaregoingtofeelveryaloneandisolatedhere.
Onceagain,thestudents’ownvoicesgiveusthebestideaofwhatitislikefor
themtoseetheirculturediscountedorignored.Amalestudentfromareservation
townspokewithdiscernablefrustrationaboutheseesNativestudentsreceivedat
PSU:
Yeah,IjustthinkPSUgenerallydoesn’t—Imeanifyoubreakitdownandreallyanalyzeitlikewehaverightnow—theyreallydon’tembraceNativeAmericansatall.Consideringthelocation—we’reinthenorthernplains.AndsinceI’vebeenatPSUI’vehadpeoplewho’vesaid‘WellwhatdotheNativeAmericansdo?”‘Welltheyhaveabigpowwowinthespring.’Andthat’sasfarasitgoes.Anditstops.TheonlywayNativeAmericanstudentsherearegoingtobeabletoembracetheircultureoutsideofthatoneweekendisiftheygotoaNativeAmericanClubmeetingandmeetotherNativeAmericanswhoarefromPrairieStateandthenmaybegohomewiththemovertheweekend.Ouruniversitydoesnotprovideanyoutletforculturalthingswhatsoever.None.SoImean—youcanalmosttellthatbylookingattheoutside—
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Imean—samething.Dowehaveourownfacilityforus?No.Dowehave‐‐‐wedon’tevenhaveamajor.Thosearetwobigflagsrighttherethatalotofotheruniversitiesdohave.WhichIjustthink,inmyopinion,makesPSUlooklikecrap.Imeanreally.Imeanwe’rethebiggestuniversityinthestate—butyetwehavethesecoupleofmajorindicationsthattheycompletelyshunus.
ThisstudentvoicedthefeelingsofmanyNativestudentsIspokewithabout
howtheyfeelshunnedanddiscountedbythemainstreamcommunitybothatPSU
andRailtowningeneral.
DominantCultureReferenceGroup
TheAmericanIndianstudentthatcomestoPSUmayquicklyfindoneself
feelingaloneinaforeignenvironment.Asdiscussedabove,theimportanceofa
supportivecommunityformedofpeersissignificant.Withoutareferencegroupof
peerstoprovidethecomfortandsecuritythatoneleftbehindwithfamilyand
friends,thestudentisleftsurroundedbyadominant,mainstreamsocietyinwhich
onemayfeel,asoneNativestudentdescribed,“likeadarkspeckonapieceof
paper.”ThisdominantgroupthenservesastheNativestudent’sreferencegroup.It
isincomparisontothisgroupthattheNativestudentwillmakeself‐appraisalsof
one’sfitintothePSUandlocalRailtownenvironment.
Theunderlyingsourceofthefeelingofisolationthaterodesself‐confidence
isalackofculturalunderstandingamongthedominantsociety.Studentsrepeatedly
commentedthattheyhavelearnedfromnon‐Indianclassmatesthatmanymembers
ofthemainstreamhavenevermetanyNativeAmericansandknownothingofwhat
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lifemaybelikeformanystudentscomingfromreservations,reservationborder
towns,orevenaNativesubculturewithinlargercities.
Thedominantmainstreamsocietyservesasareferencegroupagainstwhich
theNativestudentcomparesoneselfinattemptingtofindwaystofitintothelocal
communityandtheoverwhelminglyWhitecampusenvironment.Allofthestudents
Iinterviewedcitedthisculturaldiscontinuityasabarriertocollegesuccess.The
followingsectionsdetailsomeofthechallengesNativestudentsfaceinmaking
adjustmentstofitintoorliveamongthedominantgroup.
CulturalConflict:Culturalawarenessanddiversityexperiencelacking
TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorisinapositiontowitnesstheeffectsof
thisculturaldisconnectonaregularbasis:
OneofthethingsInoticedwasthatalotofthestudentscomefromsituations,which‐‐‐theWhitesociety‐‐‐ormainstreamAmericaviewsdifferently.Soif‘achildcomesfromabrokenhome’,thenrightaway,themajorityofAmericanswouldsay,‘okay,theparentsaredivorcedandthechildisdecidingwhichparenttolivewith’.ForalotofthestudentsIdealtwith,itwasn’tthatway.Alotoftimes,Dadwasneverinthepicturetobeginwith.AndtheywerecompetingwithMomtostayatAunties’houseortostayatGrandma’shouse.Itwasn’t‘Momisgonnatakecareofme’,itwas‘I’mcompetingwithMomforspace’.Sotosayinreports‐‐‐ifit’sonpaperthattheycamefromabrokenhome‐‐‐youknow,whoeverisgoingtoseethatreportisgoingtoseeitoneway,buttherealitymaybetotallydifferent.
Itmustbeacknowledgedthatnoteveryculturalmisunderstandingisonthe
partofthenon‐NativedirectedtotheNativeAmerican.Therealityisthatmany
NativeAmericanslackexperiencewithdiversityjustasdomanyWhites.One
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studentwhoattendedmainstreamandreservationhighschoolsrecallsbeingwith
someNativestudentsthefirsttimetheywereeveroffthereservation:
Thebigdifferenceiscultural.Likehowyouarebroughtup.ManyIndiankidsdon’tevenevergetoffthereservation.IknowIwenttomysenioryearat(TribalHighSchool),andforourseniortrip,halfthekidshadn’tevenbeenoffthereservation,andwewenttoMinneapolis.AndwewenttoValleyFair,andwewenttotheMallofAmericaandtheywerejustamazedbecausenoneofthemhaveevenbeenofftherez,letalonebeeninawholeplacethatwaspredominantlyWhitesociety.AndIthinkthat’sscaryforthem.Youknow,soitdoesn’thavetodowith‐‐‐everyonedoesgethomesickforotherkids,whethertheyareBlack,White,whatevertheyare.Weallagreeonthat.ButIthinkthat—justculturally,wearesodifferent—
TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorrecallsastudentwhowasunableto
reconcilehisownsenseofselfwiththedominantreferencegroupinwhichhewas
embeddedatPSU:
Ithinksometimes,asNatives,wetendtothinkourexperienceisunique.Andmaybeit’sjustaculturaldifferenceofhowwegoaboutexpressingourpersonalspiritualbeliefsorourculturalbeliefs.Noteveryonewearsitontheirsleevessoitisn’ttransparent.Ifwelookonlyamongstourpeers,it’seasytosee.Butisitsoeasyforotherslookingintoourpeers.Solike,forasNativeswemaybeabletorecognizeotherswhoSunDanceandwhosweatandpracticetraditionalnativereligion.AsNatives,wecanquicklyassessthatjustthroughconversation,throughmannerisms,throughbehaviors.Buttootherculturalgroups,cantheyidentifythatwithinus?Theymightreadthosethingsdifferently.SotheNativeswithinthatgroupmightthink‘yeah,thisissomethinguniquetous.’Butyetinanotherculturalsense,theymightbeabletoidentifyeachotherbysomeotherconnectingforce.Ithinkit’samatterofbeingopentoseethateachgroupisabletohavethesamekindofexperiencesbutjustmaybeinslightlydifferentvariations.
Afinalexampleofculturalconflictstemmingfromalackofexperienceor
understandingoccurredwhentheNativeAmericanClubparticipatedinthe2009
HoboDayParade.AgroupofNativestudentsrecallsthereactionsofsomeofthe
mainstreamcrowdliningthestreetsastheNativeAmericanClubfloatpassedby:
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Theparade‐Idon’tknow—didanyofyoufeellike‐youwereondisplay?Itgotquietlikeeverytimewecame.Yeahitwouldeitherbelikedeadsilent,orpeoplewouldbecheering.I’mlike‘whatareyoucheeringfor?’WellIthinktheywereapplauding.Andthenlikeherewecomeandwegetcloserandwegetcloserandthenwhenwe’dgetthereitwouldbelike‐‐‐silence.Itneverusedtobelikethatthough.Itusedtobewaybadyearsago.Like,myfirstyearthatIwasintheparade.Likethere’dbeguysthrowin’beercansatus—or—ummlikedoingthosewarwhoopsorlikejumponthestreetandstartdancingaroundorwhatever.Andyou’dhearpeoplehollering“F’nprairieniggers!”andstufflikethat.Itwasbad‐‐Justrealbad.NobodyhereknowsanythingaboutIndians.NobodycarestoknowanythingaboutIndians.
ToofewNativeAmericanfaculty/staff Alladministrators,faculty,staff,andstudentsIintervieweduniversally
agreedthatPSUwouldbenefitfrommoreAmericanIndianeducators.
FromtheperspectiveofauniversityVicePresident,“Ithinkthatoneofthe
issueswehaveisthatweareveryleanstaffing.Andthat’sanissueforus.Weneed
morepeopletoworkwithminorityandNativeAmericanstudentsandwedon’t
havealot.”
Arepresentativefromtheuniversityofferedthisperspective:
Ithinktherereallyneedstobeastrongpush,astrongerpushtosay‘weneedmoreminorityfacultyandstaff....It’snotapriorityoftheadministration,oroftheadministrativeleadership....Someofthepositionsaren’tfilled...Ihaven’theardofanypush,outsideofthepositionsthatwereopenhere,tohireanymoreminorityfacultymembersorstaffmembers.Idon’tthinkthattheuniversityhassaidthat‘weneedtomakethiscommitment.’
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FromtheNativestudentviewpoint:“Onethingthat’swrongisthattheydon’t
reallyhaveanyNativefacultyreally.SoIthinknothavingNativestaffaroundisa
realshortcoming.”
AnAmericanIndianfemalegraduatestudentdescribesthefrustrationthat
manyNativestudentsexperiencefromhavingtheirownculture,includingreligion,
taughttothembyanon‐Indianinstructor,fromaEuro‐centricacademic
perspective:
It’dbenicetohaveanacademicIndianpointofview—like‘okay,theysaythis—butasaculture,webelievethis—youknow?—AndtotellthattoWhitepeople,becausetheybelievewhatevertheteacherisdirectingtowardsthemwhenwe’re‐‐‐‐wellyouknow—Imeaninthatclass—onethingIwasmadaboutwashowtheyjusttriedtotakeouridentityawaybysayingwewerelikeSiberianorChinese‐‐‐andI’mlikeWHAT???YouknowwhatImean?...IthinkweneedmoreNativeprofessors.Likehowmanyarethere?Aretheretwo?...CauselikeIknowthatthestudentsIworkwith—theywentintoaNativereligionsclassandtheywerelikecompletelytakenabackbecauseit’ssomeWhitedudeteachingitand—hedoesn’tknowwhathe’steaching.Andsothosegirlswerelike‘HowaretheygonnahaveaWhiteguyteachusaboutreligion?’—LikeourNativereligion?
Anon‐traditionallyagedmalegraduatestudentshareshisreactiontoanon‐
Indianprofessorteachingaboutthemostsacredofrituals:
Ithinkthatforthoseinstructorstherearesomeculturalsensitivitiesthattheyjustoverlook...Youknow—brieflyflyingoveradescriptionofaSunDance.‐‐‐And,forme,inmymind—somethinglikethat—that’sapartofourcultureyes.Andit’s—theirpurposeistoteach‐‐‐butthat’snotanythingtobe‐‐‐‐spokeofalot‐‐‐especiallyataschoolsettinglikethat.But,whatI’mgettingatisthatsensitivityis‐‐‐thewayshedescribedcertainthingsataSunDance—andthecertaintimeofyear.‐‐‐Shedidn’tgivethat.Shedidn’tgivethosedescriptions,orreasons,oranything.Itwasjustapoleinthemiddleanditwasdoneonceayear.So—itwasjustverybroadandgeneral.Tosomebodyontheoutsidethatdoesn’tunderstandit—that’senough,that’salltheyneedfortheirinstruction.Butforsomebodythatgoesthroughitand–
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it’sapartoftheirlife,that’swholedifferentthing.That’sbeingveryinsensitive.
ItwasuniversallyagreeduponbyeveryoneIinterviewedthatPSUshould
makeitaprioritytorecruitandretainmoreNativeAmericanfaculty,staffand
administrators.
PlaceHardFeelingsatOMA EarlyoninthefirstofthreefocusgroupsIconductedwithAmericanIndian
studentsitbecameclearthattherewasadiscernabletensionwhenthetopicofthe
OfficeofMulticulturalAffairs(OMA)wasthefocusofconversation.Somestudents
inthefirstgroupreadilypointedtothewaysinwhichtheOMAwasseenasa
facilitatortocollegesuccess.Asdiscussedabove,thataspectseenasafacilitatorhad
todowiththeOMAservingasaplaceforcongregationasaNativecommunity,the
onlysuchplaceoncampustoservethatpurpose.Beyondthatpoint,wasamuch
moresignificantdynamicatwork.Ipursuedthispointinthefirstgroup.In
subsequentfocusgroupsthetopicof‘Place’becamethefirstandmostsalienttothe
NativeAmericanstudents.
AmongalloftheAmericanIndianstudentsIinterviewed,theconsensuswas
bestsummedupbyonestudentwhosaid:“I’dratherbesomeplacewhereIknow
it’scomfortable—theatmosphereiscomfortable,wherewefeel,asstudents,thatwe
belongthere—youknow?”
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AnotherNativestudentcommentedontheissue:
Ikindofmisshangingoutdowntherewithallofusthatcomfortzonehasbeentakenfromusandwewantanewspot.Evenifit’sahouse—ifyoulookatUSD,they’vegotahouserightacrossfromcampus.Ifwecouldhavesomethinglikethat—youknow?Hey,wecouldhaveourmeetingsthere.Wecouldcookourmealsthere.Wecouldhaveoursocials—youknoweverythingthatyoucouldthinkof,wecoulddorightthere.
Thisentireconversationwasfilledwithanemotionaltonesignifyinghurt
feelings,anger,resentment,andafeelingoffrustrationandpowerlessness.Itisvery
apparentthatthePSUAmericanIndianstudentsdonotfeelcomfortableinthespace
thatwasdesignedtoaccommodatethemandallotherminoritystudents.
Collectively,theNativestudentsofPSUinterviewedforthisresearch
conveyedalevelofdiscomfortandfrustrationbornofthefeelingofbeing
marginalizedasagroup:
Idon’tknowifwe,asagroup,areheardhear—Imean‐‐‐doesanybodyhearourconcerns?Doesanybodycare?Ireallydon’tknow‐‐‐Ifwedidhaveavoice—youknow—consideringthatourgrouphasthebiggeststudentorganizedeventoncampus—andthenwhentheyputitinthenewspaper—weareputonthebackpage‐‐justalittleblurbhereandthere.Howstrongofavoiceisthat?Ourspace—whichwesharewithothergroups,allputtogetherandlabeledasdiversitygroupsisinthebasementandourbiggesteventisputonthebackpage.Whatdoesthatsayabouthowweareseenonthiscampus?
TheconceptofaNativeAmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforthePSU
AmericanIndianpopulationhasbeenconsideredatPSUforseveralyears.Both
sidesoftheargumentinthisdebateadmitthatitisapointofcontentionthathas
lingeredwithoutresolution.
Ahighrankinguniversityadministratorcomments:
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Oneofthethingsthatwe’vetalkedaboutistryingtohaveaphysicalstructureforminoritystudentsandparticularlyNativeAmericanstudents.There’sbeenalittlebitofdebateoncampusintermsofwhetheritshouldbeaMulticulturalCenterorwhetheritshouldbeaNativeAmericanCenter.Andtobehonest,we’vegottenalittlehunguponthatissue.Butthatisanotherissuehangingouttherethatwehavenotbeenabletoresolveyet.Anditneedstobe‐‐‐weneedtomoveforwardonthattoo.
TheideaofaNativeAmericanCenteralsohasfacultysupport.Oneveteran
Professorisparticularlyoutspokenonthesubject.AsisthecasewiththestudentsI
interviewed,thisprofessor’ssinglevoicerepresentsthepositionofmanypeopleI
spokewith:
Collegeisenoughofanadjustmentforallstudents,andthat’swhyanumberofstudentsdon’tcontinue—butforatleastsomeofourNativestudents,it’sagreateradjustment.It’slikecomingfromoneworldtoanother.Andsothatcanbeasignificantproblemandasignificantobstacle.Ithinkthatwe’redisadvantagedinthatwedon’thaveaNativeAmericanCenter,aNativeAmericanStudentCenter.Ithinkthatweneedmuchmorefacultyre‐educationinregardtoNativeAmericanhistoriesandculturessothattheyhaveabetterunderstandingofNativestudents,andarebetterabletoencouragethemandbesupportiveofthem.
FromtheexperiencedperspectiveofoneformerstudentandAmerican
Indianfacultymember,theissueofplacecomesdowntotheneedforaNative
AmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforNativestudentsratherthanasharedspace
withalldiversestudents:
IthinkthatitwouldgoodiftheyhadaNativeAmericanCenterwheretheycouldcongregateandfeellikeacommunity,ratherthanscatteredaroundthecampus.Um‐‐‐‐whenIwasastudent,IlookedforotherNativestudents—andthisisabigcampusandifyoulookaround,youdon’talwaysseethem.AndIthinkitwouldhelpthemfeelliketheybelonghere,thatthey’renotjustbeingusedasdiversitystatistics,thattheuniversitywouldreallyprovideaplaceforthem,letthemknowthattheyarevalued.Andyouknowtherearesomeprogramsthatthestudents‐‐‐youknowweshouldbeeducatingourstudentstobecomeleadersandIthinkiftheyhadaCenterandtheycouldfeedoffof
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eachotherandelevatetheirstatusandhelpthemtofeelbetteraboutthemselvesandincreasetheirculturalvalues.Youknow,alotoftimesstudentsdon’twanttostandoutandbenoticedalone‐‐‐butifyou’reasagroup‐‐‐thereiscomfortandconfidence.IthinkaCenterwouldhelpthembuildcommunity.
Anotherfaculty/administratoroffersherviewsontheimportanceofaNative
AmericanCultureCenterwherenonecurrentlyexists:
Firstofall,we’retheonlyschoolforhundredsofmilesaroundwithasignificantNativepopulationthatdoesn’thaveaNativeAmericanHouse.So‐‐‐youknow‐‐there’sahugegapinservicehereandwhatshouldbejustanaturalpartofwhatwedohere.Ifstudentsareconstantlystressedaboutsomethingorfeelingunderstress,understrain,thendothosestudentshavealloftheirenergytoreachtheirfullpotentialasscholars,ashumanbeings,aswhatever?Well,wecoulddothisforourstudentsinsuchasimplewayasprovidingahouse.Ifwecoulddothatandwipeawayagoodpartofthisuneasiness,thisstressfulness—ifthisiswhatthey’resayingtheyneedtohelpmaketheireducationmorecomplete,thenIjustthinkit’sano‐brainerthatwereallyhavetohavethathere.SoImeanthehousewouldprovidethat.
Anadministratorwithpreviousinvolvementintheareaofuniversity
diversityenhancementhasbeenalongtimeproponentofaNativeAmericanCenter.
“Ithinkthestateshouldmakeitarequirementthateveryuniversityshouldhavea
NativeAmericanCulturalCenter.Ithinkthatshouldbejustagiven.”
SupportfortheNativeAmericanCulturalCenterisnotunanimous.Some
believethereisnota‘criticalmass’ofNativeAmericanstudentstojustifyaCenter,
andassuchtheissuesimplyboilsdowntonumbersandthebestwaytoallocate
resourcessuchthatthegreatestnumberofminoritystudentsbenefitfromalimited
poolofresources.
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Oneuniversityadministratorvoicedconcern:
TheNativeAmericanCulturalCenter,Istrugglewith.Whenwelookedatoneseveralyearsago,theresearchdonewithourstudentsatthatpointreallypointedtowardamulticulturalcenter,‐‐where,aswetalkedaboutearlier,wecouldbuildsynergybecausewedon’thavecriticalmass.Whenwedidtheresearch,campusesencouragedustocreateamulticulturalcenter,andtobuildoffofthat.AndatonepointwehadtalkedaboutaMulticulturalCenterandaswegrew,youcouldhavewingsforthedifferentgroupsbutstillhaveacenter,andthecenter‐‐‐um—andweseemtohavegoneawayfromthat.And‐‐andifwe’rereadytodothatandthereisalotofcampussupport,maybeweneedtodothat,Idon’tknow.Idon’tknowhowyougetyourarmsaroundthat.I’mstilltryingtogetmyarmsaroundthat.
CommentsofNativestudentsandothersinvolvedintribalstudent
programmingandstudentsupportsuggestthatthetimehascomefortheinstitution
tobuildoffitscurrentmulticulturalconceptandtogetitscollectivearmsaround
theconceptofaNativeAmericanCulturalCenter.Themainpointtobemade
regardingaplaceforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUandhowthatbecomesa
barriertocollegesuccessissimplythatnosuchplacecurrentlyexists.
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CHAPTEREIGHT
Discussion
Inthischapter,Iwillturnmyattentiontoadiscussionoftheimplicationsof
findingsasoutlinedinchapterssixandseven.Inordertoprovidethemost
comprehensivepossiblecoverage,Iwillincludethevoicesofthosewhohave
offeredtheiropinions,oftenpassionately,intheformoftheirownnormative
statements,andwillintegratethesevoiceswithsignificantrelatedfindingsfromthe
literature.
Overthecourseofconductinginterviewsforthisresearch,thereemergeda
categoryofdatathatIhavelabeled‘NormativeStatements’.NormativeStatements
isacategoryofemergentthemesthatincludes‘shouldsandoughts’aswellas
opinions,demands,andspecific,subjectiveviewpointsrelatingtotheAmerican
Indiancollegeexperience.
Withoutexception,thoseinterviewedwerequicktooffertheirviewpointson
everyaspectofthetopicofAmericanIndianacademicsuccessatPSU.Whilethese
statementsdonotfitneatlyintocategoriesaseitherfacilitatorsorbarriers,theyare
ofsignificantimportanceincreatingadetailedpicturefromtheperspectiveofthose
participantsinterestedinacademicattainmentforNativestudentsatPSU.The
omissionoftheseviewpointswouldcreateaseriousgapinrepresentationofthe
currentreality.
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AsoutlinedinCHAPTERSIX,amongthosefactorsthatactasfacilitators,of
foremostsignificanceappeartobetheover‐archingthemeofsupport.Contained
withinthesupportthemeareseveralmorespecificareas,orissuesencounteredby
Nativestudentswhereinsupport,orlackthereofisthenumberoneconsiderationin
collegesuccess.Withoutsupport,thecollegecareerofaNativeAmericanstudentat
PSUmaybeshortlived.
Facilitators
SupportiveFamily Familysupportandencouragementplayanimportantroleinstudent
retentionandacademicsuccessincollege(Wilson1983;Rindone1988;Huffman,
SillandBrokenleg1986;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994).Theeducationleveland
occupationofparentsarefoundtobeimportantpredictorsofstudentsuccessin
college(Brown1993).
Amongfacultyandadministratorsinterviewed,therewasuniversal
agreementthatfamilysupportplaysanimportantroleincollegesuccessfor
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.TheDirectorofoneNativestudentsupport
programcommentedonhowPSUcouldimprovethelevelofservicetostudentsasa
waytocompensateforthelossofsupportprovidedbythefamilywhenthestudent
isawayfromhome:
IthinktheimplicationsoftheimportanceoffamilysupportarethatweneedtoincorporatefamilymuchmoreinourworkwithAmericanIndianstudents.Ithinkanareathatwecanreallygrowalotinisbringinginfamilybecause
154
weknowthatthatisahugely—again—nottoovergeneralizebutformanyofourstudentsit’sahugelyimportantpartofwhotheyare.
Familymembersoftenprovidelogisticalaswellasemotionalsupport.Thisis
especiallytrueforsingleparentswhorelyonfamilyforhelpwithcaringforyoung
childrenwhileparentsareinschoolorworking,oftenatmorethanonejobwhile
alsotakingafullcreditload.ManyPSUNativestudentscitefamilyasamajorsource
ofsupport.Familymembersprovideemotional,motivationalandlogisticsupport
forstudentswhooftenfeeloutoftheirelementonamainstreamuniversitycampus.
RegardingtheimportanceoffamilysupportcitedbyNativestudentsatPSU
andpreviousresearch,fromotheruniversities,supportingthesamefindings,
indicationsarethatAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUwouldbenefitfroman
enhancedinstitutionalfocusonprovidingsupportbasedonfamilycenteredmodels
inplaceatothertribalandmainstreaminstitutions,inadditiontocultural,financial,
andacademicneeds.Familybasedprogramsmodeledafterpriorresearchwillbe
discussedintheBarrierssectionbelow.Relevanttothecurrentdiscussionisthefact
thatrecognition,bycampusadministrators,oftheimportanceofincorporating
familyintothetotalsupportpackagefortheNativePSUstudent,isinandofitself,a
potentialfacilitator.
SupportiveFriends Afterfamilysupport,anetworkoffriendswascommonlycitedasan
importantsourceofsupport.Administrators,faculty,staff,andstudentsallpointed
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totheformationofsupportiverelationshipsasofprimaryimportancetostudent
success.TherewasalmostuniversalagreementamongPSUfaculty,staffand
administratorsontheimportanceofaNativecommunityandpeerreferencegroup.
Theserelationshipsarenotnecessarilyrestrictedtofriendshipsorfamily,butalso
includementorshipbyfacultyandstaffinandaroundthecampusenvironment.
CampusclimatewasmentionedasanimportantfactorintheabilityofNative
studentstocometogetherinacommunityofpeersthatwouldofferthecomfortand
supportoftencitedasofprimaryimportancetopersistenceandacademicsuccess
forAmericanIndianstudents.Oneelementofthatclimateoftenmentionedwasa
placeforNativestudentstocometogetherasacommunityofpeersinsupportof
eachother.
ThetopicofsuchaplaceforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUwillbe
discussedinfurtherdetailinChapterNine.Relevanttothecurrentdiscussionisthe
needforsuchaplaceatPSUwherenonecurrentlyexistedatthetimeIconducted
interviews.Giventhesignificanceofasupportivenetworkoffriendsascited
unanimouslybyparticipantsinthisresearch,itcouldbeconcludedthatofutmost
importancefortheformationofsuchasupportgroup,isaplaceforthatcommunity
toexistsafelyandcomfortably.Beginninginthefallof2010,thenewlyformed
AmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenterwilloffersuchaplace.
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SupportiveFaculty
Inpriorresearch,NativestudentsinAlaskareportedaccessibility,
approachability,genuinenessandcaringbycollegeoruniversityfacultyas
necessaryforlearningsuccess(Wilson1997).AmericanIndianstudentsatPSUalso
pointedtotheimportanceofsupportivefacultymembersincontributingtocollege
success.
OneofthemostimportantfacilitatorsIfoundatPSUfortheeducational
successforAmericanIndianstudentsistheexistenceofacoregroupofpeoplewho
areproventobeextremelydedicatedandeternallycommittedtofosteringa
positiveacademicexperienceforNativestudentsatPSU.Itiswidelyagreedthatthis
coregroupoffacultyandstaffaredeeplycommittedtothefosteringofapositive
educationalexperienceforthisuniversity’sNativestudents.
ThestudentsIspoketorecognizethepresenceofthisgroupandare
appreciativeofallthatthesepeopledo.Throughoutmyinterviewsconcernwas
repeatedlymentionedforthetimewhenthesesupporterswillbegintoretire.
Students,administratorsandfacultyhaveallpointedtotheneedtobringinnew
faculty,staffandadministrationthatwillcarryonthistraditionofsupport.
Themembersofthiscoregrouphavebeenthepillarsofsupporttothe
AmericanIndianstudentatPSUformanyyearsandremainsotothepresentday.
However,asmentionedbymany,ifnewpeoplewithasimilarcommitmenttoNative
studentsuccessarenotbroughtintotheuniversityasothersretire,thesupport
thesepeopleprovidewillmostassuredlybemissed.
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SupportiveAdministration WithoutuniversityadministratorssensitivetoissuesparticulartoAmerican
IndianstudentsandinterestedinprovidingaqualitycollegeexperienceatPSU,
chancesforNativestudentsuccesswouldbelimited.IndicationsarethatPlains
StateUniversitydoeshaveaverysupportiveadministrationdedicatedtocreatinga
universityenvironmentconducivetoacademicsuccessforitsNativeAmerican
studentpopulation.
InJanuaryof2007,theuniversitycameundernewleadershipwiththe
inaugurationoftheits19thPresident,analumnusofPSU.Duringthe20thAnnual
PSUWacipi(powwow)thePresidentannouncedthecomingofanewlyformed
AmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenteropeninginthefallof2010.
InJulyof2009,PSUappointedanewProvostandVicePresidentfor
AcademicAffairs.DuringmyinterviewwiththeProvostshediscussedtheforward
movingvisionsheholdsforsupportofNativestudentsincludinganenhanced
curriculumintheformofamajorfieldofstudyinAmericanIndianStudies.
Bothoftheseuniversityleadershavedemonstratedacommitmentto
AmericanIndianstudentsatPSUbothinthepresentandthroughavisionforthe
futurethatwillleadtothattopdowninstitutionalchangementionedbyseveralof
thoseIinterviewed.
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UniversityCommunitySupport OfsignificancetoNativestudentsonthePSUcampusistheexperienceofone
oftheirpeers,afirstyeargraduatestudentwhowasa2009graduateofDartmouth
College.DartmouthiswellknownforitsAmericanIndianStudiesprogramand
NativeAmericanHouse(GarrodandLarimore1997),andmightserveasamodelof
successforPSU.Thatstudentdescribesherexperience,“Inmyundergrad
experienceweweregreetedrightawaybytheNativecommunity...thatconnection
tothecommunityisanimportantthing.Otherwise,everyday,youfeellikeyouare
aloneontheoutsidelookingin.”
TheimportanceofsupportfortheAmericanIndianstudentcannotbe
overstated.Itmustalsoberecognizedthatsupportisalreadyinplaceinmany
instancesandthatbymodelingthesuccessesatplacessuchasDartmouth,PSUcan
moveingreatstridestowardanenhancedsystemofsupportiveelements
throughoutawiderangeofservicesandfacilities,andpersonnel.
NativeAmericanfaculty/staff Onesignificantmovetowardanenhancedenvironmentofsupportisinthe
hiringofadditionalAmericanIndianFaculty.Thisadditionnearlydoubledthe
numberofAmericanIndiansworkinginfacultyorstaffpositionsbringingthetotal
numbertofive.
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In2009,PSUappointedanAmericanIndianfacultytothepositionof
CoordinatorofAmericanIndianStudies.Heiscurrentlyworkingonthe
developmentofanAmericanIndianStudiesmajor.
AlsoofsignificantvaluetoPSUistheadditiontotheathleticsdepartmentof
oneofjustafewNativeAmericanwomentoplayandcoachDivision1athletics.
Together,thesevaluableadditionsbringwiththemimpressiveacademicaswellas
experientialcredentials.
ThroughoutmydatacollectionIbothobserved,andheardtestimonialsofthe
importantinfluencetheyhavehadontheNativestudentcommunityinproviding
valuablementoringsupportandleadershipwhileservingasthebestpossiblerole
models.
SupportServices Studentsupportservicesrespectfuloftheneedsandinterestsofculturally
diversestudentsareseenasanimportantfactorsleadingtosuccess(Barnhardt
1994).
AmongallthoseIinterviewedforthisresearch,itdidnotescapemy
attentionthatwhilemanyareextremelydevotedtoNativestudentsuccess,those
workingintheareaofstudentsupportserviceswereamongthemostoutwardly
passionateandvisiblymovedastheyspokeonthetopic.Toputitsuccinctly,these
peoplearefacilitatorstoNativestudentsuccessfirstandforemostintheir
understandingoftheroletheyplayandwhattheystrivetoaccomplish.
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If,assuggested,theoverarchingthemeinthefacilitationofacademicsuccess
forAmericanIndianstudentsatPSUisstudentsupport,thenthesestudentsupport
professionalsmustberecognizedasessential.Onceagain,itbecomesapparentthat
humanrelationshipsarethekeytocreatingasupportiveenvironmentforNative
studentsatPSU.
FinancialResources
Throughoutmyinterviews,regardlessofwhomIspokewith,Iwasstruckby
thefactthateveryoneknowsthedirectoroftheFinancialAidOfficeatPSU.Some
studentsaffectionatelyreferredtohimasDad,orasSantaClaus,saying,“Ifyouneed
somemoneytostayafloat,he’swhereyouturn.”Noonecouldspeaknegatively
aboutthismanandwhathehasdoneforallstudentsatPSUtofacilitatetheircollege
experience.AsIinterviewedhim,Iwascognizantofmyownexperiencewithhimas
agraduatestudentoverthelastseveralyearsanditwasclearaswespokethatheis
unwaveringlycommittedtofosteringeducationalattainmentforNativestudents
throughanyandallmeansathisdisposal.Duringthe20thAnnualPSUWacipiin
FebruaryIobservedhimvisitwithNativestudentsthroughouttheeveningandtake
agenuineinterestintheeventandthepeopleinattendance.Themanisinaword,a
“facilitator”.
Interestingly,whilesomeofthestudentsIinterviewedcomplainedaboutthe
perceivedlackoffinancialaidopportunitiesavailable,andtheFinancialAidOffice,
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ormoreaccurately,thepersonnelintheofficewithwhomfirstcontactismostoften
made,nonecomplainedaboutthedirectorofthatofficeorquestionedhislevelof
commitmentanddedicationtoeitherthemortheirfinancialneeds.Thisreaffirms
thenotionofthesignificanceofrelationshipsbetweenpeople.Perhapsthemost
significantfindinghereistheneedforimprovedlinesofcommunicationthrough
whichhealthyrelationshipscanbebuilt.Suchcommunicationwouldnecessarilybe
achievedthroughamutuallackofpreconceivednotionsleadingtocultural
discontinuity.
TraditionalCulture Themaintenanceofculturalidentityandtraditionswasfoundtobe
instrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthepostsecondarylevel(Huffman,
SillandBrokenleg1986).
Justasfamilysupportemergesasaprimaryfacilitatorforcollegesuccess,the
issueofcultureemergesasanintegralpartoftheAmericanIndianstudent’s
identity.Culture,familyandidentityareintertwinedandcanprovideastrong
buttressagainstthediscomfortthatcancomewiththeculturaldiscontinuityof
movementfromthereservationcommunitytothemainstreamuniversity.(Waxet
al.1964,Berry1969;Hertzburg1971;Oppelt1991;Tierney1992,2000;Carney
1999).HowthatculturalidentityisnurturedandexpressedthroughoutthePSU
experiencemayplayapivotalroleinthesuccessoftheNativestudent’scollege
career(Fordham1988;Feagin1996).
162
Oneofthecommonthemescitedasafacilitatorwastheopportunityforthe
NativestudentsatPSUtoexpressorparticipateintraditionalculturalactivities.In
orderforNativeAmericanstudentsatPSUtomakefulluseofthebenefitsderived
fromparticipationinculturalactivitiesasafacilitatortoacademicsuccess,there
needstobemoreopportunitiesforthepracticeofsuchactivities.Theprovisionof
thoseopportunitiesmaybeaccomplishedinlargepartinthenewlypromised,and
longawaitedAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter.Suchwasthe
experienceofaNativegraduatestudentassherecalledherundergraduateyearsat
Dartmouth:
Wehadahouseatmyundergradwhereyouactuallycouldlive.Thereweretwofloors.Thetopfloorhadthreebedsandthenthebottomfloorandthemiddlefloor.Andthestudentscouldlivethereifyouappliedtolivethere.Andlikeeverybodywantedtolivethereandeverybodywasalwaysthere.LikeIdon’tknowifitwasbecausewehadahugecommunity—Idon’tknowwhatitwasbut—everybodywasalwaysthere.Wewerelike—duringtheafternoonswewouldbeintheNAHallcrowdedonthecouchjusteatingtogetherandthenintheevenings,we’dbeinthediningroomattwobiglongtables.We’dbejuststudyingorlaughing.Andthentherewasabasementwherewe’dwatchmovies....ButthatwashowIkeptmyconnectionwithhome.Andtherewasadrumgroup‐‐‐wehadalotofguysfromtheSouthwest,soitwaskindofasoutherndrumgroup.They’dcomeinandtheywouldlikesingandthey’dbeintheNativeAmericanHouse—they’dbeinthebasementandthey’dsing.Anditfeltsogoodtohearthat…that’swhatwe’lldosometimes.Likepeoplewilljuststartplayinghanddrumsongsandwe’lljustsitthereandlistentoit.It’snicethough.
ItmakessensetoacknowledgethosefactorsalreadyinplaceatPSUthatact
asfacilitatorstoacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.Ithasbeen
demonstratedthattheuniversityhasmanyassetstoitscredit.Theseassetsarein
theshapeandformofpeoplededicatedtothesuccessofNativestudentsandthe
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programsthatthosepeopleadminister.Oneprofessorsaidthat‘bricksandmortar
canonlyallowforsomuch,andthatthemostimportantthingisrelationships
betweenpeople.’Ithasalsobeendemonstratedthatthemostvaluableofallassets
atPSUarethosepeoplededicatedtothesuccessofNativestudentsandthe
relationshipstheyfoster.
Theseassetsworkingasfacilitatorsmayserveasastartingpointfromwhich
tobuildandstrengthentheopportunitiesforNativeAmericancollegesuccess.
PerhapsifPSUbuildsonitsstrengths,theweaknesseswilltakecareofthemselves.I
willnowturnthefocustoadiscussionofbarrierstoacademicattainmentforNative
students.
Barriers
Inhis1999book,FirstPeoples:ADocumentarySurveyofAmericanIndian
History,CallowayprovidesatimelineforAmericanIndiansthatcanbeintertwined
withthehistoryofPlainsStateUniversity,asprovidedintheuniversity’sofficially
publishedBulletin(PlainsStateUniversityBulletinQuarterly,Volume99,Number2,
May2008).Together,thesehistoriescreateapictureofPrairieState’smainstream
educationalinstitutionandtheNativepeopleofPrairieState.WhilePSUhasgrown
andcontinuestogrowintoapremierresearchandteachinguniversity,there
remainsthirdworldlikeconditionsonmanyofthestatesreservations.Itisclear
thatthisisahistoryinwhichthedevelopmentofoneisnotinsynchwiththe
developmentoftheother.
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Thishistorybegsthequestions;howhasthemissionofPSUasan1862Land
GrantinstitutionbeenappliedtotheNativepeopleofthestate?Towhatextenthave
AmericanIndiansgainedaccesstohighereducationatPSU?And,wheredoes
responsibilitylieforthelevelofacademicattainmentreachedbyNativeAmericans,
bothhistoricallyandpresently?
Onceagain,cautionmustbetakenagainstbroad,sweepinggeneralizations.
Qualitativedatagatheredthroughoutthisresearchsuggestsawidevarietyoffactors
actingaseitherfacilitators,orbarriers,orbothdependingoncontextandthose
individualsandgroupsinvolved.Amongthosefactorsareindividualpersonal
characteristicssuchasdriveanddetermination,andstructuralcharacteristics
includingracismatvaryinglevels,availabilityoffacilitiesforNativestudentsand
culturaldiscontinuitybetweenNativestudentsandthemainstreamcommunity
(Berry1969;Kerbo1981;Wilson1983;Huffman,SillandBrokenleg1986;Rindone
1988;WrightandTierney1991;Tierney1992;Davis1992;Barnhardt1994;
Barnhardt1994;Carney1999;Huffman1999).
Togetherthesefactorsintertwineandoverlaptocreateacomplicatedmatrix
thatisdifficulttosortoutordisplaygraphicallyorevennarratively.Theone
constantisthattheonlyaccurateunderstandingofthiscomplexissuecanbegained
throughthevoicesdescribingtheworldviewsandexperiencesofallthoseinvolved,
whethertheybestudent,faculty,stafforadministrator.Fromthesevarious
standpoints,nounilateralresponsibilitycanbeassignedforsuchavagueconceptas
NativeAmericancollegesuccess,orlackthereof.Aswithallthingsinthesocial
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world,itisacombinationoffactorsinanygivencontextthatresultsinwhatwe
perceiveasrealityatanygivenmoment.Whatweperceiveasrealisaproductof
ourownsociallyconstructedreality.AsW.I.Thomasstated,“Ifmendefine
situationsasreal,theyarerealintheirconsequences”(ThomasandThomas,1928:
572).
Thisresearchrepresentsonlyasmallsliceintimeconsideringtheentire
historyofPSU,thecompletehistoryofAmericanIndianhighereducationtothe
presentday,andperhapsmostimportantly,thehistoryofcontactbetweenthe
indigenouspeopleofthiscontinentandallthosewhocamelater.Itmustbenoted
thatthecomplexityofallaspectsrelativetothisissuemustbekeptsalientinour
attemptstounderstand.Itisalsoimperativethatweunderstandandremainaware
thathowweassignmeaningtothecomponentpartsofthiscomplexissueis
dependentuponthevaluesweasindividualsholdthemostdear.
Historian,andeducatorHowardZinncautionsontheuseandapplicationof
historyinhis1990bookDeclarationsofIndependence:
Wecan...decideforourselves,basedonourownvalues,whichaccountsaremostimportantandmostuseful.Anyonereadinghistoryshouldunderstandfromthestartthatthereisnosuchthingasimpartialhistory.Allwrittenhistoryispartialintwosenses.Itispartialinthatitisonlyatinypartofwhatreallyhappened.Thisisalimitationthatcanneverbeovercome.Anditispartialinthatitinevitablytakessides,bywhatitincludesoromits,whatitemphasizesordeemphasizes.Itmaydothisopenlyordeceptively,consciouslyorsubconsciously.
166
Thechiefprobleminhistoricalhonestyisnotoutrightlying.Itisomissionorde‐emphasisofimportantdata.Thedefinitionofimportant,ofcourse,dependsonone’svalues.(P.51)
Oneprofessorcommentedontheimportanceofknowingwherewemust
startinaddressingbarrierstocollegesuccessforNativestudents:
Soweneedtobesincereaboutthepresent,butwealsohavetoberealisticthatwehavealotofthingstoovercome.Wehaveatroubled,troubledhistory,andthefolksweservenowarepartofthathistory.WearepartofthathistorysoIthinkwearejustattheverybeginning.
AthoroughunderstandingofthebarrierstoAmericanIndianacademic
attainmentatPSUmustbeginfromanacknowledgementofthehistoriesofthe
institutionandoftheNativepopulation.ThroughtheuseofwhatMills(1959)called
theSociologicalImaginationwecanattempttolookbackintime,throughtheeyes
ofAmericanIndiansinPrairieState,andnationwide,toseehowlifepossibilities,
includingthepossibilitiesforacademicattainment,wereinfluencedwithinthe
contextofsocialclimateofthetimes.
InFebruaryof1881theTerritorialLegislaturegranted120,000acresat
Railtown,PrairieStatefortheestablishmentofan‘AgricultureCollege’.Lessthan
tenyearslater,between200‐300people,mostlyelders,women,andchildrenofSi
Tanka’sbandofMinniconjouOyateweregunneddownbytheSeventhCavalryat
WoundedKneeCreek(Calloway,1999).
167
By1923,instructionalprogramswereorganizedintofivedivisionsincluding:
Agriculture,Engineering,GeneralScience,HomeEconomics,andPharmacy.The
futurePSUwasbeginningtotakeshape.
Thefollowingyear,1924,allAmericanIndiansweregrantedU.S.citizenship.
TheJohnson‐O’MalleyActandtheIndianReorganizationActwerepassedin1934.
ThroughJohnson‐O’Malley,thefederalgovernmentprovidedfundstoschool
districtsforAmericanIndianchildrenattendingpublicschools(Calloway,1999).
TheIndianReorganizationActprovidedforIndianself‐determinationthroughthe
developmentoftribalgovernments(Calloway,1999).
1956Broughtasixthundergraduatedivisioninthefieldofnursing.Alsoin
1956,thefederalgovernmentpassedtheRelocationActtoencourageNative
Americanstoleavethereservationandmovetourbancenters.Thiswasbelievedto
beawaytoassimilateNativepeopleintotheEuro‐centricmainstreamculture
(Calloway,1999).In1957,theGraduateDivisionwascreatedatthecurrentPSU
whileAmericanIndiansmovedtoChicago,Minneapolis,SanFrancisco,Cleveland
andotherlargecitiesinsearchofmainstreamopportunities.
1961sawthefoundingoftheNationalIndianyouthCouncilandthe
emergingdevelopmentofaPan‐IndianidentityamongIndiansrelocatedtourban
centers(Hertzberg,1971).In1964,thenameoftheAgricultureCollegeatRailtown
waschangedtoPlainsStateUniversityatwhichtimethecollegesofAgricultureand
BiologicalSciences,ArtsandScience,Engineering,HomeEconomics,Nursing,and
GraduateStudieswerecreated.
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1973sawtheSiegeofWoundedKnee,orwhathasbeencalledWounded
KneeII,whenmembersoftheAmericanIndianMovementgatherednationwide
supportfromtheburgeoningPanIndian,RedPowermovementinprotestofpoor
livingconditionsandmismanagementbytheOglalaSiouxTribalgovernment.This
protestquicklyturnedintoafull‐scaleconflictbetweengovernmentforces,
includingStatePatrol,NationalGuardunits,andtheFBIononesideagainstAIM
membersatitssupportersontheother.
In1989,theDivisionofEducationwasofficiallynamedPSU’sCollegeof
CounselingandEducation.Alsoin1989,TheNationalMuseumoftheAmerican
Indianwasestablishedbyanactofcongressasthe16thmuseumoftheSmithsonian
InstitutioninWashingtonD.C.Themuseumopenedin2004.
Inthe2003‐2004schoolyear,PSUbegantheprocessofmovingtoNCAA
Division1athletics,withfullDivision1statusachievedin2008.Inthefallof2008,
studentenrollmentwas11,995.Bythefallof2009,totalstudentenrollmentwas12,
376.Ofthose,8.4percentwerelistedasminoritystudents.AmericanIndian
studentsenrolledatPSUcomprisethesecondlargestofminoritygroupsenrolledat
2.3percentofallstudentsenrolled.Inwhatcanonlybedescribedasan
overwhelminglyWhite,mainstreamuniversity,2.3percentisdisproportionate
whentakingintoaccountthetotalNativeAmericanpopulationinPrairieState,
whichiscitedbytheU.S.CensusBureau,asbetweeneightandninepercent.
ThroughouttheparallelhistoriesofPSUandtheNativeAmericanpopulation
ofthestateandoftheUnitedStates,AmericanIndianstudentshavenotbeen
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proportionatelyrepresentedregardingacademicattainment.Thereasonsforthis
disproportionatecollegesuccesscannotbeseparatedfromthathistory.
InstitutionalBarriers/Administration
DataIcollectedatPSUforthisresearchsupportspreviousresearchcitedin
theliteratureindicatingthatinstitutionalstructuralbarriersmaybeasignificant
factorhinderingacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.
WhilestrideshavebeenmadetowardAmericanIndiancollegesuccessatPSU,
basedoncomparisonofqualitativedatagathered,indicationsarethatforthe
subjectsparticipatinginthisresearch,barriersoutweighfacilitatorsbymorethana
2:1ratio.
EveryoneIinterviewedagreedthatsocialchangefocusedonimprovingthe
chancesforAmericanIndianacademicsuccessatPSUmuststartwiththePSU
administration.Somediscusseditintermsoftheinstitutionalmission.
AveteranprofessorspeaksofthehistoryoftheAmericanIndiancollege
experienceatPSUspecifically,howthatcollegeexperiencehasbeenaproductofan
institutionalizedstructure:
Ithinkthatinstitutionalchangeisinorder,butisverydifficultbecausethisisthewayit’salwaysbeen.GenerationsworthofIndianpeoplebeingjustabliponthescreen,ornotonthescreenortangentialorperipheral,orsubordinate,orwhateveryouwanttocallit.It’sprettyhardtounlearnthat.AsItoldthePresidentinameetingnottoolongago,‘We’reprogressing,insomeways,academically,butanAmericanIndianCulturalCenteris–youknow—50yearsoverdue.((laughs))Ifyoulookatcomparableinstitutionseverywhere,wearesuckingwindcomparedtothembecausewehaven’t
170
beenproactiveenoughtounderstandthatyoucan’treallybeofmuchappealtotribalstudentsifyoudon’thaveaplace.
RegardingtheLandGrantMissionoftheuniversity,thesameprofessorcontinues:
...It’sbeenaglaringomissionactually,thattribalkidshavebeenunderserved....Universityadministration,asastructurefromthetopdown,doesn’tdirectlytakeresponsibility,asapriority,foraddressingissuesofdiversity,particularlyrelatedtoNativestudents,butrather,thatresponsibilityfallstoindividualpockets,orenclaveswithin.It’ssafetosaythatthroughtheyears,thecentraladministrationhavebeenreactiveratherthanproactive.Sometimesresponsivetowhatsomeofusaredoingandaskingfor,butrarelyareinitiators.Exceptforgivinglipservicetoit,ofcourse.Theyarereally,reallygoodatthat.
Ahigh‐rankinguniversityadministratoraddressesissuesconcerningthe
historyofPSUandremainingbarrierstoAmericanIndianacademicattainment
fromaninstitutionalperspective,“Idon’tknow,structurally,andI’mtalking
organizationally,ifwe’vequitelandedonthebestorganizationtoworkwith
diversity.”
OnefacultymemberhasworkedtowardenhancingdiversityatPSUfor
decades.Amonghismanypassionsisworkingtowardanenhancedappreciationfor
NativeAmericanstudents,andanappreciationforindigenouscultureasanassetto
theuniversity.“I’moftheviewthatwearenotfulfillingourmissionandpurposes
verywell.Weneedtoreallyfocusonthatanddoabetterjobofit.”
Itquicklybecomesapparentthatoneofthebarrierstoacademicattainment
forAmericanIndianstudentshasitsgenesisinthedivergentviewpointsconcerning
whattheprioritiesareinaddressingdiversityissues.Morespecifically,howthe
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officialuniversitypolicyaddressesAmericanIndianstudentswithintheoverall
issueofdiversityhasadirectimpactontheNativeAmericancollegeexperience.
FromaDirectorofoneofthestudentsupportservicesoncampuscomesfurther
testimonyregardingtheconfusionofwhatdiversitymeans,whoisdefinedas
diverse,andwhereprioritieslie,“Ithinktherearepeopleonthiscampuswhodon’t
includeNativeAmericankidsaspartoftheiroutlookfordiversity.”
AfacultymemberwhohasremainedveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndian
studentsformanyyears,andwhoisawellknownasamentor,addressestheissue
ofdiversityandwhereNativestudentsfall,asamatterofpriorityinthediversity
issueexpresseddeepconcern,“IguessifyouareaNativeperson,aWhiteinstitution
isnotattractivetoyouespeciallyifthatinstitutiondoesn’thaveagoodreputationas
beingwelcomingandvaluingtheNativeculture.”
Anotherfacultymemberwhohasadministeredasuccessfulprogramfor
Nativestudentsdiscussedhowtheuniversitydealswithdiversity,“...alotof
peopledonotappreciatethestrengthandthebenefitthatcomesfromhaving
diversefacultyanddiversestudentswhoareapartofthewholebigworldwelive
in.”
AnotherfacultymemberwhoisprimarilyinvolvedwithNativeAmerican
studentscomments,“Ifourmissionisservingthepeopleofthestate,wehavea
giganticunderservedpopulation,righthere,whoare,intermsoftheuniversity,who
areourneighbors...ourfrontyardsjoineachother.Andforalargepartofour
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history,thehistoryofPSU,andthesystemofhighereducation,thegateshavebeen
closedtoourneighbors.”
TheissueofPSUcommitmenttominorityrecruitingisonethatwas
continuouslyquestionedbyallinterviewees,includingadministrators,facultyand
staff.
PoorHighSchoolPreparation
Goodacademicperformancepriortocollegehasbeenlinkedtogood
academicperformanceincollege(Brown1993).
Whateverthecause,everystudentIinterviewedagreedthatthereisa
differenceinthequalityofeducationbetweenreservationhighschoolsand
mainstreamhighschools.SomeoftheNativestudentsIinterviewedattended
mainstreamhighschoolsanddidnotexperiencethesameeducationaldeficitupon
enteringcollege.Thismayindicatethattheproblemiswithreservationschoolsand
notwithAmericanIndianstudents.
NativestudentsoftencometoPSUunpreparedforcollegelevelwork.There
isextantdetailedliteratureonthissubject.Faculty,administration,admissionsstaff
andthestudentsthemselvesarewellawareoftheeducationalhandicapwithwhich
manyAmericanIndianstudentsbegintheiruniversitycareer.
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PrejudiceorRacism
Feagin(2000),reportingonthecollegeexperienceofBlackstudentsat
predominantlyWhitecollegecampuses,statesthatprejudicialattitudesaboundon
WhitecampusesamongWhitestudents,facultyandadministrators.Ifracial
insensitivityhasbeeninstitutionalizedonmainstreamcollegecampusesintheform
ofEuro‐centriccurriculum,lackofinterestinAfricanAmericanstudents,andthe
expectationbyfacultythatindividualBlackstudentsarerepresentativeoftheentire
race,asFeagin(2000)suggests,thesameappearstoholdtrueforNativeAmerican
studentsonmajorityWhite,mainstreamcampusofPSU.
Oneveteranprofessorofferedhisperspectiveonaddressingracismthrough
curriculumreform:
Andso,weneedqualitycontrol.Weneedprogramdevelopment.Weneedthesecoursesauthoredbypeoplewhoarepassionateaboutthem,whocareaboutthemintheheartaswellasinthehead—andwhocanpersuadeaspiringteachersoftheimportanceofthemandhowtheycanbeusedinavarietyofcircumstancesinourschoolsystems.Because,ofcourse,that’stheproblemhere‐youcanstillgetauniversity‐anPSUdegreewithouthavingyourmostfoundationalandfundamentalsuperficialracismsaddressed.Youdon’thavetoprocessanyofthis.Youcancomeherearacist—youcanleaveherearacist.YoucanweaveyourwaythroughtheprogramandstillnotknowthefirstthingaboutAmericanIndianhistoriesandcultures.
Regardlessofwhetheraspecificincidentisrecalled,NativestudentsatPSU
agreethatracismdirectedtowardAmericanIndiansisacommonreality,one
studentrelateshisperspective“Well,PrairieStateisactuallytheheartofIndianand
Whiteracism.That’sallitbasicallyis...”
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TheuglytruthisthatracismhasbeenapartofU.S.societyfromits
beginning.Greatpeoplehavespenttheirlivesattemptingtoovercomeracism,
othershavelosttheirsinpursuitofthesamegoal.Whetherornotitiscomfortable
toadmit,racismdoesexistatPSU.Whilehistoryhasshownthatthereisnosimple
cure,perhapsthestartingpointwithinreachisforeachofus,asindividuals,to
becomeawareofthoseidealswehavebeensocializedwithandofthosewithwhich
wehavenot,andofthethingswetakeforgranted,andofthosethingsthathave
becomeinstitutionalizedtothepointofbecominginvisibly,subconsciouslytaken
forgranted.RecallthoseIinterviewedwhosaid,“Somuchofitisabout
relationships...It’sfromthatcommunity—thoserelationshipsthatpeoplefindthe
strengthandthesupporttheyneedtosucceed—inanythingreally.”
LackofSupport
Manyfactorscombinetoaffecttheuniversityexperienceandchancesfor
academicsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Dependingoncontext,many
ofthosefactorsactasfacilitators,barriers,orboth.Asseenabove,itappearsthat
supportmaybethemostsignificantfacilitator.Conversely,thelogicalconclusion
canbedrawnthatalackofsupportmaybethemostsignificantbarriertocollege
successforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Thelackofsupporttakesmanyforms
includingfriends,facultycommunityenvironmentandfamily.
ANativestudentrecallshisfirstyearatPSUbeforehedevelopedasupport
networkoffriends.“Myfreshmanyear,inthefallof2003,Ihadnoideathatthe
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NativeAmericanClubexisted.Honestly,thatfirstyearandahalfwasthehardestfor
mebecauseIfeltIwastheonlyNativeAmericanstudentoncampus.”
HelenKellerisquotedaspointingouthowlittlewecandoaloneandhow
muchwecandotogether.Again,relationshipsmaybethekeytostudentsuccess.
NonSupportiveFaculty
TotheAmericanIndianstudent,alreadyfeelinglikeastrangerina
potentiallyhostileenvironment,amongthemosthurtfulexperiencesareencounters
withnon‐supportive,culturallyinsensitive,oropenlyhostileprofessors,
administratorsorstaff.AlmosteverystudentIinterviewedhadastoryregarding
hurtfulbehaviordirectedtowardhimorherbyinsensitivefaculty.Somefaculty
actionsreflectedalackofculturalunderstandingsimplymanifestedthrough
ignorantorethnocentricbehaviororremarks.Othertimes,thislackofcultural
understandingwasexplicitintheclassroomasevidencedagainbyinappropriate
curriculumorthewayinwhichlecturematerialwasdelivered.Somefaculty
membersareawareoftheseissuesandpointtoneededchange.Oneprofessorsaid:
Ithinkthatweneedmuchmorefacultyre‐educationinregardtoNativeAmericanhistoriesandculturessothattheyhaveabetterunderstandingofNativestudents,andarebetterabletoencouragethemandbesupportiveofthem.Youknow,it’snotuncommonfortribalstudentstohavetheexperienceofafacultymembermisrepresentingtribalissues,andmysteriesandsoforth,stereotypingIndiansinvariousways‐‐‐notbeingsensitivetoculturalcontext.
OneAmericanIndianProfessorsawthefacultyissuethisway:
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Thereisindifferenceamongfaculty.Somedon’tcare‐‐‐theydon’tcare.Iknowinmydepartmentthere’sfacultywhowouldn’tdothingsunlesstheywereforcedtodoit‐‐‐soIthinktherearejustsomepeoplewhodon’tcarewhethertheyhaveNativestudentsornot.Andthentherearesomewhocareforthewrongreasons....Ithinkifyouareanoutstandingstudent,youhaveagoodrelationshipwithyourteachers.Youknow?Andtherearesometeachers,um,‐‐whetheryouareNativeornon‐Native,ifyouhaveproblems,theycouldcareless.
Inappropriatecommentsfromtheprivilegedpositionoffacultyinthe
universitysystemcanhavelastingnegativeimpacts.PSU’sadministrationisalso
awareofthevariousattitudestowardAmericanIndianstudentsanddivergent
levelsofcommitmenttotheircollegesuccess.Accordingtoone
faculty/administrator,“Theproblemstillremainsthatwehavealotoffaculty
memberswhojustdonotunderstandorappreciateNativeAmericanstudentsor
theirconcerns.”
ThroughmyownexperienceatPSU,throughobservationsI’vemade,and
conversationswithNativestudentsandinstructorsofaparticularcoursedealing
withtheIndigenousPeopleoftheNorthAmericancontinent,Imustpointouta
lingeringrealityofacoursespecificallyrequiredforEducationmajorsinorderto
completeadiversityrequirement.Aprofessorwhotaughtthiscourseforyears
describedherfrustrationwiththefactthateducationmajorswereinthecoursefor
noreasonotherthantofulfillthatrequirement;thisistosaytheywerethere
begrudgingly.Someofthesestudentssawnovalueinlearningabouttheindigenous
peopleofthestateintowhichtheywereabouttoembarkonacareerinteaching.As
aresultofthisdisinterest,manystudentsinthecoursewereonlyminimally
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interestedorinvolvedwhileotherswereoutrightdisruptive.Thisisanexampleof
theculturaldiscontinuitydescribedby(Berry1969;Wax,WaxandDumont1964,
andHuffman1999).Italsoprovidessomepossibleexplanationtotheaccounts,
offeredbystudentsinthefocusgroupsIconducted,oftheattitudesandbehaviors
ofsomenon‐Indianteacherstheyhadencounteredinreservationhighschools.
Granted,adirectcorrelationbetweenPSUstudentsfulfillingadiversity
requirement,teachersinreservationhighschoolsandinsensitivecollegeprofessors
maynotbepossible.However,theremaybeacommonthreadinthecharacteristics
ofeducatorsintrainingandthoseveteraneducatorsinhighschoolsoratPSU.That
commonthreadmaybedescribedasinsensitivity,culturaldiscontinuityoroutright
racism.Howeveritislabeled,andtowhomeverthatlabelmightbeapplied,theend
resultisthatitishurtfultoNativestudentsandcounterproductivetocollege
successatPSU.
BarrierstoSupportServices Studentsupportservicesrespectfuloftheneedsandinterestsofculturally
diversestudentsareseenasanimportantfactorsleadingtosuccess(Barnhardt
1994).
ANativeAmericanupperclassmandescribedherfeelingsandthoseofher
friendsandclassmatesaboutusingtheuniversitystudentsupportservicesfor
academicassistance.ShedescribedareluctanceonthepartofsomeNativestudents
toreachoutforhelpforfearthattheywillbelookeddownonorlabeledas
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unworthy.Thesefeelingswerebasedinthebeliefthattheywereseenasless
capable,orlessvaluablethanmainstreamstudents.Inmanycasesthesefeelings
fromwithinwerethebarriertobeovercome.
Myinterviewswithstudentsupportserviceprofessionalsindicatethatthis
inaccurateviewheldbysomeNativestudents,isunfortunateandis,initself,a
barriertoNativestudentsgettingthevaluablehelpthattheymayneedandthatis
availablefrompeopleeagertoprovideit.Irecallthepassionexhibitedbythe
supportstaffIinterviewed.BarrierstoNativestudentsreceivingacademicsupport
maybeovercomebyaddressingthesefeelingswhetheraccurateornot.Itmaybe
thatsimplyimprovingcommunicationbetweenStudentSupportServicesand
AmericanIndianstudentscouldgoalongwayinovercomingthisbarrier.
Family FormanyAmericanIndianstudents,theimportanceoffamilyisanintegral
partoftheirculture.ThismaybeespeciallytruewhentheAmericanIndian
student’sfamilyisverymuchanchoredintraditionalNativecultureandis
suspiciousofthemainstreamuniversityasonewhosegoalistheassimilationof
theirNativestudent.Insuchacase,thefamilyactsasapullbackhome(Tierney
1992;Carney1999).
Thisdynamicmayalsobeatworkforthestudentwhoisstronglyanchored
intheNativeculturebutseestheuniversityenvironmentasathreattothatcultural
wayoflife.Inthiscase,theuniversityenvironmentcreatesapushtowardthesafety
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andcomfortofhomeandfamilyasarefugefromtheperceivedthreat(Tierney
1992;Carney1999).Ineverycase,contextisanimportantconsideration.Some
NativestudentsmayhaveadifficulttimeadjustingtolifeatPSUforavarietyof
reasons,whetherconcerningculturaldifferencesornot,theescapefromwhichcan
leadtoseekingcomfortathomewiththefamilyoneisusedto.
ForsomeNativestudents,familyismorethanjustacommonbarrier,but
ratherisadamantlyopposedtotheirstudentattendingamainstreamuniversity
awayfromhome.
Huffman(1999)hascreatedtaxonomyforclassifyingNativeAmerican
studentsalongacontinuumofculturaltraditionallifestylerangingfromAssimilated
atoneendandEstrangedattheotherend.Huffmanexplainshow,whileforthe
Assimilatedstudent,transitiontocollegeandthemainstreamcultureposeslittle,if
any,challengeorthreat;theEstrangedstudentwillbemostlikelytodropoutof
collegequicklybecausethatstudentwillfeelthreatenedbythemainstreamcampus
environmentandseetheuniversityasaninstitutionwhosesolepurposeisoneof
totalassimilationandtheeradicationoftraditionalNativevaluesandlifestyle.
Whetherornotthestudentadoptsthisperspectivemaybelesssignificant
thanthefamilyapplyingpressuretothestudenttoreturnhomeoutoffearbasedin
seeingthegoaloftheuniversityasassimilationtomainstreamcultureandaway
fromthetraditionalworldviewbywhichthefamilybackhomestilllives.
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Regardlessofthecombinationoffamilialfactorsatwork,previousstudies
discussedabovepointtothevalueofprogramsincorporatingfamilymembersinto
themilieuofthestudentandcampuslife.
HeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)describeaprogramdevelopedby
AmericanIndianeducators,socialworkprofessionalsanduniversityadvisorsfrom
fourMontanaTribalcollegesincooperationwiththeUniversityofMontanathat
theyhavecalled,‘TheFamilyEducationModel’(FEM).FEMwasbasedonthree
assumptionsrelevanttoAmericanIndianstudents.Amongtheseassumptionsare
thatTribalcollegesmustfacilitatetheabilityoffamilymemberstosupporttheir
student’sefforts,andthatTribalcollegesneedtoengagefamilymembersinthelife
ofthecollegecommunitythroughbuildingpartnershipsandinvolvingthemin
socialandculturalactivities.ThebenefitsoftheFEMareexplainedbyHeavyRunner
andDeCelles(2002)throughtheexamplesofsocialandculturalactivitiessuchas
dances,socials,sportsandoutdooractivitiestowhichfamilies,spousesandchildren
areregularlyinvitedtojoin.Throughtheirparticipationintheseactivities,the
familymembersdevelopasenseofbelongingtothecampusenvironmentandare
nolongerresentfulofthetimespentoncampusbytheirstudentfamilymember.
AccordingtoHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002:3)“Establishingandmaintaininga
senseof‘family’bothathomeandatcollegefortifiesAmericanIndianstudents’
academicpersistence.”
GuilloryandWolverton(2008)appliedtheFamilyEducationModel(FEM)as
describedbyHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002)inastudyofNativeAmerican
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studentsatpredominantlyWhiteinstitutionsinWashington,IdahoandMontana.
AmericanIndianstudentsinthestudyidentifiedfamilyandstudentsocialsupport
andthedesiretogivebacktotheircommunityasimportantpersistencefactors.
Theseresearcherssuggest“...creatingwaysinwhichNativeAmericanstudents
canconnectwithboththeuniversityandtheirhomecommunities”(Guilloryand
Wolverton2008:81).Theysuggestcollaborativeprogramswithtribes,supporting
daycare,andbringinghighereducationtoNativeAmericancommunities(Guillory
andWolverton2008).
ThecreationoftheplannedAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter
(AIECC)atPSUmayprovideaplacewherefamilycancometobewiththeirstudents
whilevisitingRailtownandbuildthatpartnershipofsupportbetweenfamily,home
anduniversity.Throughplanning,programmingandstaffingattheAIECCfamilycan
beincorporatedintothesupportstructureavailableatPSU.
FinancialResources
AmericanIndianstudentscommonlyidentifiedfinancialsupportasan
importantfactorforstayingincollege(Wilson1983).
AmongallthoseIintervieweditappearsthatthemajorityofAmerican
Indianstudentsdonotcomefromabackgroundoffinancialwealth,or,inmany
cases,evenfinancialstability.Again,itmustbereiteratedthatsweeping
generalizationscannotbeappliedacrosstheboardregardingthePSUAmerican
Indianpopulationasawhole.HoweverwhenlookingspecificallyatPrairieState’s
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Nativepopulation,itisrelevanttonotethatnoneoftheninereservationsinthe
statearewealthycomparedtosomeofthewealthiestinthenationwithsmalltribal
enrollmentsandhugegamingprofits.
BeyondthegenerallackoffinancialresourcesheldbyNativestudentsand
theirfamilies,somePSUsupportstaffIinterviewedpointedtothelackofmoney
managementskillsthatAmericanIndianstudentspossessupontheirarrivalas
incomingcollegestudents.Severalrespondentshavementionednewstudent
orientationprogramsdesignedtohelpincomingstudentsadjusttocollegelife.It
maybeusefultoincludesomebasictraininginfinancialmanagementforthosein
needofit.
Thereseemstobesomedifferenceofunderstandingamongsome
administrators,faculty,staffandstudentswithregardtoavailabilityoffinancialaid
intheformsofstudentloansandscholarshipsandgrantsforAmericanIndian
students.Onecampusadministratortoldmethattherearenotmanyscholarships
available.ANativeAmericanupperclassmanwasadamantaboutthelackoffunding
forAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU,“ThepurelackofscholarshipsforNative
studentsisaproblem...”
Asafollowuptothesecomments,IaskedtheDirectorofFinancialAid
specificallyaboutfinancialaidtoAmericanIndianstudents.Heprovideddetailed
informationofscholarshipsavailabletoNativestudentsintheformofalist.See
appendixGforalistofscholarshipopportunities.
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AccordingtotheDirector,“Moststudentsdonottimelycomplete
applications,includingformsneededfortribalhighereducationawards.”
ItappearsthatthisisacaseofeitheralackofinformationavailabletoNative
studentsregardingscholarshipopportunities,orabreakdownincommunications
betweenNativestudentsandwhomevermightbeadvisingthem,oritmaybethe
casethatNativestudentssimplyarenottakingthestepstofillouttheappropriate
formsandapplicationsintimetotakeadvantageofthosefinancialopportunities
thatonecampusadministratorpointedoutareinfact,morenumerousforAmerican
Indianstudentsthanforanyotherminoritygroup.“...wedohaveseveralNative
Americanscholarships...morethananyotherminoritygroup.Actually,that’sthe
onlygrouponcampusthathasspecificscholarshipsgearedtowardthem.Thereare
noscholarshipsforHispanicstudentsorAfricanAmericanorAsianAmerican
students.There’snone.There’snone.”
Aswiththecaseoffinancialmanagementskills,improvedprogramming
providingincreasedawarenessofscholarshipopportunitiesandstructuredhelpin
securingthataidmayberequired.
OneNativestudentcommentedonherdiscomfortindealingwithinitial
contactpeopleorgatekeepersintheFinancialAidoffice.
Whilethisstudentattributesthedifficultytoculturallyinsensitivebehavior
bytheFinancialAidofficestaff,theDirectorassuredmethathisstaffdoesreceive
culturalsensitivitytraining.
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InkeepingwithexperiencesdescribedbyseveralNativestudentsIspoke
with,thereappearstobeacommonthemeofNativestudentsreportingthatthey
weretreatedrudelyinmainstreamofficesthroughoutthecampus.Thisismight
verywellbesimplyamatterofperceptionandviewpoint,forwhichwemightonce
againinvoketheThomastheorem,whichaspreviouslymentionedstates,“Ifmen
defineasituationasreal,itisrealinit’sconsequences”(ThomasandThomas1928).
RegardlessofthedifferencesinperceptionsbetweenofficepersonnelandNative
students,ifstudentsfeeltheyhavebeentreatedpoorly,thentheconsequencesare
asiftheyhave,infactbeentreatedpoorly.Thesolution,asmentionedinseveral
examplesabove,mightcomeintheformofimprovedcommunicationleadingto
improvedrelationships.
Local community ThebestwaytounderstandwhatitislikecomingtoapredominantlyWhite
mainstreamcitylikeRailtown,PrairieStatefromareservationcommunityor
reservationbordertownisthroughtheexperiencesofthoseAmericanIndian
studentswhohavelivedthetransition.Itisthroughthesensesofthosestudents
thatwemaybegintogainaninsider’sperspectiveofcultureshockandadjustment
theyexperiencewhentheycometoPSU.Itmustbereiteratedthatwecannotmake
sweepinggeneralizationstoincludeallofPrairieStateorallofRailtown.Still,the
bestunderstandingofthePSUexperiencecomesfromseeingthatexperiencefrom
theperspectiveofthestudentsthemselves.
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EventhoughNativestudentsmayfeeloutoftheircomfortzone,andmaylive
someharshexperiencesinRailtown,therearesomepeopleinthecommunitywho
orareempathetic.AgroupofpeoplecomprisedofRailtownresidentsandbusiness
peopletogetherwithuniversityfacultyandstaff,bothcurrentandretired,meet
regularlytoaddressissuesrelevanttoNativeAmericans,themainstream
community,bothlocalandstatewideandthehistoryofinteractionbetweenthetwo
groups.TheRailtownReconciliationCouncilworks,throughcontinueddedication
andcommitment,towardtheameliorationofhistoricaldiscordandmistreatmentof
theNativepopulationbymainstreamsociety.Anongoinginterestofthegroupis
thefacilitationofsuccessfuluniversityexperienceforAmericanIndianPSU
students.Towardthatend,theRRCcontinuesworkingforincreasedawarenessof
andappreciationforNativeAmericanpeopleandcultureinRailtown.Onepossible
shortcomingoftheseeffortsisthelimitedexposureofthegrouptoNativeAmerican
PSUstudentsandviceversa.ItishighlylikelythatthemajorityofPSUAmerican
IndianstudentsareunawareoftheRRCanditscommitmenttoreconciliation,
includingthefacilitationofacademicsuccessforNativestudents.
EvengiventhesupportofsomewithintheRailtowncommunity,ifthelocal
RailtowncommunityisperceivedasgenerallyuncomfortableforAmericanIndian
students,howdoestheuniversitycommunityenvironmentcreateafeelingof
cohesivewelcomeorisolationfortheNativestudent?
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Universitycommunity OneofthegreatestbarrierstobeovercomeinorderforPSUtofacilitate
collegesuccessforNativestudentsisthelackofawelcomingenvironmentinwhich
Nativestudentsandculturearevaluedandappreciated.Afaculty/administrator
whoisveryinvolvedwithAmericanIndianstudentsuccessspeakscandidlyabout
thecampusclimate:
Ithinkwehavesomesignificantissueshereintermsofthecampusclimate....Youknowwecancreateaveryprotective,loving,supportiveenvironmentforourstudents,onethatnurturestheirsuccess,butthatdoesnotnecessarilyalwaysprotectthemfromtheslingsandarrowsthattheyfaceinthelargeruniversitycommunityortheRailtowncommunity.Thatprejudice,racism,discriminationareallverypainful,verydamagingtoidentity,verydamagingtosuccess,verydamagingtoone’sselfconfidence,selfesteem,senseofself.SoIthinkthat’ssomethingthat’sreallyabarrier.
AnAmericanIndianstudentcommentsonthefeelingofstandingoutas
differentinacrowdofuniformity:“Forme,itwouldallgobacktotheconfidence
andcomfort.HowcomfortableandconfidentisanyonesittingintheStudentUnion
likethedarkspotinthemiddleofapieceofpaper?”
Aswithprejudice,racism,discrimination,andanymeasureofintolerance,
dealingwiththeharmfuleffectsofthenarrow‐mindednessthatpermeatessome
peoples’entireworldviewremainsachallengethroughoutallofsociety.Onceagain,
‘It’sallaboutrelationships.’
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Culture Cultureshockcanmakeforatraumatictransitionforanyoneentering
college.Manyfaculty,staff,andadministratorsIinterviewedwerequicktomake
thispointregardinghowmostincomingfreshmenmustmakethisadjustment.For
AmericanIndianstudents,however,thisadjustmentiscompoundedbymany
factors.NotonlymusttheNativestudentdealwiththeadjustmenttocollegelevel
work,andlivinginanewenvironmentamongstrangers,butformanyNative
studentsthesechallengesaremagnifiedthroughdifferencesinphysicalappearance,
culturaltraditions,beliefs,andpracticesandthegeneraldisconnectedfeelingone
hasas‘notfittingin.’
Indeed,someNativestudentscomefrommonoculturalenvironmentswhere
communityneighborhoodsandschoolsarepopulatedwithrelatives,tribal
members,andamajorityofNativepeoplelikethemselves,sharingacommon
history,cultureandworldview;whereNativeartandceremonyareomni‐present,
whereradiostationsplaytraditionalandmodernNativemusic,includingpowwow
songs,wheretribalprogramsandculturalresourcesarereadilyavailable,where
theirtiospaye(extendedfamily)isallaroundthemofferingsupport.Toleavethe
comfortandsafetyofthehomeplaceandcometoaplacesuchasPSU,wherenone
ofthatexists,isahugeandsometimesoverwhelmingadjustment.Withoutthe
properpeopleandsupportservicesinplacetoassiststudentswiththetransitionto
thisverydifferentenvironment,theirchancesforsuccessfuleducationalattainment
arediminished.
188
Themaintenanceofculturalidentityandtraditionswasfoundtobe
instrumentalinthesuccessofNativestudentsatthepostsecondarylevel(Huffman,
SillandBrokenleg1986).
OnePSUOfficeofadministratorspeakstotheimportanceforopportunities
forthepracticeofculturaltraditions:
WedonothaveanyfacilitiesforNativestudents.AsweatlodgeissomethingthataNativeAmericanCentercouldprovide,butwedon’thavethat.StudentswhoarefeelingaspiritualneedandareNativereallyhavetoogobacktothereservation.SothatisanotherareainwhichIthinkthereisabarriertostudentsbeingcomfortablehere.Unlesstheyhaveasetoffriendsandcolleagueswhoaresupportiveofthatparticularneed,theyaregoingtofeelveryaloneandisolatedhere.
In1978,congresspassedtheAmericanIndianReligiousFreedomActwith
intent.“...toprotectandpreserveforAmericanIndianstheirinherentrightof
freedomtobelieveexpress,andexercisetheirtraditionalreligions,includingbutnot
limitedtoaccesstosite,useandpossessionofsacredobjects,andthefreedomto
worshipthroughceremonialsandtraditionalrights.”(Calloway1999:491)
MyinterviewdataunequivocallydemonstratesthevaluesomeNative
studentsplaceontheadherencetoandpracticeoftribalculture.Themaintenance
anduseofasweatlodgewasrepeatedlymentionedinconnectionwithstudents’
hopesforaplaceoftheirown.Suchaplacewouldprovideopportunitiesfor
culturallyspecificpracticesthatcannotbeaccomplishedintheOMA.
Anon‐Nativeadministratorpointedout,“Inthiscommunitywehave—Idon’t
knowhowmanychurches.Itseemsthere’sachurcharoundeverycorner.Wehave
fourorfiveLutheranchurches(henamesseveral)...wehaveaCatholicchurchof
189
course,andBaptistchurchesandsoon‐‐‐justalotofchurches.Wehaveamosque
forIslamicah‐Muslimstudents.”Also,onoradjacenttothePSUcampusarethe
CatholicCampusParishandtheUniversityLutheranCenter,yetasmentioned
above,nosuchfacilitycurrentlyexistsforPSUNativestudentsforthenurturanceof
atraditionalspiritualbase.
Thereareotheraspectsofculture,asidefromreligionthatmainstream
studentsmaytakeforgranted,butthatarereadilyavailable.Whetherthose
traditionsareexpressedthroughactivities,socialclubs,sportingevents,orany
numberofpossibleculturalactivities,theopportunitiesforNativeAmerican
culturalactivityhasfocusedprimarilyontheannualWacipi,alsocalled‘thepow
wow.’
Overthecourseofayear,IattendedseveralNativeAmericanClubmeetings
andhadcountlessconversationswithNativestudentsandtheNativeAmerican
StudentAdvisorregardingthepossibilityforsocialgatherings,duringwhich
culturalactivitieslikesocialdances,orworkingoncraftssuchaspowwowregalia,
quilting,oreventheformationofadrumgroupcouldhavebeendone.Forone
reasonoranother,thesegatheringsnevermaterialized.Whetherresponsibilityfor
thelimitedexpressionofculturerestswhollywiththeuniversity,orwiththeNative
studentsthemselvesisprobablynotimportant.Whatisofsignificanceisthatthe
newlypromised,andsoontobeforthcomingAIECCmayprovideaplacewheresuch
activitiescanoccur.Itwillbeinterestingtoseetheeffectssuchanopportunitywill
haveonboththeNativecommunityandtheRailtowncommunityingeneral.One
190
possiblepositiveoutcomemightbethatincreasedexpressionofNativeculturewill
leadtoanincreasedawarenessandappreciationforNativeAmericanstudentsand
theircultureacrossthelocalcommunityandtheregion.Suchadevelopmentwould
goalongwaytowardovercomingthediscomfortmanyNativestudentsfeelasthey
findthemselvesfeelingaloneandontheoutsideofthedominantculture.
DominantCultureReferenceGroup
AccordingtoHewitt(1994:90),referencegroupsare“socialgroupsthat
providegeneralizedotherstowhomtheindividualrefers”.Singer(1981)explains
referencegroupsasthosegroupsthatprovideanorientationforsocialcomparison
ofone’sself.Referencegroupsprovideaframeworkfromwhichtheindividualis
abletoshapehisorherevaluations,attitudesandbehavior(Singer1981).A
comparativereferencegroupservesasa“standardofcomparisonforanappraisalof
eithertheselforother”(Singer1981:77).
TheAmericanIndianstudentthatcomestoPSUmayquicklyfindoneself
feelingaloneinaforeignenvironment.Asdiscussedabove,theimportanceofa
supportivecommunityformedofpeersissignificant.Withoutareferencegroupof
peerstoprovidethecomfortandsecuritythatoneleftbehindwithfamilyand
friends,thestudentisleftsurroundedbyadominant,mainstreamsocietyinwhich
onemayfeel,asoneNativestudentdescribes,“likeadarkspeckonapieceof
paper.”ThisdominantgroupthenservesastheNativestudent’sreferencegroup.It
191
isincomparisontothisgroupthattheNativestudentwillmakeself‐appraisalsof
one’sfitintothePSUandlocalRailtownenvironment.
Theunderlyingsourceofthefeelingofisolationthaterodesself‐confidence
isalackofculturalunderstandingamongthedominantsociety(Berry1969;Carney
1999;Huffman1999).Studentsrepeatedlycommentedthattheyhavelearnedfrom
non‐Indianclassmatesthatmanymembersofthemainstreamhavenevermetany
NativeAmericansandknownothingofwhatlifemaybelikeformanystudents
comingfromreservations,reservationbordertowns,orevenaNativesubculture
withinlargercities.
Thedominantmainstreamsocietyservesasareferencegroupagainstwhich
theNativestudentcomparesoneselfinattemptingtofindwaystofitintothelocal
communityandtheoverwhelminglyWhitecampusenvironment.Allofthestudents
Iinterviewedcitedthisculturaldiscontinuity(Carney1999)asabarriertocollege
success.
Culturaldifference:Lackofdiversityexperience Itmustbeacknowledgedthatnoteveryculturalmisunderstandingisonthe
partofthenon‐NativedirectedtotheNativeAmerican.Therealityisthatmany
NativeAmericanslackexperiencewithdiversityjustasdomanyWhites.
TheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisorrecallsastudentwhowasunableto
reconcilehisownsenseofselfwiththedominantreferencegroupinwhichhewas
embeddedatPSU,“Ithinksometimes,asNatives,wetendtothinkourexperienceis
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unique.Andmaybeit’sjustaculturaldifferenceofhowwegoaboutexpressingour
personalspiritualbeliefsorourculturalbeliefs.”
ToofewNativeAmericanfaculty/staff Fox,LoweandMcClellan(2005)compiledalistofrecommendationsfor
collegeadministratorstomeettheneedsofAmericanIndianstudents.These
recommendationsareofparticularvalueastheycomedirectlyfromAmerican
Indianeducators.Amongthoserecommendationsistherecruitmentandretention
ofAmericanIndianfaculty.Alladministrators,faculty,staff,andstudentsI
intervieweduniversallyagreedthatPSUwouldbenefitfrommoreAmericanIndian
educators.
FromtheperspectiveofauniversityVicePresident,“Ithinkthatoneofthe
issueswehaveisthatweareveryleanstaffing.Andthat’sanissueforus.Weneed
morepeopletoworkwithminorityandNativeAmericanstudentsandwedon’t
havealot.”
FromtheNativestudentviewpoint:“Onethingthat’swrongisthattheydon’t
reallyhaveanyNativefacultyreally.SoIthinknothavingNativestaffaroundisa
realshortcoming.”
Asmentionedabove,PSUhasrecentlymadepositivestridesinthisdirection
withtheadditionoftwoNativefacultymembers.Thesepeoplehavequicklyproven
themselvestobeofgreatvaluetoNativestudentsandtotheuniversityasawhole
193
throughtheirleadership,scholarshipandunwaveringsupportandenhancementof
thePSUAmericanIndiancollegeexperience.
Place EarlyoninthefirstofthreefocusgroupsIconductedwithAmericanIndian
studentsitbecameclearthattherewasadiscernabletensionwhenthetopicofthe
OfficeofMulticulturalAffairswasthefocusofconversation.Somestudentsinthe
firstgroupreadilypointedtothewaysinwhichtheOMAwasseenasafacilitatorto
collegesuccess.Asdiscussedabove,thataspectseenasafacilitatorhadtodowith
theOMAservingasaplaceforcongregationasaNativecommunity,theonlysuch
placeoncampustoservethatpurpose.Beyondthatpoint,wasamuchmore
significantdynamicatwork.Ipursuedthispointinthefirstgroup.Insubsequent
focusgroupsthetopicof‘Place’becamethefirstandmostsalienttotheNative
Americanstudents.
AmongalloftheAmericanIndianstudentsIinterviewed,theconsensuswas
bestsummedupbyonestudentwhosaid:“I’dratherbesomeplacewhereIknow
it’scomfortable—theatmosphereiscomfortable,wherewefeel,asstudents,thatwe
belongthere—youknow?”
Collectively,theNativestudentsofPSUinterviewedforthisresearch
conveyedalevelofdiscomfortandfrustrationwiththestatusquoandtheirplacein
theOMA:
194
Idon’tknowifwe,asagroup,areheardhear‐‐Imean‐‐‐doesanybodyhearourconcerns?Doesanybodycare?Ireallydon’tknow‐‐‐Ifwedidhaveavoice‐‐youknow‐‐consideringthatourgrouphasthebiggeststudentorganizedeventoncampus(annualwacipi)‐‐andthenwhentheyputitinthenewspaper‐‐weareputonthebackpage‐‐justalittleblurbhereandthere.Howstrongofavoiceisthat?Ourspace‐‐whichwesharewithothergroups,allputtogetherandlabeledasdiversitygroupsisinthebasementandourbiggesteventisputonthebackpage.Whatdoesthatsayabouthowweareseenonthiscampus?
Throughoutthecourseofconductinginterviewsforthisresearch,Native
studentsatPSUrepeatedlytoldmethattheydonotfeelthattheirvoiceisvalued.
Thesestudentsdemonstratedtomethatoneofthemostdevastatingeffectsof
belongingtoamarginalizedgroupisthefeelingofpowerlessness,thefeelingof
beinginvisibleandinaudible.TheNativestudentswhoreachedoutthemosttome
werethosethatlingeredafterafocusgroupmeetingtovoicetheirconcernthat
nothingpositivewouldcomeofmyresearch.Theywerecertainthattheirvoice
countedfornothingandwerequicktopointtoalonghistoryofbrokenpromises.
Theirfrustrationwaspalpable.Thetopicmostoftencitedasasourceoftheir
frustrationwastheissueofaspecialplacefortheNativecommunity.
NativeAmericanHouse
GarrodandLarimore(1997)compilednarrativesfromAmericanIndian
studentsatDartmouthandfoundthatthegroupknownas“TheNativeAmericansat
Dartmouth”providedachanceforsupportandsolidarityforNativestudentsinthe
foreignworldofanIvyLeaguecampusintheNortheasternUnitedStates.
ContributorscitedtheexistenceoftheNativeAmericanHousealongwiththeNative
195
AmericanStudiesprogramandthesupportofNativeAmericanfacultyasprimary
factorsintheircollegesuccess.TheNativeAmericanHouseatDartmouthprovided
asafeplaceforstudentswhowereexperiencingatypeofcultureshockarisingfrom
conflictbetweenacademicandtraditionalAmericanIndianvalues(Garrodand
Larimore1997).
TheUniversityofMinnesotarecentlyheldacelebrationinhonorofthefifth
yearofoperationoftheAmericanIndianCulturalHouse(AICH).AICHisa
“UniversityefforttohelpAmericanIndianstudentsadjusttocampuslife”(San
2008:1).AstestimonytotheeffectivenessoftheUniversityofMinnesota’sNative
AmericanCulturalHouse,oneAmericanIndianalumnaestated,“Asafreshman,itis
oftenhardtotransitionintolifeonyourown...TheCulturalHousegavemean
informaleducationabouthowtosurviveandhowtoincorporateNativetraditional
ways.Thehousegavemeahome;acommunityinwhichIbelonged...thebest
thingisthatbeingapartoftheCulturalHousewaslikehavingyourownfamily.It
wasagoodsteppingstonetothecampusforfirstyearstudents”(San2008:1).
TheUniversityofMontanaisalsorecognizedasaprogressiveleaderinthe
fieldofAmericanIndianhighereducation.ThefirstofitskindintheUnitedStates,
the$8.6milliondollar30,000squarefootNativeAmericanCenterattheUniversity
ofMontanawasbuiltfortheexpresspurposeofhousingtheNativeAmerican
StudiesDepartment,AmericanIndianStudentServicesandotherrelatedcampus
programming.OneNativegraduatestudentexplainsthevalueofthenewNAC,“It’s
reallyimportanttohaveaplacewherewecandevelopourextendedfamiliesaway
196
fromhome.Oncewegettoknoweachother,thenwedothesamethingsforeach
otheraswedoathome”(Baynham2010:16).
SomeNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU,includingmanyofthosewho
participatedinthisresearch,arewellawareoffacilitiessuchastheNativeAmerican
HouseatDartmouthandtheAmericanIndianCulturalHouseattheUniversityof
Minnesota,andthenewNativeAmericanCenterattheUniversityofMontana.For
manyupperclassmenstillinattendanceandformanymore,decadesremovedfrom
theirdaysonthecampusofPSU,ithasbeenadreamforsuchahousetoexist.Such
ahousewheretherecoulddevelopaNativecommunityofpeoplewithsimilar
worldviews,andpridefultraditions,andsimilarfearsandconcerns.Atitsbest,this
wouldbeacommunitynotsegregatedfrommainstreamcampusorstudentsbut
servingasanenhancementtotheuniversitycommunitythroughthecelebrationofa
culturalidentitythathas,foryears,keptmanyNativestudentsfromtrulyfeeling
likeapartofPSUcampuslifeandcommunity.
ADartmouthgraduateandcurrentPSUgraduatestudenthasexperienced
bothworlds:
Itwaslike‐‐‐like‐‐‐Idon’tknow—inmyundergradwehadaspace.ItwasintheNativeAmericanProgramOffice.Itwasjustlikealittleloungewithlikethreecouchesinit.Andall–liketheNativeswouldpileonthosecouchesandwewouldeatlunchtogether.Andwewouldbelaughinganditwouldbeloud.Anditwouldjustbearealcoolspace.Wehadahouseatmyundergradwhereyouactuallycouldlive.Thereweretwofloors.Thetopfloorhadthreebedsandthenthebottomfloorandthemiddlefloor.Andthestudentscouldlivethereifyouappliedtolivethere.Andlikeeverybodywantedtolivethereandeverybodywasalwaysthere.Idon’tifitwasbecausewehadahugecommunity—Idon’tknowwhatitwas
197
but—everybodywasalwaysthere.Wewerelike—duringtheafternoonswewouldbeintheNAHallcrowdedonthecouchjusteatingtogetherandthenintheevenings,we’dbeinthediningroomattwobiglongtables.We’dbejuststudyingorlaughing.Andthentherewasabasementwherewe’dwatchmoviesand…ButthatwashowIkeptmyconnectionwithhome.Andtherewasadrumgroup‐‐‐wehadalotofguysfromtheSouthwest,soitwaskindofasoutherndrumgroup.They’dcomeinandtheywouldlikesingandthey’dbeintheNativeAmericanHouse—they’dbeinthebasementandthey’dsing.Anditfeltsogoodtohearthat.Idon’tknowifwecouldgetlikethatsameplaceherethen...
AreviewoftheliteraturecoupledwiththevoiceofPSUNativestudents
revealstheunderlyingvalueofsuchplacesastheNativeAmericanHouseat
Dartmouth,theAmericanIndianCulturalHouseattheUniversityofMinnesota,the
NativeAmericanCenterattheUniversityofMontana,andthefuturePSUAmerican
IndianEducationandCulturalCenter.ThatvalueisinwhatOldenburg(1989)
termedthethirdplace.Thethirdplaceisnotworkorhome,butrather,aplacefor
congregation,aplaceforfellowship.Inshort,thethirdplaceisaplaceforthe
formationofasupportivecommunityofpeers.Suchaplacemayprovidean
environmentthatwouldfosterastrongAmericanIndianidentityasanassetrather
thanadeficit(Yasso2005).Thiscouldbeafacilitatortocollegesuccess.
TheconceptofaNativeAmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforthePSU
AmericanIndianpopulationhasbeenconsideredatPSUforseveralyears.Both
sidesoftheargumentinthisdebateadmitthatitisapointofcontentionthathas
lingeredwithoutresolution.
TheideaofaNativeAmericanCenteralsohasfacultysupport.Oneveteran
professorisparticularlyoutspokenonthesubject.AsisthecasewiththestudentsI
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interviewed,thisprofessor’ssinglevoicerepresentsthepositionofmanypeopleI
spokewith:
AsItoldthePresidentinameetingnottoolongago,‘We’reprogressing,insomeways,academically,butanAmericanIndianCulturalCenteris–youknow—50yearsoverdue.(Laughs)Ifyoulookatcomparableinstitutionseverywhere,wearesuckingwindcomparedtothembecausewehaven’tbeenproactiveenoughtounderstandthatyoucan’treallybeofmuchappealtotribalstudentsifyoudon’thaveaplace...Ithinkthatwe’redisadvantagedinthatwedon’thaveaNativeAmericanCenter,aNativeAmericanStudentCenter.
FromtheexperiencedperspectiveofoneformerstudentandAmerican
Indianfacultymember,theissueofplacecomesdowntotheneedforaNative
AmericanCultureCenterspecificallyforNativestudentsratherthanasharedspace
withalldiversestudents:
IthinkthatitwouldgoodiftheyhadaNativeAmericanCenterwheretheycouldahcongregateandfeellikeacommunity,ratherthanscatteredaroundthecampus...AndIthinkitwouldhelpthemfeelliketheybelonghere,thatthey’renotjustbeingusedasdiversitystatistics,thattheuniversitywouldreallyprovideaplaceforthem,letthemknowthattheyarevalued…Youknow,alotoftimesstudentsdon’twanttostandoutandbenoticedalone‐‐‐butifyou’reasagroup‐‐‐thereiscomfortandconfidence.IthinkaCenterwouldhelpthembuildcommunity.
TherecentlyretiredadministratorwasalongtimeproponentofaNative
AmericanCulturalCenter:
Ifwecouldhavea‘Center’,a‘place’whereNativestudentswouldfeelwelcomeandcomfortableandathome,aplacewheretheycouldmeetwiththeirfriends,families,peerswhoareNative,engageinsocialevents,engageinceremony,beabletostudyandworktogether...wouldbeanenormouslypositivedevelopmentforthiscampus,forservingstudents.SoIthinkthatisanimportantelementthatneedstobedeveloped.
199
SupportfortheNativeAmericanCulturalCenterisnotunanimous.Some
believethereisnota‘criticalmass’ofNativeAmericanstudentstojustifyaCenter,
andassuchtheissuesimplyboilsdowntonumbersandthebestwaytoallocate
resourcessuchthatthegreatestnumberofminoritystudentsbenefitfromalimited
poolofresources.
Oneuniversityadministratorvoicedconcern:
TheNativeAmericanCulturalCenter,Istrugglewith.Whenwelookedatoneseveralyearsago,theresearchdonewithourstudentsatthatpointreallypointedtowardamulticulturalcenter,‐‐where,aswetalkedaboutearlier,wecouldbuildsynergybecausewedon’thavecriticalmass.Whenwedidtheresearch,campusesencouragedustocreateamulticulturalcenter,andtobuildoffofthat.AndatonepointwehadtalkedaboutaMulticulturalCenterandaswegrew,youcouldhavewingsforthedifferentgroupsbutstillhaveacenter,—andweseemtohavegoneawayfromthat.And‐‐andifwe’rereadytodothatandthereisalotofcampussupport,maybeweneedtodothat,Idon’tknow.Idon’tknowhowyougetyourarmsaroundthat.I’mstilltryingtogetmyarmsaroundthat.
CommentsofNativestudentsandothersinvolvedintribalstudent
programmingandstudentsupportsuggestthatthetimehascomefortheinstitution
tobuildoffitscurrentmulticulturalconceptandtogetitscollectivearmsaround
theconceptofaNativeAmericanCulturalCenter.
FromtheperspectiveoftheAmericanIndianstudent,whileincorporating
culture,buildingasupportivecommunity,andenhancingthedevelopmentofNative
Americanidentityasanassetratherthanadeficit(Yasso2005),thedebatecanbe
reducedtothewordsofonestudentwhorepeatedlysaidtome,“Iamnot
Multicultural,IamNativeAmerican.”
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ThemainpointtobemaderegardingaplaceforAmericanIndianstudentsat
PSUandhowthatbecomesabarriertocollegesuccessissimplythatnosuchplace
currentlyexistsatthetimeofthisresearch.Butthereisgreathopeandenthusiasm
forthefuturewiththecomingoftheAmericanIndianEducationandCultureCenter
cominginthefallof2010.
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CHAPTERNINE
Summary,Conclusions,RecommendationsandLimitations
Thischapterincludesasummaryoffindingsdisplayedasalistoffacilitators
andbarrierstoacademicattainmentatPSU.Ineachcategory,Ihavelistedfactorsin
ahierarchyofsaliencefromhightolowwiththosefactorslistedfirstrankingasthe
mostimportantasseenfromtheperspectiveofallparticipantsincludedinthis
research.
Aftersummarizingthefindings,Ihaveoutlinedconclusionsdrawnfromthe
data,andmaderecommendationsbasedonthoseconclusionsforimprovingthe
qualityofthecollegeexperienceforAmericanIndiansatPSU,andforincreasingthe
likelihoodofstudentpersistenceandacademicattainment.
Finally,Idiscussthelimitationsofthisresearchandrecommendationsfor
futureresearchthatmaypossiblyexpandtheparametersofthisstudytoincludeall
ofPrairieState’sinstitutionsofhighereducation,withafocusoncollaborative
effortstowardenhancingthechancesforacademicattainmentforAmericanIndian
students.
Summary/Conclusions
Quantitative
ThePrairieStateBoardofRegentsFactBookforthefiscalyear2010
providesaquantitativesnapshotintimeofthediversityofthePSUstudent
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population.Forthefallsemesterof2009thetotalnumberofstudentsenrolledat
PSUwas12,376.At10,577,WhiteNon‐Hispanicstudentsaretheoverwhelming
majorityat83.9percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.Thereisanequally
significantgapbetweentheWhitenumericalmajorityandthenextlargestethnic
group.At436,thegroupidentifiedasAsian/PacificIslandersisthenextlargest
groupandthelargestofallminoritystudentgroupsat3.1percentofthetotal
studentpopulation.AccordingtoseveraladministratorsIinterviewed,themajority
ofAsianstudentsatPSUaregraduatestudent/researchassistants.NativeAmerican
studentsnumber249andcomprisethesecondlargestethnicgroupatPSUat2.3
percent.Thereare168studentsidentifiedasAfricanAmerican/BlackNon‐Hispanic
atPSU,comprising1.5percentofthetotalstudentpopulation.Thegroupnumbering
thefewestofanyidentifiedethnicpopulationisHispanicstudents,withat122,
approximatelyonehalfthenumberidentifyingasNativeAmericanat1.3percentof
thetotalstudentpopulation.
DataoncomparativeretentionandgraduationratesforNativeAmerican
studentsrelativetothetotalstudentpopulationshowtwosignificantdifferences.
1.IncomingNativeAmericanfreshmenareoverwhelminglyoutnumbered
comparedtototalincomingfreshmenofallracial/ethnicgroups.Manyyears
between2000and2009,theratiowasroughly100:1.
2.ThereissignificantdisparitybetweenNativeAmericanfreshmenandall
otherfreshmenthatreturnforasecondyear.Retentionfromfirsttosecond
yearforNativeAmericanstudentsaveragedroughly48percentbetween
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2000and2009.Retentionoftotalincomingfreshmenfromfirsttosecond
yearaveragedroughly77percent.
Facilitators
Thefollowingfactorsemergedinorderasthemostsignificant
facilitatorsofAmericanIndianeducationalattainmentatPSU.
• SupportiveFamily
• SupportiveFriends
• SupportiveFaculty
• SupportiveAdministration
• SupportiveUniversityEnvironment
• NativeAmericanFaculty/Staff
• StudentSupportServices
• TraditionalCulturalOpportunities
• FinancialSupport
SupportiveFamily
OfallthefacilitatorscitedbyAmericanIndianstudents,supportisclearlythe
mostsalient.Allfactorsconsideredthesupportoffamilyisclearlythemost
importantfromtheperspectiveoftheNativestudent.
SupportiveFriends
Intheabsenceoffamily,asupportivenetworkoffriendsisthemostlikely
facilitatortoNativestudents’persistenceincollege.Withoutasupportivenetwork
offriends,Nativestudentsreportedfeelingaloneinaforeignenvironment,asifto
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be‘anoutsiderlookingin’ataplaceandpeopleoverwhelminglydifferentfrom
one’sself.
SupportiveFaculty
Facultysupportintheformofculturalsensitivity,willingnesstounderstand
andembracethecollegeexperiencefromtheNativestudent’sperspectiveandsome
flexibilityfromthemainstreamnorm,isofvitalimportancetotheNativestudent’s
makingacomfortableadjustmenttothemainstreaminstitution.
SupportiveAdministration
InstitutionalbarriersarewithinthedomainofPSUadministration.
OvercomingthehistoryofstructuralbarrierstoacademicattainmentforAmerican
IndianstudentsatPSUbeginswithastrongcommitment,byuniversity
administration,tofulfillingthemissionofPSUasalandgrantinstitution.PSU
administratorshavedemonstratedsuchcommitment,andstepstowardthatend
havealreadybegunwiththeannouncementofthecomingoftheAmericanIndian
EducationandCulturalCenterandtheplanningofanenhancedcurriculumin
AmericanIndianStudiestoincludeamajorinthatareaofstudy.
SupportiveUniversityEnvironment
Leadershipbyuniversityadministrationtowardthegoalofanenhanced
academicsuccessforNativestudentscancreateauniversityenvironmentthatis
builtonafoundationofembracingAmericanIndianstudents,faculty,staff,and
administrators,andtheirculture,asanassettotheuniversityandthelocal,state
andregionalcommunities.
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NativeAmericanFaculty/Staff
NativeAmericanstudentsplacegreatvalueonthepresenceofAmerican
Indianfacultyandstaff.Theseindividualsserveassupportivementorsandrole
modelstoNativestudentsatPSU.
StudentSupportServices
StudentsupportservicesarevitalresourcesforsomeAmericanIndian
students.Thismaybeparticularlytrueforincomingfreshmanstudentswhoare
statisticallyreportedtobelesslikelytoreturntoPSUforasecondyear.Increased
useofstudentsupportservicesmayincreasethelikelihoodofpersistence.Student
supportstaffisdedicatedintheircommitmenttohelpingNativestudentsbe
successful.
TraditionalCulturalOpportunities
OpportunitiestoengageinthepracticeofNativetraditionalactivitieswere
citedbystudentsasanimportantfacilitatorallowingthemtomaintainalinkto
theirlifeathomeandwithfamilywhileatPSU.TheNativeAmericanClubandthe
communityformedbythoseactiveintheclubwereabouttheonlyopportunityto
engageinsuchactivitiesdiscussedbyparticipants.
FinancialSupport
TheNativestudentsIinterviewedwereallawareofthenecessityof,andthe
availabilityoffinancialaid.Interestingly,andinkeepingwithmyreviewofthe
literature,financialconcernswereconsistentlymentionedonlywhenaskeddirectly.
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Thissupportspriorresearchfindingsthatfinancialconcernsarelowinahierarchy
ofsalientfactorseitherasfacilitatorsorbarriers.
Barriers
Thefollowingfactorsemergedasthemostpowerfulbarrierstoeducational
attainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.
• InstitutionalBarriers
• LackofSupport
• InadequateHighSchoolPreparation
• Non‐supportivefaculty
• LackofTraditionalCulturalOpportunities
• LackofSpecialPlaceforDevelopmentofSupportiveCommunity
• Prejudice/Racism
• CulturalDiscontinuity
• CultureShock
• DiscomfortinLocalCommunity
• DiscomfortinUniversityCommunity
• TooFewNativeAmericanFaculty/Staff
• FamilyDiscouragement
• InadequateFinancialResources
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InstitutionalBarriers
Throughoutthe130‐yearhistorytherehavebeenseveralsignificantly
successfulNativeAmericanstudentsgraduatedfromPSU.However,datagathered
throughthisresearchindicatelimitedemphasisonrecruitmentorretentionof
NativeAmericanstudents.ManyrespondentsmentionedthatPSUisalandgrant
university,butthatithashistoricallyfailedtoincludetheNativeAmerican
populationofPrairieStateasafocusinprovidingeducationalopportunities.
Additionally,campusclimate,intermsofembracingdiversity,andNativeAmerican
cultureshasbeenlessthanoptimal.
LackofSupport
ThedatashowthatsupportforNativeAmericanstudentscomesinavariety
offorms.Aweakeningofanyofthepossiblecomponentsofsupportmayleadtoan
apparentoveralllackofsupport.Whilestudentsupportstaffisdedicatedintheir
commitmenttohelpingNativestudentsbesuccessful,itappearsthatsomeofthose
studentsmayunderutilizesuchservices.Possiblereasonsforunderutilization
include,lackofawarenessoftheavailabilityofservices.SomeNativestudentsare
hesitanttoseekouthelpandutilizeexistingsupportservices,eitherforlackoftrust,
culturaldiscomfort,orfearofbeingseenaslesscapablethanmainstreamstudents.
InadequateHighSchoolPreparation
Poorhighschoolpreparationiswelldocumentedintheliteratureasa
significantbarriertoacademicattainmentforNativeAmericanstudents.Data
revealedinthisstudyiscongruentwithfindingscitedinpriorresearch.Remedial
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needsofsomeNativestudentscanbeaddressedatPSUthroughstudentsupport
servicesandunderstandingfaculty.However,inmanycasestheacademichandicaps
withwhichmanystudentsarriveatPSUmaybedifficultorimpossibletoovercome.
SomeNativestudentsIinterviewedhaveexperiencedbothtribalandpublichigh
schoolsandwerequicktodescribethedifferencesbetweenthemintermsofthe
qualityofpreparationforcollege.
Ofparticularsignificancerelativetostudentswithinadequatehighschool
preparation,asmentionedabove,arefacultymembersunwillingtomake
adjustmentsforstudentsneedingremedialhelp.Studentsneedingremedialhelp
canquicklybecomelostiffacultyareinflexibleorinsensitivetothatstudent’sneeds.
Suchneedshowever,maybedifficultforindividualfacultytoaccommodate,and
thusrequireamoreintentional,systemicremediationprogram.
Nonsupportivefaculty
Facultymembersareinapositiontoactaseitherfacilitatororbarrierto
collegesuccess.Attimesthisinfluencecanbeextremeineitherdirection.Many
studentstoldofinstancesofextremeinsensitivityandinflexibilityofprofessorsto
culturaldifferences,familyobligations,andavarietyofotherissues.Manystudents
toldofhighlyinappropriateremarksmadebyfaculty.
LackofTraditionalCulturalOpportunities
AllofthestudentsIinterviewedmentionedthelackofopportunitiesto
participateinculturalactivitiesasabarriertofeelingcomfortableatPSU.Many
citedsuchactivitiesastheironlylinktothecomfortofhomeandfamily.TheNative
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AmericanClubprovidestheonlyavailableoutletforculturalexpressionforNative
studentsatPSU.ItappearsthatthemainfocusoftheNativeAmericanClub
throughouttheyearwastheplanningoftheannualPSUWacipi,heldinFebruary.
Otherthantheplanningofthatevent,Iwitnessednootherculturallyspecific
activities,eventhoughsuchactivitiesweresometimesmentioned.Datagatheredin
focusgroupsandpersonalinterviewsindicatethatthereisahighlevelofinterestin
participatinginculturaleventsandactivities.
LackofSpecialPlaceforDevelopmentofSupportiveCommunity
Eventhoughthelackofaspecialplaceisnotatthetopofthesalience
hierarchyasa‘makeorbreakfactor’,itisundoubtedlytheoneissueaboutwhich
everyoneIinterviewedwasmostpassionate.ThelackofaNativeAmericanCulture
Centerhasanimpactoneveryothercategory.Itcouldprovideaplaceforthe
formationandmeetingofasupportivecommunityofNativestudents,facultyandall
thosewhoembraceNativepeopleandcultureasavaluableasset.Itcouldprovidea
placewherestudentsfeelsecureinaskingforhelp.Itcouldprovideaplaceforthe
organizationofandparticipationinculturalactivities.Itcouldprovideaplace
wherefamilymemberscouldcometoPSUtobesupportiveoftheircollegestudent.
Itcouldprovideaplacefortheinterfaceofthelocalmainstreamcommunitywith
thePSUandlocalNativeAmericancommunity.This,inturncouldleadtoan
increasedappreciationofNativeculturewithintheRailtowncommunity.TheCenter
couldprovideasafeandcomfortableenvironmentforNativeAmericanstudents.
Perhapsmostimportantly,itcouldprovideaplaceforanetworkofsupportto
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empowerNativestudentsinsuchawaythattheycouldbetterdealwithallofthe
factorsthatcombinetoworkasbarrierstoacademicattainmentforNativestudents
atPSU.
TheconclusionIdrawonthispointisthataplacespecificallyforNative
Americansandtheirsupportersisofkeystonesignificancetothefacilitationof
academicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Relevanttoallofthe
pointslistedabove,theAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCentercan
potentiallyserveintheameliorationofthedetrimentaleffectsofthosefactorslisted
immediatelybelowthatworkasbarrierstocollegepersistence.
Prejudice/Racism
Eventhoughprejudiceandracismarenottopicsmostpeoplespeakabout
comfortably,everyoneIinterviewedcitedtheexistenceofsuchattitudes,beliefsand
behaviorsasabarriertoacademicattainmentforNativeAmericanstudentsatPSU.
PrejudiceattitudesandracistbeliefsdoexistacrosstheU.S.,PrairieState,in
Railtown,andatPSU.
CulturalDiscontinuity
Thereisagapintheexperienceswith,thelevelofexposureto,andthe
understandingofculturaldifferencesbetweenboththemainstreamandtheNative
AmericanpopulationsatPSU,andinthelocalcommunity.ManyNativestudentsI
interviewedhavehadlimitedexperienceoffthereservationandcanspeakofothers
theyknowwiththesamelimitedexposuretothemainstream,dominantculture.
Likewise,Nativestudentsgavenumerousaccountsoftheirinteractionswith
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classmateswhohadnevermetaNativeAmericanorbeentoareservation.This
culturaldiscontinuityleavesavoideasilyfilledwiththenarrowmindednessof
prejudiceandracism.
CultureShock
Thelackofexposuretoaworlddifferentfromthatwhichoneisaccustomed
tocaneasilyleadtodisorientationforsomeNativestudentscomingfromthe
reservationhomecommunitytoPSU.Thisismostsignificantforthosestudents
comingfromculturallytraditionalhomeenvironmentstoRailtownandthe
overwhelminglymainstreamcultureoftheuniversityenvironment.
DiscomfortinLocalCommunity
HavingcitedthepossibilityofhavingracistencountersinPrairieStateand
Railtown,manyNativestudentsIinterviewedgaveaccountsoffeeling
uncomfortableinthemainstreamcommunity.Itcannotbeassumedthateveryone
feelsathomeinmainstreamestablishmentssuchasrestaurants,grocerystores,etc.
DiscomfortinUniversityCommunity
QuantitativedatashowthatforeveryincomingNativeAmericanfreshmanin
anygivensemestertheremaybe100ormorenon‐Nativefreshman.Withouta
networkofsupport,andwithoutareferencegroupofpeers,manyNativestudents
retainaninitialfeelingofdiscomfortthroughouttheirentirefirstyearatPSU.This
becameevidentduringmyresearchasseveralNativestudentsleftPSUevenaslate
asApriloftheirfreshmanyear.
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TooFewNativeAmericanFaculty/Staff
NativeAmericanfacultyandstaffaresignificantfacilitatorstoNativestudent
success.WithonlyfivetotalcurrentlyatPSU,therearetoofewtobeaseffectiveas
couldbethecasewithmoresuchindividualstoserveasmentors,rolemodelsand
anenhancednetworkofsupport.Commitmenttotherecruitmentandretentionof
NativeAmericanfaculty,staff,andadministratorsisvitaltothecreationofa
supportiveuniversitycommunityandenvironmentthatembracesNativepeople
andcultureasanasset.
FamilyDiscouragement
Itappearsthatthemostdevastatingtypeofalackofsupportisthenon‐
supportive,oractivelydiscouragingfamily.Informationconveyedbysupport
professionalsindicatethatalackoffamilysupporthasbeenacommonbarrierfor
someAmericanIndianstudents,particularlythosecomingfromreservation
communitieswheretheirfamiliesaretraditionalandfeelthreatenedbythe
universityasaninstitutionwhosegoalistoassimilatethecultureoutoftheir
student.Suchfamilialpressurehasproven,overtime,tobenearlyinsurmountable
formanyNativestudents.
InadequateFinancialResources
Asmentionedintheconclusions/facilitatorssectionabove,noneofthe
NativestudentsIinterviewedlistedfinancialneedswithoutdirectprompting.This
indicatesthatwhilefinancialneedsareanissuethatmustnecessarilybeaddressed,
thoseneedsarerankedasmuchlesssalientamongallofthebarrierslisted.Thisis
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congruentwithfindingsfrompreviousstudies,includingGuilloryandWolverton
(2008)whofoundthatNativestudentsconsistentlylistfamily,friends,and
communityasmoreimportanttotheircollegesuccessthanfinancialconcerns.
Limitations
Thegoalofqualitativeresearchistoprovidearichdescriptivepictureof
peopleorgroupsofpeopleinagivencontextandmostimportantly,tocreatethat
picture,ascloselyaspossible,fromtheperspectiveofthosebeingdescribed.I
believethatthisgoalhasbeenaccomplishedthankstotheeagercooperationofthe
Nativestudentsalongwithfaculty,staff,andadministratorsofPSU.However,the
study’slimitationsmustbekeptinmind.
Asisthecasewithallqualitativeresearch,thisstudyprovidesapictureof
theNativeAmericanstudentexperienceatPSUasonlyasinglesliceintime,almost
asortofphotographicmoment,consideringtheentirehistoryofPSU,ofAmerican
Indianeducation,andofcontactbetweenWhitemainstreamEuro‐centricsociety
andtheindigenouspeopleofthecontinent.Eventhoughtheplanning,preparation
andcompletionofthisprojectspannedalittleovertwoyears,thecollectionofdata
thatprovidesthatpicturewasaccomplishedduringthefinalweeksofthespring
2009semesterandmostlyoverthecourseofthefall2009semester.Therehave
beensomedevelopmentsduringthecourseofthisresearchthatmaychangethe
natureoftheNativestudentexperienceatPSUinthefuture.Twosuch
developmentsincludetheannouncementandplanningoftheAmericanIndian
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EducationandCulturalCentertobeginserviceinthefallof2010,andtheproposal
andplanningofamajorinAmericanIndianStudies.
Anotherlimitationliesinthefactthatwhilethisresearchattemptstoprovide
athoroughdescriptionoftheNativecollegeexperienceatPSU,itisonlyone
university,atonepointintimeandcannotbegeneralizedacrossotheruniversities
inPrairieStateortheMidwest.
ArelatedlimitationisthatonlyasmallproportionofallAmericanIndian
studentsregisteredatPSUparticipatedinthestudy.Theparticipantsinthis
researchrepresentapurposivesample,chosenlargelyfortheiravailabilityand
willingnesstoparticipate.Theywerenotrandomlyselected,andtherefore
generalizabilityislimited.Whilestudentparticipantsincludedfreshmenthrough
graduatestudents,traditionalandnon‐traditionalagedstudents,malesandfemales,
mostweremembersoftheNativeAmericanCluborwereotherwiseactivein
campuseventsandthus,theperspectivessharedinthisresearchmayrepresentthe
biasesofthatgroup.Relatedtothislimitationisthepossibilitythatthosewho
participatedinthefocusgroupsmayhavebeensomewhatguardedintheir
responsesasaresultofsocialpressuretoconformtothegroup’sviewpoint.WhileI
wenttogreatlengths,withthehelpoftheNativeAmericanStudentAdvisor,togeta
samplepopulationrepresentativeofthewiderangingdiversityamongAmerican
IndianstudentsatPSU,onesignificantroadblockisthatthe249NativeAmerican
studentslistedasregisteredatPSUarethosewhoselfidentifyasAmericanIndian.
ItislikelythatthereareNativestudentsunaccountedforiftheychosenotto
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provideinformation,possiblybecausetheirNativeidentityisnothighinsaliencefor
them.
Anotherlimitationinsamplingis,perhapsmoresignificant,andcouldin
itselfbeconsideredafindingoftheresearch.IfweconsiderthetotalNativestudent
populationatPSUtobeat249,itisinterestingtonotethatthevastmajorityofthose
studentsgounnoticedandlargelyunaccountedthroughouttheschoolyear.Inthe
fallof2009IattendedseveralmeetingsoftheNativeAmericanClub.Interestwas
highatthattimeoftheyearandattendancewastypicallyrightaround20students.
Astheschoolyearprogressed,studentsbecamebusywithstudiesorotherwise
distracted,leavingattendanceatNACmeetingsfluctuating,withalowofsix,but
normallyintheteens.ThehighestnumberofstudentsinvolvedwithNACactivities
wasduringtheweekendofthe20thannualWacipi,duringwhichmanystudentsthat
Ihadneverseenbeforeturnedout.Thisisfurthertestimonytotheimportanceof
theopportunityforculturalexpression.Thelownumberofregularparticipantsin
NACactivitiesbegsthequestion:wherearetheothertwohundredandtwentysome
Nativestudents,andwhydotheynotparticipate?Thismightbeaquestionfor
futureresearch.
ThisresearchisbaseduponthetheoreticalperspectiveofCriticalSociology.
Asacriticalethnography,thisresearchisadmittedlyvalueladenandopenlyfocused
ontheemancipatoryameliorationofoppressivesocialconditionsforthepopulation
beingresearched.Thepoliticalnatureofcriticalsociologicalresearchmakesthe
reportingoffindingspotentiallyuncomfortable,controversialandpotentially
216
invalidatedifnotsafeguarded.IhavebeeninvolvedwithAmericanIndianstudents,
facultyandstaffthroughoutmyentiretimeatPSU.AttimesIfounditnecessaryto
pullbackandengageinareflexivere‐evaluationofmylevelofparticipationin,and
thedegreetowhichIwasembeddedinmyownresearch.Ibecameawareofthe
dangerof‘goingnative’andpotentiallydamagingthevalidityofmydatabylosing
focusonthegoaloftheresearchasacademicratherthanactivist.Fortunately,I
recognizedthisdangerearlyonandwasabletokeepitincheckbyprocessingit
withmyadvisorandotherswhoseopinions,andadviceIvalueandrespect.Among
thosewerebothNativeandnon‐Nativepeople.
Recommendations
Summer,2010,isacriticalmomentinthehistoryofPlainsStateUniversity
anditsworkwithAmericanIndianstudents.Giventheinstitution’srecentHigher
LearningCommissionvisit,anditsrenewedcommitmenttodiversity,thefindings
fromthisresearcharepresentedatanopportunetimeforPSUtoconsiderthese
datainitsstrategicplanningintheareasofdiversity,academicandstudentaffairs,
andcampusmasterplanning.Buildingonthisstudy’sbaseincriticaltheoryand
praxis,itsultimategoalistoputtousetherelevanttheoryanddatathathas
emergedfromtheresearchtoovercomebarriersandenhancefacilitatorsinorder
toenhanceacademicattainmentforAmericanIndianstudents.Basedonthedata
presentedinthisdissertation,Imakethefollowingresearchbased
recommendations:
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1. Beginninginfall,2010,thenewlyannouncedAmericanIndianEducation
andCulturalCenter(AIECC)shouldincludeprogramsreachingouttoNative
studentswhohavepreviouslybeennon‐participantsintheNativestudent
communityatPSU.AdditionalprogrammingshouldbebasedontheFamily
EducationModel(FEM),asdescribedbyHeavyRunnerandDeCelles(2002).
Acadreofcurrent,successfulAmericanIndianstudentleadersmaybebest
positionedtoconductthisoutreach.
2. TheAIECCshouldreceivestrongsupportandbackingfromthe
administration,faculty,staff,students,familiesandallstakeholders
concernedwithAmericanIndianstudenteducationalattainment.Such
supportisparamounttotheCenter’ssuccessasafacilitatortocollege
successforNativestudents.Thedangerofnothavingsuchcollaborativeand
cooperativesupportisthatpersonalities,opinions,andstrugglesforthe
dominantinfluencecouldmaketheCenterapointofpoliticalcontentionto
thedetrimentofprogrammingandpersonnelwhoseprimarygoalshould
remainthebenefitofAmericanIndiancollegestudentsandtheirfamiliesas
theyseektoimprovetheirchancesinlifethroughacademicattainment.
3. ProgrammingprovidedthroughtheCenterandthroughoutcampusshould
addressthesalientfacilitatorsandbarrierspresentedinthisresearch.For
example,inbuildingonthefindingregardingsupport(orlackthereof)asa
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facilitator(orbarrier)tostudentsuccess,modelsthatbringtogether
multiplesupportservicesshouldbeadvanced.Suchintegratedservicesmay
includeacademic,social,familyneeds(e.g.childcare,healthcare),financial,
andculturalcomponents.
4. PSUshouldmoveforwardaggressivelywithitsplansforanew,permanent
AmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter.Centerssuchasthoseatthe
UniversityofMontanaandDartmouthmaybeparticularlyimpressive
models.ImportantcomponentsofthenewCenterincludesupportprograms,
officesforkeycontactpeople,tutoring,study,meetingandloungespace,
computerlaboratory,kitchen,spaceforculturalactivitiesandaclassroom
forAmericanIndianStudiescourses.Spacefortribalartandculturalartifacts
shouldalsobeavailable.
5.PSUshouldsponsorcontinuingeducationandfaculty/staffdevelopment
programmingthatsharesthefindingsofthisresearch,alongwithsuggested
interventionstrategiesandbestpracticesforenhancingNativeAmerican
studentacademicattainmentatalllevels.Suchprogrammingmayinclude
moreinformalbrownbagdiscussionsormoreformalworkshopsand/or
trainingsessionsthatarerequiredorstronglyencouragedforallfaculty.
Withoutsuchanapproach,manyparticipantswhomostneedorwould
benefitmostfromsuchtrainingmaynotparticipate.Materialsshouldinclude
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specificinformationdesignedwitheachtargetaudienceinmind.
6. PSUshouldfosterrelationshipsacrosscampusandintheRailtown
communitythatcontributetoNativeAmericanstudentcollegesuccess.This
shouldincludeadministration,teachingfacultyinallacademicunits,student
servicesstaff,andmembersoftheRailtownReconciliationCouncilinits
effortstobridgethediscontinuitybetweenthemainstreamRailtown
populationandthePSUandPrairieStateAmericanIndianpopulations.
Theserelationshipscanstrengthenthenetworkofsupportavailablefor
NativeAmericanstudentsatPSU,andultimately,theiracademicattainment.
7. WiththenewAmericanIndianEducationandCulturalCenter(AIECC)asa
focalpoint,PSUshouldexpandthepresenceofNativeAmericanmaterial
cultureoncampus.Thepresenceoftribalartandculturalartifactsin
prominentplacescampuswide(i.e.notonlyattheAIECC)–onthegrounds
andinadministrativeandacademicbuildings–willhelpeasethetransition
fortribalstudentsandmakethemfeelthattheircultureisindeedpresent
andvaluedatPSU.Inarelatedrecommendation,PSUshouldbuildonthe
successofitscurrentseriesofculturalevents(e.g.speakers,powwow,
musicians,etc.)andworktoexpandstudentandfacultyparticipation.
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8. PSUshouldtakeaggressiveactiontowardenhancingthesocialclimatefor
AmericanIndianstudentsandprofessionals.Theissuesofmaterialculture
andculturalprogrammingdescribedaboveshouldbecomplementedwith
educationaleffortstocombatracismandculturalinsensitivitythatoccuron
campus.CurrentNativeAmericanstudents,facultyandstaffshouldhave
inputintodesigningtheseprograms.
9. PSUshouldincreaseitsfocusonAmericanIndianstudentrecruitment
throughoutthestate,andregion.Thisshouldincludetheallocationof
necessaryresourcestoachievea‘criticalmass’ofNativestudentsatPSU.
Effortsshouldincludearegularpresenceattribalhighschoolsandcolleges,
campusvisits,familyinvolvement,andstrategiesforovercoming
shortcomingsinprospectivestudents’academicpreparation.Onceagain,the
activeinvolvementofcurrentNativeAmericanstudentsandstaffin
designingandimplementingsuchprogrammingwillbecriticaltoitssuccess.
10. PSUmustdevelopanimprovedsystemofaccountingforitsNative
Americanstudents,includingaccuratecontactinformation,wherethey
attendandhowtheyareprogressingtowardtheiracademicandprofessional
goals.CarefulmonitoringwillhelpalertfacultyandstafftobarriersNative
studentsmaybeexperiencingintimetohelpthemovercomethesebarriers
andfacilitatethestudents’academicattainment.Anearlyalertsystemcanbe
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implementedthatwillincludetheNativeAmericanAdvisor,academic
advisor,teachingfacultyandresidentiallifestaffandmakethemallmore
awareofandresponsivetoeachstudents’strengthsandchallenges.This
supportnetworkthenbecomesa‘safetynet’whenproblemsoccurand
otherwiseencouragesthestudents’collegesuccessandacademicattainment.
11. PSUshouldincreaseitsemphasisonrecruitingandretainingAmerican
Indianfacultyandstaffinordertoreachnumbersproportionaltoand
representativeofthestate’sAmericanIndianpopulation.Recruitmentefforts
mustbeintentionalandcouldbetargetedateitherPSUNativegraduatesor
otherprogramswithlargenumbersofAmericanIndiangraduates.Onceon
campus,Nativefacultyandstaffshouldhaveamentortoassistthemwith
adjustmenttothecampusandcommunityandwhocanhelpthemfind
comfortandsuccessatPSU.Thisshouldincludeintroductionand
networkingwiththeothertribalpeople.
12. PSUshoulddevelopanenhancedAmericanIndianStudiescurriculumto
includeamajorintheareaattheBachelor’slevel,alongwiththe
developmentofgraduatedegrees.Thisimpliesrecruitmentofadditional
NativefacultyandpromotionoftheprogramtobothNativeandnon‐Native
students.
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13. AcollaborativeorganizationcomposedofstakeholdersinPrairieState
AmericanIndianHigherEducationshouldbeformed.Thiscouldincludea
cooperativeboardofeducators,fromRegentalandnon‐Regentalinstitutions,
togetherwiththestate’stribalcollegesanduniversities.Thegroup’sprimary
goalshouldbeworkingtogethertoaddresscommonbarriers,enhance
facilitators,sharebestpractices,andworktowardimprovedrecruitment,
retention,andgraduationofAmericanIndiancollegestudentsinthestate.
SuggestionsforFurtherResearch
1. FurtherresearchatPSUshouldcollectsurveydatafromabroadercross‐
sectionofthecampusNativestudentcommunity.Inaddition,majority
studentandfacultyattitudesandexperiencesmightbeexaminedtobetter
understandtheirattitudestowardAmericanIndiansandthebroadercontext
oftheNativestudentexperienceoncampus.
2. Carefulevaluationresearchthatdocumentstheeffectivenessandbest
practicesofcurrentcampusdiversityinitiativesshouldbeundertaken.
Currently,whilethereexistsanarrayofprogrammingaimedatrecruiting
andretainingNativestudents,thereisnotaclearunderstandingofwhat
aboutthoseprogramsisandisnotworkingtoenhanceAmericanIndian
studentacademicattainment.DifferentialgraduationratesbetweenNative
223
andNon‐Nativestudentssuggestthereisroomforimprovement.More
intentionalprogramassessmentshouldbeconductedandresultsshared
widelysothatsuccessescanbebuiltupon,commonmisstepsavoided,and
limitedresourcesmaybestrategicallydirectedtosuccessfulprograms.
3. Theapproachexecutedinthisresearchcouldbesimilarlyappliedto
enhanceunderstandingofbarriersandfacilitatorsofeducationalattainment
forotherstudentsofcolor,includingAfricanAmericans,Latino/as,
Asian/PacificIslanders,andthediversearrayofinternationalstudents
attendingPSU.Whilecommonthemesmayemerge,additional,unique
insightswouldbegainedfromthisbroaderfocus.
4. FurtherresearchfocusedonsimilaruniversitiesinPrairieStateandthe
Midwest,andanyothercomparablysizeinstitutionwithasubstantialNative
Americanstudentpopulationshouldbeconducted.Suchresearchshould
includemoreintensiveindividualinterviewswithNativestudentsinaddition
tothefocusgroupinterviewtechnique.Theuseofadditionalintensive
interviewswillprovideasafeguardagainstpossibleinhibitionsresulting
fromsociallyconstructedgroupviewpoints.Suchinvestigationswillenhance
theunderstandingofbothcommonanduniquebarriersencounteredby
NativeAmericanstudentsandbestinstitutionalpracticesforfacilitating
studentattainment.
224
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APPENDIXA:
InterviewGuideforAdministratorsandFaculty
IamScottFlemingoftheSociologyDepartmentatPlainsStateUniversity.
Thankyoufortakingthetimetospeakwithme.Iamapersonofancestraldescent
fromtheMeskwakipeopleofIowaandtheCherokeepeopletheSoutheastern
UnitedStates.Ihavebeenaroundnativepeopleandcommunitiesallofmylife.I
haveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunitiesinMinnesotaandWisconsin.I
haveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPowWowsacrossthecountry.Ihave
longbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacingAmericanIndianpeople,particularly
howtoimprovetheconditionsforeducationalsuccessforAmericanIndian
students.
IamdoingmydoctoraldissertationintheareaofIndianhighereducation,
specifically,whatfactorscombinetofacilitateorhindereducationalattainmentfor
AmericanIndiancollegestudents.
Aspartofthisstudy,thefollowinginterviewisdesignedtoenhanceour
understandingofwhatfactorsworktowardthefacilitationorhindranceof
educationalsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withyourpermission,I
willrecordourconversationonadigitalaudiorecorder.AsItranscribethe
interviewallidentifyinginformationwillberemovedthuskeepingyour
participationinthestudyanonymous.
236
Iwillalsoprovideyouwithcontactinformationincaseyouwouldliketo
furtherdiscussanyinformationorissuesyoumayhaveaftertheinterviewis
completed.
DoyouagreetoparticipateinthisinterviewasIhaveexplainedittoyou?
Doyouhaveanyquestionsformebeforewebegin?
ToAdministratorsandFaculty:
• Describehowtheuniversityaddressesissuesofdiversity?
• Howdoestheuniversityaddressissuesrelatingtominoritystudents,specificallyNativeAmericans?
• WhatthreeorfourfactorsdoyoubelievehelpNativeAmericanstudentspersistthroughcollege?
• Whatdoyouperceiveasthethreeorfourgreatestbarrierstocompletingcollege?
• HowdoeshelpingAmericanIndianstudentssucceedfitwiththemissionandstrategicplanoftheuniversity?
237
• WhataresomeoftheproblemsadministrationseesinrecruitingandretainingNativeAmericanstudent?
• WhatistherelationshipbetweenNativeAmericansstudentsandfaculty?
• Whatcanthestatedotoensuretheuniversityissupportingdiversity,especiallyNativeAmericanstudents?
• DescribeidealsituationforNativeAmericanstudentstoflourishattheuniversity.
• CouldPSUbetterserveitsAmericanIndianstudents?
238
APPENDIXB:
InterviewGuideforStudents
IamScottFlemingoftheSociologyDepartmentatPlainsStateUniversity.
Thankyoufortakingthetimetospeakwithme.Iamapersonofancestraldescent
fromtheMeskwakipeopleofIowaandtheCherokeepeopletheSoutheastern
UnitedStates.Ihavebeenaroundnativepeopleandcommunitiesallofmylife.I
haveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunitiesinMinnesotaandWisconsin.I
haveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPowWowsacrossthecountry.Ihave
longbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacingAmericanIndianpeople,particularly
howtoimprovetheconditionsforeducationalsuccessforAmericanIndian
students.
IamdoingmydoctoraldissertationintheareaofIndianhighereducation,
specifically,whatfactorscombinetofacilitateorhindereducationalattainmentfor
AmericanIndiancollegestudents.
Aspartofthisstudythefollowinginterviewisdesignedtoenhanceour
understandingwhatfactorsworktowardthefacilitationorhindranceofeducational
successforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withyourpermission,Iwillrecordour
conversationonadigitalaudiorecorder.AsItranscribetheinterviewallidentifying
informationwillberemovedthuskeepingyourparticipationinthestudy
anonymous.
239
Iwillalsoprovideyouwithcontactinformationincaseyouwouldliketo
furtherdiscussanyinformationorissuesyoumayhaveaftertheinterviewis
completed.
DoyouagreetoparticipateinthisinterviewasIhaveexplainedittoyou?
Doyouhaveanyquestionsformebeforewebegin?
Tobeginwith,I’dliketolearnalittleaboutyou:
DemographicCharacteristics:
1. Yourage:
2. Gender:
3. TribalAffiliation:
4. Placeofbirth:
5. Maritalstatus:
6. Numberofchildren(ifany):
7. Yearinschool:CollegeMajor
240
ToStudents:
• Describehowyouperceivehowtheuniversityaddressesissuesofdiversity?
1. Haveyouexperiencedanyinstancesofprejudiceonthiscampus?2. Ifso,willyoutellmeaboutthat?
• Howdoestheuniversityaddressissuesrelatingtominoritystudents,specificallyNativeAmericans?
1. Doyoufeelthattherearechallenges,asanAmericanIndianstudent,hereatamainstreamcollegethatdonotexistfornon‐Indianstudents?Explain
2. Whatwaysdoyouhavefordealingwiththat?3. DoyouspendtimeattheNACC/MAO?Howmuch?When?4. Doyoufindithelpful?Comfortable?5. Howso?6. Ifnot,why?
• Whatwouldyouconsidertobethreeorfourfactorsthathaveledyoutopersistthroughyouruniversitysofar?
1. Inwhatwayswouldyousayyourfamilyhasbeensupportiveofyourcollegeexperience?
2. Inwhatways,ifany,doyoudrawontraditionalnativeculturetohelpdealwiththechallengesofcollegelife?
3. Doyouhaveasupportivenetwork?Friends,FacultyFamily?4. Tellmewhatsupportservicesprovidedbytheuniversityyoutakeadvantageof?
• Whathavebeenthethreeorfourbarrierstoovercomeintryingtocompleteyoureducation?
1. Howdoyoucopewith__________asabarrier?2. Ifrespondentmentionedmoneyasaproblem.Doyouwork?Doyoureceive
financialaid?Inwhatspecificwaysdofinancialconcernscauseyouproblems?3. Hasyourfamilybeennon‐supportiveinanyway?Explain.
241
4. WheredidyougotoHighSchool?DescribeyourH.S.experience.Didyougetgoodgrades?Didyouhaveafavoritesubject?Wereyourteachershelpful?
5. DoyouthinkH.S.preparedyouforcollegelevelcourses?
• Ifyouthinkaboutfriendsthathavestartedcollegebutnotfinished‐whatdoyouthinkkeptthemfromdoingso?
• Whatwouldbeyouridealinstitution?
• CouldPSUbetterserveitsAmericanIndianstudents?
242
APPENDIXC:
PARTICIPANTCONSENTFORM
(Tobesignedinthepresenceoftheresearcher/participantcopyprovided)
PARTICIPATIONINPERSONALINTERVIEW
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
Pleasereadthefollowingpoints,andfeelfreetoaskanyquestionsthatariseasyoudoso.
ThisisaninvitationforyoutoparticipateinaresearchprojectunderthedirectionofScottFleming.Thenameofthisprojectis“AmericanIndianEducationalAttainment:AComparativeAnalysisofFactorsthatHinderorFacilitateEducationalSuccessforAmericanIndianStudentsatPSU”.
ThepurposeofthisprojecttogainanincreasedunderstandingofthefactorsthatcombinetohinderorfacilitateeducationalsuccessattwopredominantlyWhite,mainstreamcollegesinPrairieState.Theproposedstudywillusethequalitativeresearchmethodsincluding;focusgroups,personalinterviews,fieldobservationsanddocumentarydataanalysis.ParticipantsinthestudywillincludeAmericanIndiancollegestudentsatbothPlainsStateUniversityandtheUniversityofPrairieState.Additionally,UniversityPresidents,DiversityCoordinators,facultymembersandProgramCoordinatorswillbeinterviewedinordertogainasenhancedunderstandingofthosefactorsoutlinedintheresearchquestionsfromaninstitutionalperspective.
Thisportionofthestudyconsistsofaoneononepersonalinterview,thetotalnumberofwhichwillbe10to12AmericanIndiancollegestudents.Thisprocesswillincludeatapedgroupinterview,andwillprobablylast1to2hours.Your
243
identifyinginformationandresponseswillbekeptstrictlyconfidential.Everyeffortwillbemadetoensurethattherewillbenopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinanyreportsorsubsequentworksarisingfromthisresearchproject.Yourtranscriptwillnotbeidentifiedbyeithernameorlocation.OriginalcontactsheetswillbekeptinalockedcabinetintheofficeoftheDeanoftheHonorsCollegeatPlainsStateUniversity.Thisinterviewwillbetranscribedontoahardcopyformatatwhichtimethedigitalrecordingswillbedeleted.Pleasenotethatallinformationdiscussedduringthissessionisconfidential,andthatwithyoursignatureandparticipationyouagreetokeepallinformationinthisdiscussionconfidential.
Therearenoknownriskstoyouforparticipatinginthisstudy.Pleasebeawarethatyourparticipationisvoluntaryandthatyouhavetherighttowithdrawatanytimeinthecourseofthestudy.
Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorconcernsrelatingtoyourparticipationinthisfocusgroupyoumaycontactmebyphoneore‐mailaslistedabove.YoumayalsocontactmyresearchsupervisorDr.XXXXXXXXXXat(605)XXX‐XXXX,orbye‐mailat....
Inaddition,ifyouhavequestionsregardingyourrightsasaparticipantinthisstudy,pleasecontact.
Dr.Ph.D.
ChairpersonoftheHumanSubjectsCommittee
Box2115,Library
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
Office:(605)XXX‐XXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
ThePSUInstitutionalReviewBoardhasapprovedthisproject.
ApprovalNo.:__________________
244
Asaresearchparticipant,Ihavereadtheabove,havehadanyquestionsanswered,andagreetoparticipateintheresearchproject.Iwillreceiveacopyofthisformformyinformation.
Participant’sSignature________________________________________________Date______________
ProjectDirector’sSignature__________________________________________Date______________
245
APPENDIXD:
PARTICIPANTCONSENTFORM
(Tobesignedinthepresenceoftheresearcher/participantcopyprovided)
PARTICIPATIONINFOCUSGROUPINTERVIEW
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
Pleasereadthefollowingpoints,andfeelfreetoaskanyquestionsthatariseasyoudoso.
ThisisaninvitationforyoutoparticipateinaresearchprojectunderthedirectionofScottFleming.Thenameofthisprojectis“AmericanIndianEducationalAttainment:AComparativeAnalysisofFactorsthatHinderorFacilitateEducationalSuccessforAmericanIndianStudentsatPSU”.
ThepurposeofthisprojecttogainanincreasedunderstandingofthefactorsthatcombinetohinderorfacilitateeducationalsuccessattwopredominantlyWhite,mainstreamcollegesinPrairieState.Theproposedstudywillusethequalitativeresearchmethodsincluding;focusgroups,personalinterviews,fieldobservationsanddocumentarydataanalysis.ParticipantsinthestudywillincludeAmericanIndiancollegestudentsatbothPlainsStateUniversityandtheUniversityofPrairieState.Additionally,UniversityPresidents,DiversityCoordinators,facultymembersandProgramCoordinatorswillbeinterviewedinordertogainasenhancedunderstandingofthosefactorsoutlinedintheresearchquestionsfromaninstitutionalperspective.
246
Thisportionofthestudyconsistsofafocusgroupincluding10to12AmericanIndiancollegestudents.Thisprocesswillincludeatapedgroupinterview,andwillprobablylast1to2hours.Youridentifyinginformationandresponseswillbekeptstrictlyconfidential.Everyeffortwillbemadetoensurethattherewillbenopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinanyreportsorsubsequentworksarisingfromthisresearchproject.Yourtranscriptwillnotbeidentifiedbyeithernameorlocation.OriginalcontactsheetswillbekeptinalockedcabinetintheofficeoftheDeanoftheHonorsCollegeatPlainsStateUniversity.Thisinterviewwillbetranscribedontoahardcopyformatatwhichtimethedigitalrecordingswillbedeleted.Pleasenotethatallinformationdiscussedduringthissessionisconfidential,andthatwithyoursignatureandparticipationyouagreetokeepallinformationinthisdiscussionconfidential.
Therearenoknownriskstoyouforparticipatinginthisstudy.Pleasebeawarethatyourparticipationisvoluntaryandthatyouhavetherighttowithdrawatanytimeinthecourseofthestudy.
Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorconcernsrelatingtoyourparticipationinthisfocusgroupyoumaycontactmebyphoneore‐mailaslistedabove.YoumayalsocontactmyresearchsupervisorDr.XXXXXXXXXXat(605)XXX‐XXXX.Inaddition,ifyouhavequestionsregardingyourrightsasaparticipantinthisstudy,pleasecontact.
Dr.Ph.D.
ChairpersonoftheHumanSubjectsCommittee
Box2115,Library
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
Office:(605)XXX‐XXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
247
ThePSUInstitutionalReviewBoardhasapprovedthisproject.
ApprovalNo.:__________________
Asaresearchparticipant,Ihavereadtheabove,havehadanyquestionsanswered,andagreetoparticipateintheresearchproject.Iwillreceiveacopyofthisformformyinformation.
Participant’sSignature________________________________________________Date______________
ProjectDirector’sSignature__________________________________________Date_____________
248
APPENDIXE:
PARTICIPANTCONSENTFORM
(Tobesignedinthepresenceoftheresearcher/participantcopyprovided)
PARTICIPATIONINPERSONALINTERVIEWADMINSTRATOR/FACULTY
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
Pleasereadthefollowingpoints,andfeelfreetoaskanyquestionsthatariseasyoudoso.
ThisisaninvitationforyoutoparticipateinaresearchprojectunderthedirectionofScottFleming.Thenameofthisprojectis“AmericanIndianEducationalAttainment:AnAnalysisofFactorsthatHinderorFacilitateEducationalSuccessforAmericanIndianStudentsatPSU”.
ThepurposeofthisprojecttogainanincreasedunderstandingofthefactorsthatcombinetohinderorfacilitateeducationalsuccessattwopredominantlyWhite,mainstreamcollegesinPrairieState.Theproposedstudywillusethequalitativeresearchmethodsincluding;focusgroups,personalinterviews,fieldobservationsanddocumentarydataanalysis.ParticipantsinthestudywillincludeAmericanIndiancollegestudentsatbothPlainsStateUniversityandtheUniversityofPrairieState.Additionally,UniversityPresidents,DiversityCoordinators,facultymembersandProgramCoordinatorswillbeinterviewedinordertogainasenhancedunderstandingofthosefactorsoutlinedintheresearchquestionsfromaninstitutionalperspective.
249
Thisportionofthestudyconsistsofaoneononepersonalinterviewwithamemberofadministrationorfaculty.Thisprocesswillincludeatapedgroupinterview,andwillprobablylast1to2hours.Youridentifyinginformationandresponseswillbekeptstrictlyconfidential.Everyeffortwillbemadetoensurethattherewillbenopossibilityofconnectingthemwiththeirresponsesinanyreportsorsubsequentworksarisingfromthisresearchproject.Yourtranscriptwillnotbeidentifiedbyeithernameorlocation.OriginalcontactsheetswillbekeptinalockedcabinetintheofficeoftheDeanoftheHonorsCollegeatPlainsStateUniversity.Thisinterviewwillbetranscribedontoahardcopyformatatwhichtimethedigitalrecordingswillbedeleted.Pleasenotethatallinformationdiscussedduringthissessionisconfidential,andthatwithyoursignatureandparticipationyouagreetokeepallinformationinthisdiscussionconfidential.
Therearenoknownriskstoyouforparticipatinginthisstudy.Pleasebeawarethatyourparticipationisvoluntaryandthatyouhavetherighttowithdrawatanytimeinthecourseofthestudy.
Ifyouhaveanyquestionsorconcernsrelatingtoyourparticipationinthisfocusgroupyoumaycontactmebyphoneore‐mailaslistedabove.YoumayalsocontactmyresearchsupervisorDr.XXXXXXXXXXat(605)XXX‐XXXX.Inaddition,ifyouhavequestionsregardingyourrightsasaparticipantinthisstudy,pleasecontact.
Dr.Ph.D.
ChairpersonoftheHumanSubjectsCommittee
Box2115,Library
PlainsStateUniversity
Railtown,PSXXXXX
Office:(605)XXX‐XXXX
ProjectDirector: ScottD.Fleming
DepartmentofRuralSociology
PlainsStateUniversity
Phone:(605)XXX‐XXXX
250
ThePSUInstitutionalReviewBoardhasapprovedthisproject.
ApprovalNo.:__________________
Asaresearchparticipant,Ihavereadtheabove,havehadanyquestionsanswered,andagreetoparticipateintheresearchproject.Iwillreceiveacopyofthisformformyinformation.
Participant’sSignature________________________________________________Date______________
ProjectDirector’sSignature__________________________________________Date______________
251
APPENDIXF:
IntroductiontoFocusGroupandDemographicQuestionnaire
IamScottFlemingoftheSociologyDepartmentatPlainsStateUniversity.
Thankyoufortalkingwithme.Iamapersonofancestraldescentfromthe
MeskwakipeopleofIowaandtheCherokeepeopletheSoutheasternUnitedStates.
WhileIamnotanenrolledmemberofanytribe,Ihavebeenaroundnativepeople
andcommunitiesallofmylife.Ihaveworkedandlivedonreservationcommunities
inMinnesotaandWisconsin.IhaveparticipatedasatraditionaldancerinPow
Wowsacrossthecountry.Ihavelongbeeninterestedinmodernissuesfacing
AmericanIndianpeople,particularlyhowtoimprovetheconditionsforeducational
successforAmericanIndianstudents.
IamdoingmydoctoraldissertationintheareaofIndianhighereducation,
specifically,whatfactorscombinetofacilitateorhindereducationalattainmentfor
AmericanIndiancollegestudents.
Aspartofthisstudy,thefollowinginterviewisdesignedtoenhanceour
understandingofwhatfactorsworktowardthefacilitationorhindranceof
educationalsuccessforAmericanIndianstudentsatPSU.Withyourpermission,I
willrecordourconversationonadigitalaudiorecorder.AsItranscribethe
interviewallidentifyinginformationwillberemovedthuskeepingyour
participationinthestudyanonymous.
252
Iwillalsoprovideyouwithcontactinformationincaseyouwouldliketo
furtherdiscussanyfurtherinformationorissuesyoumayhaveaftertheinterviewis
completed.
DoyouagreetoparticipateinthisinterviewasIhaveexplainedittoyou?Do
youhaveanyquestionsformebeforewebegin?
DemographicInformation
Tobeginwith,I’dliketolearnalittleaboutyou:
DemographicCharacteristics:
1. Yourage:
2. Gender:
3. TribalAffiliation:
4. Placeofbirth:
5. Didyougrowuponornearareservation?
6. Wheredidyougotohighschool?
7. Maritalstatus:
8. Numberofchildren(ifany):
9. Yearinschool:
10. CollegeMajor:
253
APPENDIXG:
NativeAmericanStudentScholarships:SpecifictoPSU.
Abbott,Kasey&Karla‐Jr.andSr.S.D.studentsinsciencemajors.
Berg,Sherwood&Elizabeth‐Preferenceforhealthcaremajors.Leadership
qualitiesexhibitedinNativeAmericanculture/communityservices.
CrazyHorseMemorialScholarships‐Anymajorwithfinancialneed.
CrazyHorseHealthMajorsScholarship.
Daktronics‐Engineeringmajor.
France,William‐PrairieStatetribalaffiliation.
Houda,Eugene&MaryMilner‐Preferenceforscience,health,economics,and
familyservicemajors.
ManAfraidofHisHorses‐PreferenceforCollegeofAgricultureandBiological
Sciencesmajors.
MassachusettsIndianAssociation‐Forfulltimeundergraduateorgraduate
students.
Marken,Jack&Marty‐PreferenceforEnglishorcommunicationstudiesmajors.
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NativeAmericanScholarship‐PrairieStateTribalEnrollment.
Nichols,Henrietta‐Mustbeenrolled(orhaveaparentenrolled)withtheYankton
SiouxTribe.
Reifel,Ben‐PrairieStatetribalenrollment.
Roberti,HelenTrust‐PreferenceforEducation,Science,andHealthmajors.
Sander,Brede&Siri‐Engineeringmajors.
NativeAmericanScholarships:NonPSUspecific.
AmericanIndianCollegeFund.TheAmericanIndianCollegeFund(AICF)awards
severaldesignatedscholarshipseachyear.
FordMotorCompanyTribalScholarship.FordMotorCompanywillawardupto
$5,000annually,basedonfinancialneed.Thescholarshipisforstudentsstudying
math,science,engineering,business,teachertraining,orenvironmentalscience.
AmericanIndianEducationFoundation.MustbeNativeAmericanorAlaskanNative
descent;full‐timestudent;attendinganaccredited2or4‐yearcollegeoruniversity
oravocationaltechnicalschool.Threetypesofscholarshipsareavailable:freshman
scholarships;undergraduatescholarships;continuingstudentscholarships.
AmericanIndianFellowshipinBusinessScholarship.Eachyear,theNationalCenter
forAmericanIndianEnterpriseDevelopmentawardsfivescholarshipstoAmerican
Indiancollegeorgraduatestudentsmajoringinbusiness.
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AmericanIndianScholarshipFundAssociation.Providesscholarshipsandloansto
NativeAmericanstudents.
AmericanIndianScience&EngineeringSociety(AISES).TheAISESmissionis“To
substantiallyincreasetherepresentationofAmericanIndianandAlaskanNativesin
engineering,science,andotherrelatedtechnologydisciplines.”
BurlingtonNorthern/SantaFeFoundationScholarship.Thisscholarshipisavailable
to5newAmericanIndianhighschoolseniorseveryyear,whoresideinstates
servicedbytheBurlingtonNorthernandSantaFePacificCorporationandits
affiliatedcompanies:Arizona,California,Colorado,Kansas,Minnesota,Montana,
NewMexico,NorthDakota,Oklahoma,Oregon,PrairieState,andWashington.The
awardisfor4academicyears(8semesters)oruntilbaccalaureatedegreeis
obtained(whicheveroccursfirst).
A.T.AndersonMemorialScholarship.Thisscholarshipisawardedtomembersof
AISESwhoareAmericanIndian/AlaskanNativecollegestudentspursuingacademic
programsinthesciences,engineering,medical,naturalresources,andmath.
AmericanIndianServicesScholarship(AIS).AISofUtahhasfundsavailabletoassist
NativeAmericanstudents
AssociationofAmericanIndianAffairs(AAIA).TheAAIAhasseveralscholarships
available.Thevariousscholarshipsarebasedonfinancialneedandmerit.Grantsare
paiddirectlytoaccreditededucationalinstitutions.Themoniescanbeusedfor
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tuition,books,andotheracademic‐relatedexpenses.Studentsarechosenonthe
basisoftheirapplication,anessay,transcripts,andtwolettersofrecommendation
aswellasproofofNativeAmericanheritage.Thebloodquantumrequirementisa
conditionsetdownbythedonorofthisscholarship.
AlloganSlagleMemorialScholarship.TheAlloganSlagleMemorialScholarshipsin
theamountof$1,500areavailabletoundergraduatestudentswhoaremembersof
StateRecognizedtribesthatarenotfederallyrecognized.
AdolphVanPeltScholarship.Thisscholarshipisavailabletoundergraduateand
graduatestudentsinamountsrangingfrom$500to$800.Agrantisrenewablefor
uptofouryearsofsupporttowardsanyonedegree.Eachyearthegrantisrenewed,
$100isaddedtothestudent'sscholarship.
DisplacedHomemakerScholarship.Thisscholarship($1.500)isbasedonfinancial
need.ItisdesignedtoassistNativeAmericanstudentswithchildcare,
transportation,andsomebasiclivingexpenses.
ElizabethandShermanAscheMemorialScholarship.This$3,000scholarshipis
availabletoundergraduateandgraduatestudentspursuingamajorinPublicHealth.
DavidRislingEmergencyAidScholarship.Thisscholarshipisavailableinamounts
usuallyrangingfrom$50to$400duringtheacademicschoolyear.Theprogramis
forfull‐timeundergraduatestudentsonly;isbasedonfinancialneed;andislimited
bytheavailabilityofscholarshipfunds.Studentsmayonlyreceiveonescholarship
257
peracademicyear.Applicantsmusthaveacritical/suddenneedduetoachangein
circumstances(deathinfamily,medicalemergency,caremergency,lossofjob,etc.)
–aneedthatwasn’texpectedorwouldpreventthestudentfromattendingschool.
Therearenodeadlines.
EmilieHesemeyerMemorialScholarship.Thisscholarshipisforfull‐timestudents
withpreferencetostudentsmajoringinEducation.Thescholarshipamountis
$1,500andmayberenewedupto4yearsbasedonacademicgrades.
CatchingtheDream.ProvidesfinancialassistanceforAmericanIndiansinfieldsthat
arecriticalforthepolitical,social,andbusinessdevelopmentofIndiantribes.
Scholarshipsarenotneed‐basedbutareawardedonmeritandonthestudent's
abilitytoimprovethelivesofIndianpeople.
MESBEC(Math,Engineering,Science,Business,Education,andComputers)isa
programforhighpotentialNativeAmericansplanningtostudyinthesefields.
Maximumawardis$5,000peryear.
NALE(NativeAmericanLeadershipEducation)isforhighpotentialpara‐
professionalNativeAmericanswhoplantocompletetheirdegreesandobtain
credentialsasteachers,counselors,oradministrators.
TribalBusinessManagementProgramManagement.Isforstudentsinbusiness,
finance,management,economics,banking,hotelmanagement,andrelatedfields
whoplantoworkineconomicdevelopmentfortribes.
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ContinentalSocietyDaughtersofIndianWarsScholarship.A$500awardisavailable
tocertifiedtribalmembersenrolledinanundergraduateeducationorsocial
servicesprogram;studentmustplantoworkonareservation.
DakotaIndianFoundationScholarship(DIFS).TheDIFSwasestablishedtofurther
educationaladvancementofaspiringAmericanIndianstudentswithprioritygiven
tothoseofSiouxheritage.Thisisa$500pertermscholarshipforundergraduateor
graduate.
GatesMillenniumScholarship.Thisscholarshipisintendedtoincreasethenumber
ofAfrican‐Americans,AmericanIndians/AlaskaNatives,AsianPacificAmericans,
andHispanicAmericansenrollinginandcompletingundergraduateandgraduate
degreeprogramsindisciplineswhereethnicandracialgroupsarecurrently
underrepresented.
IndianFellowshipProgram.Fellowshipgrantsareawardedtostudentstopursue
coursesofstudyleadingtoundergraduatedegreesinbusinessoradministration,
naturalresources,engineering,andrelatedfields.
IndianHealthServicesScholarshipProgram(IHSSP).TheIHSSPisavailableto
conductthreeinter‐relatedscholarshipprogramstotrainthehealthprofessional
personnelnecessarytostaffIHShealthprogramsandotherhealthprogramsserving
theIndianpeople.
InternationalOrderoftheKing’sDaughtersandSons,Inc.Providesa$500grantto
259
NativeAmericanstudentsenrolledinatechnical,vocational,orundergraduatelevel
courseofstudy.
MassachusettsIndianAssociation.Thisisascholarshipforundergraduateor
graduatestudents
NationalSocietyDaughtersoftheAmericanRevolution.Providesaone‐timeaward
of$500toNativeAmericansbasedonfinancialneed,academicachievement,and
ambition.
NativeAmericanEducationGrants.Scholarships($200to$2,000)areavailableto
studentswhomeetthefollowingcriteria:preferencetomembersofPresbyterian
Church(membershipnotrequired);UScitizenorpermanentresident;enrolledfull‐
timeatanaccreditedinstitutionintheUnitedStates;makingsatisfactoryacademic
progresstowardadegree;demonstratefinancialneed;photocopyoftribal
identificationcard.
NativeAmericanScholarshipProgram.Upto$2,500peryearisawardedtoNative
Americanhighschoolseniorswhohaveatleast1/4Indianblood.
NativeVisionScholarships.TheguidingprincipleforNativeVisionistocultivatethe
corestrengths,values,andpositiverelationshipsforAmericanIndianyouththat
willmakethemresilienttotheprevailingrisksandhelpthemtransitiontohealthy,
productiveandfulfillingadulthood.NativeVisionhopestofosterschoolcompletion,
self‐esteem,culturalattachmentandpersonalidentity,andhealthylifestyles.Two
260
$4,000scholarshipsareavailable.
Udall(MorrisK.)Scholarship.Upto6studentseachyearfortheMorrisK.Udall
Scholarship.TheawardswillbemadeonthebasisofmerittoTWOgroupsof
Students:1)thosewhoarecollegesophomoresorjuniorsinthecurrentacademic
year,haveoutstandingpotential,andwhostudytheenvironmentandrelatedfields.
2)NativeAmericanandAlaskaNativestudentswhoarecollegesophomoresor
juniorsinthecurrentacademicyear,haveoutstandingpotential,andareinfields
relatedtohealthcareortribalpublicpolicy.
USDepartmentofAgriculture:NaturalResourceConservationService(NRCS)
Scholarship.TheaimoftheTribalScholarsProgramistostrengthenapartnership
betweenNRCSand1994Land‐Grantinstitutions;increasethenumberofstudents
studyinginagricultureandagencyrelateddisciplines;andtoofferemployment
opportunities.TribalscholarshipsareawardedtoU.S.citizenswhoarepursuinga
degreeinagricultureorrelatednaturalresourcesciencesata1994triballand‐grant
institution.Thescholarshipprovidesfulltuition,fees,books,useofapersonal
computerandsoftwarewhileonscholarships,roomandboardeachyearforupto
fouryearsaswellasemploymentandemployeebenefits.
AmericanIndian/AlaskaNativeEmployeeAssociationforNRCS.Scholarshipswill
beawardedtoanAmericanIndian/AlaskaNativestudentpursuingadegreeina
naturalresourcesfield.Thescholarshipamountis$200.Therearetwocategories:
oneformembersoftheAI/ANEAandoneforanAmericanIndianorAlaskaNative
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studentinthenaturalresourcesfield.
USDepartmentofEducation.Fellowshipsof$600to$24,000areavailablefor
AmericanIndianorNativeAlaskanundergraduateorgraduatestudentsstudying
education,psychology,guidancecounseling,orarelatedfield.
PresbyterianNativeAmericanScholarships.ForAlaskaNativesandNative
Americanspursuingfull‐timepost‐secondaryeducation.Criteria:preferencegiven
tomembersofthePresbyterianChurch(USA);behighschoolgraduatedorGED
recipients;beUScitizensorpermanentresidentsortheUS.Demonstratefinancial
need.Preferencewillbegiventostudentswhohavecompletedatleastone
semesterofworkatanaccreditedinstitutionofhighereducation.