ALLELOPATHY EVALUATION OF WEEDS FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT
SADIQULLAH KHAN
Reg. No. 04-FBAS/PhDES/F11
Department of Environmental Science
Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY,
ISLAMABAD
ALLELOPATHY EVALUATION OF WEEDS FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Researcher: Supervisor:
Sadiqullah Khan Dr. Muhammad Ibrar Shinwari
Reg. No. 04-FBAS/PhDES/F11
Department of Environmental Science
Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY,
ISLAMABAD
ALLELOPATHY EVALUATION OF WEEDS FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL RISK ASSESSMENT
Sadiqullah Khan
Reg. No. 04-FBAS/PhDES/F11
A Thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) degree in Environmental Science
at Faculty of Basic and Applied Sciences
International Islamic University,
Islamabad
Supervised by; August 30, 2017
Dr. Muhammad Ibrar Shinwari
Dedicated to My Beloved Parents, Family
and Daughter Gulwareen Fatima
For their endless affection, support and
encouragement
i
Author’s Declaration
I, Sadiqullah Khan Reg. No. 4-FBAS/PHDES/F11 hereby state that my
Ph.D. thesis titled: Allelopathy Evaluation of Weed for Environmental Risk
Assessment is my own work and has not been submitted previously by me for
taking any degree from this university, International Islamic University, Sector
H-10, Islamabad, Pakistan or anywhere else in the country/world.
At any time if my statement is found to be incorrect even after my Graduate
the university has the right to withdraw my Ph.D. degree.
Name of Student: (Sadiqullah Khan)
Reg. No. 4-FBAS/PHDES/F11
Dated: 03/05/2018
ii
Plagiarism Undertaking
I solemnly declare that research work presented in the thesis titled:
Allelopathy Evaluation of Weed for Environmental Risk Assessment is solely
my research work with no significant contribution from any other person. Small
contribution/help wherever taken has been duly acknowledged and that complete
thesis has been written by me.
I understand the zero tolerance policy of the HEC and University,
International Islamic University, Sector H-10, Islamabad, Pakistan towards
plagiarism. Therefore, I as an Author of the above titled thesis declare that no
portion of my thesis has been plagiarized and any material used as reference is
properly referred/cited.
I undertake that if I am found guilty of any formal plagiarism in the above
titled thesis even after award of Ph.D. degree, the university reserves the rights to
withdraw/revoke my Ph.D. degree and that HEC and the University has the right to
publish my name on the HEC/University Website on which names of students are
placed who submitted plagiarized thesis.
Student/Author Signature: ___________________________
Name: (Sadiqullah Khan)
iii
FORWARDING SHEET BY RESEARCH SUPERVISOR
The dissertation entitled “Allelopathy Evaluation of Weeds for Environmental Risk
Assessment” submitted by Sadiqullah Khan in partial fulfillment of PhD degree in Environmental
Science has been completed under my guidance and supervision. I am satisfied with the quality of
student’s research work and allow him to submit this thesis for further process to graduate with
Doctor of Philoshy degree from Department of Environmental Science, as per IIUI rules and
regulations.
Dr. Muhammad Ibrar Shinwari Dated: March 5, 2018
Assistant Professor
Department of Environmental Science,
International Islamic University,
Islamabad.
iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
All the virtues and praise for ALLAH Almighty, the most Gracious, the most Merciful,
who created us as a Muslim in the Sacred Ummah of the Holy Prophet Mohammad ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص.
Lots of Salaam and gratitude to the Holy Prophet Mohammad ملسو هيلع هللا ىلص whose teachings are the
guiding star in the time of dark and despair.
Words might not be able to express the feelings of immense pleasure and infinite
gratitude for my loving Parents and my respected teachers for their unconditional support,
proper guidance, sound advice and encouragement that they imparted through admiration
and inspiration during my research work. My sincere tribute goes to my research
supervisor Dr. Muhammad Ibrar Shinwari, Department of Environmental Science,
working under his supervision was a new experience. May ALLAH Almighty bless them
with health, prosperity and progress that they deserve. I am grateful to all the faculty
members and office staff of Department of Environmental Science.
Heartiest thanks and regards are extended to my sincere friends and class mates;
Naveed-Ul-Haq, Shafi Ullah Laghari and Muhammad Jalib Sikandar. I am thankful to
my lab colleagues; Khwaja Waqar Ali, Muhammad Raza Farooq and Mabroor Hassan
for their help, moral support, encouragement and nice company.
Last but not the least; I would like to express my gratitude to my beloved parents
without whom I am nothing. I would like to thank my parents for their unconditional
support, both financially and emotionally throughout my degree. I am indebted to my elder
brother for his support, guidance and prayers.
v
Table of Contents List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. ix
List of Abbreviations .................................................................................................................... xi
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. xii
CHAPTER 01 ................................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Background .............................................................................................................................. 5
1.3 Research Trends in Weeds Allelopathy ................................................................................. 7
1.4 Statement of The Research Problem/Thesis Statement ........................................................ 8
1.5 Objectives of Research ............................................................................................................ 8
1.6 Significance of Research .......................................................................................................... 9
CHAPTER 02 ............................................................................................................................... 11
LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................... 11
CHAPTER 03 ............................................................................................................................... 26
MATERIALS AND METHODS ................................................................................................ 26
3.1 Study area ............................................................................................................................... 26
3.2 Plant Materials ....................................................................................................................... 27
3.3 Preparation of Agar Solution ................................................................................................ 27
3.4 Sandwich Method................................................................................................................... 27
3.5 Dish pack Method .................................................................................................................. 29
3.6 Pest Control Technique ......................................................................................................... 30
3.6.1 Collection of Plant Material ............................................................................................... 30
3.6.2 Extract Preparation ............................................................................................................ 31
3.6.3 Test Organisms and fungal Inocula Preparation ............................................................. 31
3.6.4 Antifungal Activity Determination .................................................................................... 32
3.6.5 Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) ....... 32
3.7 Statistical analysis .................................................................................................................. 33
CHAPTER 04 ............................................................................................................................... 34
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .................................................................................................. 34
4.1 Weeds in Pakistan .................................................................................................................. 34
4.2 Selection of Weeds for Bioassay through Sandwich and Dish Pack Methods ................ 35
vi
1. Avena fatua L. .......................................................................................................................... 36
2. Verbena tenuisecta L. ............................................................................................................... 37
3. Amaranthus viridis L. ............................................................................................................... 38
4. Chenopodium ambrosioides L. ................................................................................................. 39
5. Sida alba L. ................................................................................................................................ 40
6. Anagallis arvensis L. ................................................................................................................. 41
7. Phalaris minor Retz. ................................................................................................................. 42
8. Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ....................................................................................................... 43
9. Oxalis corniculata L.................................................................................................................. 44
10. Cannabis sativa L. ................................................................................................................... 45
11. Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist ......................................................................................... 46
12. Trichodesma indicum (L.) ...................................................................................................... 47
13. Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. .................................................................................................. 48
14. Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. ...................................................................................................... 49
15. Melilotus indica L. .................................................................................................................. 50
16. Melilotus alba Desr. ................................................................................................................ 51
17. Oenothera rosea L'Hér. ex Aiton ............................................................................................ 52
18. Parthenium hysterophorus L. ................................................................................................. 53
19. Taraxacum officinale L. ......................................................................................................... 54
20. Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause ........................................................................................ 55
21. Sonchus asper L. Hill ssp. asper ............................................................................................. 56
22. Rumex nepalensis Spreng ....................................................................................................... 57
23. Convolvulus arvensis L. .......................................................................................................... 58
24. Solanum erianthum D Don. .................................................................................................... 59
25. Vicia sativa L. .......................................................................................................................... 60
26. Lantana camara L. .................................................................................................................. 61
27. Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. ........................................................................................ 62
28. Achyranthes aspera Linn ........................................................................................................ 63
29. Cyperus iria L. ......................................................................................................................... 64
30. Solanum nigrum L., ................................................................................................................ 65
31. Urtica dioica Linn. ................................................................................................................... 66
32. Malva parviflora L. ................................................................................................................. 67
33. Euphorbia helioscopia L. ........................................................................................................ 68
vii
34. Centaurea iberica Spreng. ....................................................................................................... 69
35. Oxalis corymbosa DC. ............................................................................................................. 70
36. Solanum Xanthocarpum Schrad. & J.C. Wendl. .................................................................... 71
37. Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton ........................................................................................... 72
38. Ipomoea cornea. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy) .......................................................................... 73
39. Xanthium strumarium L. ........................................................................................................ 74
40. Aloe vera L. ............................................................................................................................. 75
41. Carthamus oxyacantha M.Bieb. ............................................................................................. 76
42. Coriandrum sativum L. ........................................................................................................... 77
43. Cyperus rotundus L. ................................................................................................................ 79
44. Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don) Hand.-Mazz. ....................................................................... 80
45. Lythrum salicaria Linn. .......................................................................................................... 81
46. Peganum harmala L. .............................................................................................................. 82
47. Saxifraga rotundifolia L. ........................................................................................................ 83
48. Commelina benghalensis Linn ............................................................................................... 84
49. Cuscuta californica Hook. & Arn. .......................................................................................... 85
50. Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. ............................................................................................... 86
51. Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. .................................................................................................. 87
52. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. .......................................................................................... 88
53. Pteris cretica L. ....................................................................................................................... 89
54. Digera muricata (L.) Mart. ..................................................................................................... 90
55. Adiantum capillus-veneris L. .................................................................................................. 91
56. Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Benth. .............................................................. 92
57. Argyrolobium roseum (Camb.) Jaub & Spach ........................................................................ 93
58. Nerium oleander L. ................................................................................................................. 94
59. Cissampelos pareira L. ............................................................................................................ 95
60. Salvia aegyptiaca L. ................................................................................................................ 96
61. Typha minima Funck ex Hoppe .............................................................................................. 97
62. Anisomeles indica (L.) ............................................................................................................ 98
63. Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss............................................................................................. 99
64. Plantago lanceolata L. .......................................................................................................... 100
65. Commelina benghalensis Linn. ............................................................................................ 101
66. Potamogeton lucens Linn. ..................................................................................................... 102
viii
67. Scrophularia altaica Murray ................................................................................................. 103
68. Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss. Waalk ................................................................................... 104
69. Taverniera cuneifolia (Roth) Arn. ........................................................................................ 105
70. Euphorbia hirsuta L.............................................................................................................. 106
71. Myrsine africana. L............................................................................................................... 107
72. Barleria cristata Lam ............................................................................................................ 108
73. Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf .............................................................................. 109
4.3 Bioassay activity evaluation of 73 weeds from Pakistan for allelopathic potential assessment .. 110
4.4 Allelopathic Evaluation of Weeds through Sandwich Method ........................................ 113
4.5 Allelopathic Evaluation of Weeds through Dish Pack Method ....................................... 122
4.6 Antifungal activity of allelopathic weeds Medicago parviflora, Solanum nigrum, Melilotus
alba and Melilotus indica against soil-born phytopathogenic fungi ....................................... 128
4.6.1 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration ............................................................................... 130
4.6.2 Minimum Fungicidal Concentration ............................................................................... 131
CHAPTER 05 ............................................................................................................................. 140
CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS ......................................................................... 140
5.1 CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................... 140
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................................... 141
REFERENCES: ............................................................................................................................. 1
ANNEXURE ................................................................................................................................... 1
Annexure A: Weeds of Pakistan ................................................................................................ 1
Annexure B: Top ten noxious allelopathic medicinal weeds (Sandwich Method) .......................... 9
Annexure C: Top ten noxious allelopathic medicinal weeds (Dish Pack Method) ....................... 14
Annexure D: Antifungal Assessment Using Microtiter Plate Technique ...................................... 19
ix
List of Tables
S.No Title Page No
4.1 Evaluation of allelopathic activity in leaf litter of 73 selected
weeds species through Sandwich method 114
4.3 Evaluation of allelopathic activity of volatiles in 73 selected
weeds species through Dish pack method 123
4.4
Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum
Fungicidal concentration (MFC) of crude extracts of plants
under investigation
132
x
List of Figures
S.No Title Page No
2.1
Approach for testing of antifungal activity of natural products
from fungi and plants. 24
2.2 Action of allelochemicals 25
3.1 Map of Pakistan (Flora of Pakistan, 2017) 26
3.8 Sandwich method 28
3.9 View from top of Multi-well plastic plate used in dishpack
method for allelopathic assessment. 30
4.1 Frequency Distribution of Percentage Inhibition among
selected weeds through Sandwich method 116
4.2 Frequency Distribution of Percentage Inhibition among
medicinal weeds through Dishpack method 125
4.3 Range of Percentage Inhibition in Radicle (-R) and Hypocotyl
(-H) of 73 Weed Species by Dishpack (DP) method 126
4.4 Growth inhibition of fungal strains by crude extracts of plants. 130
xi
List of Abbreviations
MFC Minimum fungicidal concentration
B.C Before Christ
CO2 Carbon dioxide
DMSO Dimethyl sulfoxide
DP Dish pack
E East
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FOSC Fusarium oxysporum species complex
FSSC Fusarium solani species complex
ha Hectare
H Hypocotyl
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
KP Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Ltd Limited
MIC Minimum inhibitory concentration
NARC National Agricultural Research Centre
NIAES National Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences
N North
NWH Novel Weapons Hypothesis
OD Optical density
PDA Potato dextrose agar
PDB Potato dextrose broth
R Radicle
ROS Reactive Oxygen Species
Rs Rupees
RTI Respiratory Tract Infection
SW Sandwich
Spp. Species
SD Standard deviation
SDV Standard deviation variance
UTI Urinary Tract Infection
xii
ABSTRACT
The present study represents the comprehensive screening of allelopathic activity of weeds
from Pakistan. The source for existing research of weed control in crops, is the screening
of large quantities of plants towards classifying the potent organic compounds. Strong
allelopathic weeds species have been acknowledged from analysis to provide direction for
further research. A total of 73 weeds species were examined for their allelopathic potentials
through latest bioassay activity i.e Sand wich and Dishpack evaluation techniques. Even
though from the interference of chemical from other means is cumbersome to separate, also
the advance research studies have generated compatible and convincing information in this
field of study. As a follow up work of present endeavor; methanolic leaf extracts of
strongest allelopathic species (Melilotus indica L., Melilotus alba Desr., Medicago
parviflora E.H.L. Krause and Solanum nigrum L.) were tested for fungicidal activities on
soil-borne crops pathogens (Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizoctonia oryzae, Fusarium fujikuroi,
Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia oryzae). Microspectrophotometric
assessment technique has been used for the antifungal evaluation. Minimum inhibitory
concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of the extracts were
determined. The amended methanolic extract and known fungicide Nystatin for respective
fungal strain were considered as negative and positive control respectively. Results
indicated that growth of all the fungal strains mentioned were significantly inhibited. The
values of the weed extracts determined ranging between 0.781-25 mg/mL while MFC
values ranging between 3.125-25 mg/mL. The extracts of Medicago parviflora showed
highest inhibitory activity (119.5%) against Pythium ultimum while Melilotus indica
extract showed lowest suppression (97%) against Fusarium oxosporum. Even at very low
xiii
concentration, all the plants selected showed maximum fungicidal properties. These results
support the potential use of these plant extracts in the management of diseases caused by
plant tested pathogenic fungi. The research information generated from the present work
can be used as a benchmark for future research on the allelochemical identification and
characterization. During the follow up work of present endeavor; allelopathic cover crop
for biological control of weeds to support agro-environment conservation. In Pakistan, the
allelopathic activity evaluation of plants through bioassay techniques is quite rare. There
is a dire need to develop a complete data base of plants having strong allelopathic potential
through application of these latest techniques
Introduction
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 1
CHAPTER 01
INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Introduction
The world population has been increased dramatically almost double to 1970 and the
projection till 2050 is 9.2 billion with 30% annual growth. Huge rate increase in
population lead to food insecurity which results 70% increase in food production
demand due to changing dietary habits of developing countries on the way to get high-
quality food (FAO 2009; Popp et al.2013). To fulfill the increasing demand of food,
the extension of agricultural land will only cost on natural ecosystem and forests. So,
there is the need to produce food on less land, with use of less energy, water, pesticide
and fertilizer as compared to current situation (FAO 2009; Popp et al. 2013). In
agriculture practice, adopting cash crop plantation is a new practice and it has been
expanding worldwide (Evans et al., 2011; Li and Fox, 2012; Klasen et al., 2013; Su et
al., 2016; Vongvisouk et al., 2016), and these cash cropping system enhances farmer’s
income considerably (Van den Berg et al., 2007; Zhang et al., 2017). Major
intimidations of crop productivity are imbalance crop nutrition, diseases, weeds, pest
(microorganism and insects) and abiotic stresses. The other major threat to food security
is unavoidable drastic climatic changes. Crop productivity has been substantially
reduced because climatic changes, rising temperature and changing rainfall pattern
effect the crops yield (Farooq et al., 2003; McDonald et al., 2009; Semenov & Halford,
2009).
Weeds are one of the major threats to the natural and agricultural environment. Weeds
reduce the crop productivity due to their diverse habits of intrusive with crops growth
and crop culture. Weeds and crops compete for various limited growth factors
Introduction
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 2
(nutrients, water, solar energy and space) and weeds impede crop agronomy processes.
More than 250 weedy plants are growing in association with various crops. They grow
after harvesting crops through asexual reproduction and from seeds. They grow in crops
system due to anthropogenic and natural means of distribution. Their seed dispersed by
air, water, birds, animal and other means. Weeds resilient and dynamic in growing
nature; they rapidly grow than the crops and use huge quantity of nutrients and water
which caused productivity loss. Generally, weeds absorb and transpire more water than
the crops. The organic matters of plant body are dependent on sunlight. the potential of
productivity is reduced when weeds and crops are mutually shaded even though water
and other nutrients are available to them in abundance. They cause great economic loss
in crops yields. In Pakistan, the researchers and agricultural experts assessed the losses
in crops yields are 17-25% in wheat, 20-63% in rice, 20-45% in maize, 13-41% in
cotton, 10-35% in sugarcane 25-55% in pulses. Worldwide weeds cause about 10%
losses to annual agricultural yields and estimated annual loss (monetary loss) in
agronomy are more than $18.2 billion, with about $12 billion attributed to production
losses; $3.6 billion to chemical control and $2.6 billion to cultural, ecological and
biological weed con trol methods (Kadioglu et al., 2005; Petrova et al., 2015).
Cash and potential crops yield enhancement is often linked to the maximum pest attack
which leads to productivity loss and increases loss rates. About 50% loss in wheat, 80%
in cotton are due to pests attack worldwide. The loss for wheat and cotton is estimated
about 31%, 37% and for maize is 40% and soybean ranges for 26-29% losses
respectively (Oerke 2005; Strange and Scott 2005; Popp et al., 2013 and Savary et al.
2016). The ailment of plants diseases in ecosystem has increased intensely for the last
two decades. The major part of crops production including many important trees and
crops is lost because of the plant pathogens (Orwig 2002, Fisher et al. 2012). Levels of
Introduction
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 3
the disease are significantly increasing where natural ecosystem have been disturbed
by the planting of exotic species and wide area to forest monoculture (Wingfield et al.
2001, Scholthof 2006, Jactel et al. 2009). It has been estimated that upto 90%
agriculture yield loss are due to the attack of pathogenic fungi which causes major
diseases to plants (Sexton & Howlett, 2006; Maninegalai et al., 2011) and the reason is
that the fungal surveillance for several years of in soils by fabricating sclerotial and
other inactive ingredients. Many economical host plants become damaged due to the
pathogen diseases which includes stem rot, collar rot, root rot and leaf blights (Khan et
al., 2017). In Pakistan root rot and wilt disease in almost infect all the plants are caused
by several soil-borne fungi including Fusarium spp., while M. phaseolina and R. solani
make reduction in growth of plants (S Aboshosha et al., 2007; Hussain et al., 2013;
Usman et al., 2014; Hussain et al., 2015; Khan et al., 2017).
Use of pesticides is increasing day by day worldwide due to its efficiency to control
such harmful weeds and pathogenic organisms. The pesticides include a wide range of
complexes including fungicide, rodenticide, insecticide, molluscicide, herbicide and
nematicide etc. (Aktar et al., 2009). The use of fungicide, herbicide, insecticide and
other biotechnology products help to protect the crops from harmful insects, control
numerous weed species and several plant diseases that affect the crops. The world food
production would be waning, many vegetables and fruits would be in small stock and
price of agriculture products would increase without the use of these vital skills of crop
protection. Conversely, the extensive use of these pesticide unfortunately lead to serious
environmental and health problems (Vikkey et al, 2017). Increased rate of brain cancer
(astrocytomas) and leukemia have been shown in children and pregnant women have
high miscarriage rate who exposed to these pesticides (Shim et al., 2009; Hertz-
Picciotto et al., 2005). Pesticides cause inherited heart malformations and may also
Introduction
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 4
damage nervous system and lungs (Cremonese et al., 2014; Rallis et al., 2014). In
environment, pesticide can easily contaminate the water, air and ground, plant and
animal life may be in risk when these pesticides run off from fields (El-Abbassi et al.,
2017).
The extensive demanding approach for green economy and green environment by using
those technologies which are cheaper, coefficient and eco-friendly for weed
management has been aggravated research studies on crops and weeds allelopathy
(Dudai et al. 1999; Om et al. 2002). The possibilities of getting low yields using
reseeding, over seeding, cover crops and crop rotation like agricultural techniques also
need attention to crops involvement in allelopathic activity (Chon et al. 2006; Oueslati,
2003). The herbicidal properties of plants which have potential to produce
allelochemicals are considered as a major source for the chemical industry, as the weeds
become resistant to synthetic chemical compound the importance of new molecules are
increased (Bhowmik and Inderjit, 2003; Duke et al. 2000; Kruse et al. 2000; Einhellig,
1996). The plants and crops are genetically modified which can be introduced as
allelopathic cover groups is the time needed development of their application (Taiz and
Zeiger, 2006; Duke, 2003; Duke et al. 2001).
Considering that in biological invasion, allelopathy can play vital and significance job
in ecological point of view. Practically and from recorded evidences it has been proved
that invasive species becomes more dominant on indigenous species in the invaded
areas, but remain suppressive in native regions. Through the “novel” weapons theory
tried to explain this phenomenon, which suggest that different allelochemicals or
biochemical compounds released to the invaded ecosystem by some exotic plants which
are comparatively inefficient against their espoused natural regions (Namkeleja et al.
2014; Callaway and Ridenour, 2004; Vivanco et al. 2004; Rabotnov, 1982).
Introduction
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 5
Hence, worldwide researchers give more attention to find out some natural alternative
and biological control to reduce or minimize the dependency on synthetic herbicides.
Allelopathy can be considered as an effective natural alternative to synthetic pesticides
and it can be defined as the certain chemical compound synthesized by plants and
microorganisms i.e. bacteria, fungi and viruses; these biomolecules released to
environment that influence the agricultural and ecological systems by stimulation or
inhibition the growth of neighbor plants and microorganisms (Farooq et al. 2011).
These natural substances released by plants, called allelochemicals, have been a great
attention to control plant pathogens recently instead use of synthetic chemical
compounds (Saraf et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2016). These natural allelochemicals have
low environmental risk as compared to the synthetic chemical compounds and lower
risk of resistance in remain in environment, so that is the reason to develop natural
chemicals which are the alternative of conventional pesticides (El-Abbassi et al., 2017).
It will be an additional and valuable advantage if these medicinal, antibacterial and
antifungal characteristics and properties resides in noxious weeds.
1.2 Background
Allelopathy can be defined as the certain chemical compound synthesized by plants and
microorganisms i.e. bacteria, fungi and viruses; these biomolecules released to
environment that influence the agricultural and ecological systems by stimulation or
inhibition the growth of neighbor plants and microorganisms (Farooq et al. 2011).
These allelochemicals are secondary metabolites synthesis during metabolic activities
and released to ecosystem through/by leaves, flowers, roots, seeds and stems in form of
root exudates, decomposition or by leaching from plant residues. This phenomenon is
documented for over 2000 years that plants species released chemical substances to
environment that affects the seedling growth, development process and germination of
Introduction
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 6
other plants or organisms. Allelopathy is a sub-discipline of chemical ecology that with
studies impacts of secondary metabolites released to environment by other plants or
organisms on physiological developments and growth of other plants or
microorganisms (Einhellig, 1995; Cheng & Cheng, 2015). The scope of allelopathy
boosted in 1970s and till mid-1990s it expended very quickly to become a known field
of biology, agriculture and horticulture and recently in other fields of sciences. The
allelopathic interaction can be one of the significant factors contributing to species
distribution and abundance within plant communities and can be important in the
success of invasive plants (Cheng & Cheng, 2015; Zheng et al., 2015). It has been also
considering that allelopathy may indirectly causes of incessant cropping problems in
agriculture. The comprehensive study of allelopathy resulted that improving application
of allelopathy and allelochemicals is part of strategic ecological restoration and
managing agricultural production.
Agricultural production has been facing the most serious problem in form of weeds and
pest. Crops are threatening with interference of weeds. These are threat to all crops as
they are competing with crops for sunlight, water, nutrition and pathogenic diseases
(Pathipati et al..,2011; Babu et al.., 2014). Weeds are unwanted plants species from the
wild or semi cultivated fields which are grown against the will of people and cause
yields reduction. They are the second largest group about 30000 species following
natural vegetation, weeds are more than crops in size, quantity and distribution
worldwide. FAO reported that globally weeds contribution in crop yields losses are
about 35% in wheat, 28% in vegetables, 29% in fruit species and vineyards and 37% in
tobacco (Kadioglu et al.., 2005; Petrova et al., 2015). The problem of weed control in
crops are increasing in modern "organic farming" as the application of pesticides and
herbicides are reduces in response to decrease environmental degradation and negative
Introduction
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 7
impacts on human health (Mubarik et al. 2015, Petrova et al. 2015). Solution to this
problem could be found in the development of integrated systems for weed control,
including the advantages of chemical, biological, mechanical and preventive methods
to combat in minimizing their negative sides. Integrated weed control in most respects
the principle of greening and environmental protection simultaneously with increased
weed control and saving energy.
Recently the researchers give more attention to allelopathy and published a huge
number of publication on plant and ecosystem interaction (Kadioglu et al., 2005;
Dimitrova & Marinov-Serafimov, 2007;) and the scientist included it in the sustainable
agriculture which is defined as organic, alternative, restorative, biodynamic, low
costing and preserving resources (Dimitrova, 2008). These natural allelochemicals have
low environmental risk as compared to the synthetic chemical compounds and lower
risk of resistance in remain in environment, so that is the reason to develop natural
chemicals which are the alternative of conventional pesticides (El-Abbassi et al., 2017).
It will be an additional and valuable advantage if these medicinal, antibacterial and
antifungal characteristics and properties resides in noxious weeds.
1.3 Research Trends in Weeds Allelopathy
Due to the selective nature of allelopathy, it should not expect that it alone could destroy
all weeds in a typical agricultural environment, so it could function as an element of an
integrated strategy for weed control. Integrated control is recognized as a preferred
strategy in the program of the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development. Its advantages are its complexity, in full destruction of weeds and in the
lower risk of environmental pollution. This requires more detailed laboratory studies
on allelochemical interactions aimed at demand and supply opportunities for practical
application of allelopathy in weed control in order to reduce the use of chemicals.
Introduction
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 8
Most commonly used method of proving allelopathic interference in plant communities
or in the "weed - crop plant" is establishing stimulating or inhibitory effect of extracted
plant material on the test plants or study the effect of plant residues and their application
in quartz sand and/or soil made in the laboratory. So, in this study we aimed to
investigate the effect of selected weeds species, containing allelopathic active
substances, on germination, growth and biomass of some widespread weeds in crops.
The methanolic extract of selected top most toxic allelopathic weeds were applied for
bio-control on soil-borne phytopathogenic fungi.
1.4 Statement of The Research Problem/Thesis Statement
Research work proposed through this rigorous project on Allelo-chemicals screening
in Medicinal Plants and Weeds has great significance. Pakistan has a diversified flora
of 5700 flowering plant species but there is no database available regarding
evaluation/ranking on the basis of allelopathic activity which can play an important role
in the biological control of species that can harm the agro-environmental/ forest
ecosystem and biodiversity conservation of the country. Cash crops of the country like
wheat, maize, rice, cotton is already suffering with weed and pest interference.
Biological/chemical control of this problem is of prime importance.
1.5 Objectives of Research
This collaborative research will have two main objectives:
a. Screening of Allelopathic activity of weeds with special reference to ecological
environment.
b. To assess the fungicidal properties of top allelopathic crops weed extracts against the
soil-borne phytopathogenic fungi.
Introduction
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 9
1.6 Significance of Research
In Pakistan, just one crop e.g., wheat yield ha-1 is unfortunately very low and actual
farm yield is about 30-35% of the potential yield. Weed interference is one of the most
important but less noticed causes of low yield. Most of the population of the country
resides in the rural areas. Our population is increasing at one of the fastest rate in the
world. Our food production should fulfill the food requirements of our population. It is
impossible to increase the crop area because the cultivated area is already squeezing.
Vertical improvement is only possibility to get the potential yield of the existing wheat
cultivars. The information obtained from the proposed research may play a vital role to
control weeds and decrease resistance in crop production enhancement. For example,
in a recent report, it has also been described that Parthenium hysterophorus L., is a
noxious annual weed rapidly spreading across the non-cropped areas of the Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province and elsewhere in Pakistan and found highly sensitive to
amino acid synthesis and photosynthesis inhibitors compared to herbicides with other
modes of action (Khan, et al., 2012).
At the national level, during 2004-05, the area under just one crop i.e, wheat cultivation
was 8.358 million ha, with a production of 21.6123 million tons. For example, in
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, the area under wheat cultivation was about 0.7486 million ha in
which one third is irrigated, while two third is rain fed giving a total production of 1.091
million tons at the rate of 1458 kg ha-1 (Minfal, 2005). Weed competition is the only
constraint for the wheat yield because insects and diseases are not so significant
problems. Weeds deprive the crop plants of the nutrients, moisture, light, CO2 and
space, while many weeds also possess allelopathic effects for crops. Weeds cause 17-
25% losses in wheat annually (Shad 1987) and 17-50% (Anonymous 1998). Among
the weed control methods, the chemical control is one of the recent origins, which is
Introduction
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 10
being emphasized in modern agriculture (Taj et al., 1986). The annual losses to wheat
crop in Pakistan on monetary basis amount to Rs. 28 billions, while in KP it amounts
to Rs. 2 billions (Hassan and Marwat, 2001; Marwat 2002). These figures warrant an
efficient control of weeds. The cases of other cash crops are also more or less same.
In light of these characteristics of weeds and their hazards, it becomes imperative to
control them. Several techniques (e.g. mechanical and chemicals) are used for weed
control. These techniques attempt to achieve a balance between cost of control and crop
yield loss. Mechanical methods, such as hand weeding require enormous labour and
time input. Nowadays, chemical method provides an effective strategy for weed
control. Since their discovery in the 1950s, synthetic herbicides have developed as a
major tool for weed management (McErlich & Boydston, 2014).
The research can help in increasing attention has been given to the role and potential of
allelopathy as a management strategy for crop protection against weeds and other pests.
Incorporating allelopathy into natural and agricultural management systems may
reduce the use of herbicides, insecticides, and other pesticides, reducing
environment/soil pollution and diminish autotoxicity hazards. There is a great demand
for compounds with selective toxicity that can be readily degraded by either the plant
or by the soil microorganisms. In addition, plant, microorganisms, other soil organisms
and insects can produce allelochemicals which provide new strategies for maintaining
and increasing agricultural production in the future.
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CHAPTER 02
LITERATURE REVIEW
From the beginning, it has been reported and proved by experimental work that some
plant species have the potential to have an effect on nearby plants. Theophrastus (ca.
300 B.C) Aristotle successor was the first person who wrote about this subject matter,
he observed the negative effects on the vine by cabbage plants species and supposed
that “odours” from the cabbage plants was the main reason of such effects
(Albuquerque et al. 2010; Willis, 1985). This observable fact called allelopathy (from
the Greek al- lelon = of each other, pathós = to suffer). In 1937 first time this
terminology was introduced by a German plant physiologist Hans Molisch by defining
the terrifying effects of one plant upon another. Now comprehensively it can be stated
that the an influence upon the agricultural and biological ecosystems advancement by
the optimistic and pessimistic effects of chemical compounds produced mainly from
the secondary metabolism of plants, micro-organisms, viruses and fungi (Albuquerque
et al. 2010; Kruse et al. 2000; Olofsdotter et al. 2002; Rice, 2012; Seigler, 1996; Taveira
et al. 2013, Jabran, 2017; Muzell et al. 2017). Practically it is examined that the
allelopathic plants release the active biomolecules generally called “allelochemicals
into the environment cause such effects (Bertin et al. 2003; Kruse et al. 2000; Seigler,
1996; Shinwari et al. 2013; Qasem, 2017). The chemical interaction of plant-herbivore,
plant-insect, and plant-plant may be due to allelochemicals complex (Weir et al. 2004)
in addition the allelochemicals released by microorganisms that can create the
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 12
communication among microbe-microbe or microbe-plant e.g., colonization
development into the new ecosystem (Singh et al. 2003).
The extensive demanding approach for green economy and green environment by using
those technologies which are cheaper, coefficient and eco-friendly for weed
management has been aggravated research studies on crops and weeds allelopathy
(Dudai et al. 1999; Om et al.2002). The possibilities of getting low yields using
reseeding, overseeding, cover crops and crop rotation like agricultural techniques also
need attention to the crop involvement in allelopathic activity (Chon et al, 2006;
Oueslati, 2003). The herbicidal properties of plants which have potential to produce
allelochemicals are considered as a major source for the chemical industry, as the weeds
become resistant to synthetic chemical compound the importance of new molecules are
increased (Rawat et al. 2017; Bhowmik, 2003; Duke, 2003; Einhellig, 1996; Kruse et
al. 2000). The plants and crops are genetically modified which can be introduced as
allelopathic cover groups are the time needed development of their application (Duke,
2003; Duke et al. 2000; Duke et al. 2009; Taiz & Zeiger, 2006).
Considering that in the biological invasion, allelopathy can play vital and significance
job in ecological point of view. Practically and from recorded evidence, it has been
proved that invasive species becomes more dominant on indigenous species in the
invaded areas, but remain suppressive in native regions (Fabbro & Prati, 2015).
Through the “novel” weapons theory tried to explain this phenomenon, which suggest
that different allelochemicals or biochemical compounds released to the invaded
ecosystem by some exotic plants which are comparatively inefficient against their
espoused natural regions (Sangeetha & Baskar, 2015; Callaway & Ridenour, 2004;
Namkeleja et al. 2014; Rabotnov, 1981; Vivanco et al. 2004).
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 13
Allelopathic activities exhibited by different chemical groups which have a large
number of biomolecules. It is observed that some of the biological molecules are
produced from primary metabolism while in their majority released through secondary
metabolism. Even though these biomolecules are of a wide range but mainly their
originators are four: acetyl coenzyme A, shikimic acid, melavonic acid and
deoxyclulose phosphate. Keeping in view these precursors as a base, the biological
compound obtained from secondary metabolism are further classified in three core
chemical classes: terpenoids, N-containing compounds and phenolic compounds
(Albuquerque et al., 2010).
The consensus among the researcher and scientists are developed that the growth of the
plant which receives biological compound may not be enough to effect from a simple
compound in normal conditions but the growth inhibited by the action of other
biomolecules (Belz, 2007; Einhellig, 1996; Kruse et al., 2000; Seigler, 1996; Tabaglio
et al.). This literature review presents the current trend of the allelopathic association
and interaction of crops and weeds in view of current studies and research. It also covers
the documented weeds having allelopathic properties and their significance for weed
management. Additionally, to explore activities of allelopathic plants through different
approaches and their introduction to the agricultural system have been considered.
The different parts of plant, i.e., leaves, stems, roots, rhizomes, seeds, flowers and even
pollen have allelochemicals in specific concentration (Bertin et al. 2003; Gatti et al.,
2004; Kruse et al. 2000; Wipf et al.,2016; Yang & Kong, 2017). These biological
compounds from different species are releasing to the environment through the
following pathways; Allelochemicals exudates from the leaf surface washed out by
rainfall, from the green parts the volatile compounds exudates, plant residues
decomposition and root exudation (Chon et al. 2006; Morikawa et al. 2012; Olofsdotter
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 14
et al. 2002). During research studies, some essential variation is observed in species of
chemicals with ecosystem and phytochemicals ( Pueyo et al., 2017; Callaway &
Vivanco, 2006; Evans et al. 2011; Weiner, 2001). Such interactional changes of
allelochemicals and environment led to complication in understanding allelopathy
during field analysis by giving contradictory ecological results of specified
biochemicals (Latif et al., 2017; Blair et al. 2006; Callaway & Vivanco, 2006; Duke et
al. 2009; Evans et al. 2011; Kaur & Foy, 2001; Kaur et al. 2009).
All troughs the plant life cycle, the releasing concentration of allelochemicals is altered
by different environmental factors. The amount of the biomolecules releasing from
allelopathic plants are increased by the abiotic factors (drought, irradiation,
temperature) and biotic factors (nutrient limitation, competitors, pathogenic and
insecticidal diseases) (Cseke et al. 2006; Albuquerque et al. 2010; Einhellig, 1996;
Vidal & Bauman, 1997).
The aqueous extracts from genotypes grown under rainfed conditions had higher
allelopathic activity than those genotypes grown under irrigated conditions (El-Sadek
et al. 2017). It was proved that under severe drought situation the autotoxicity of barley
increased during the study for the appearance of autotoxicity of the cultivated barley on
seed growth and germination under laboratory conditions (Oueslati et al., 2005).
Extorts of barley plant have diverse inhibitory effects on different plant parts and plant
growth stages (Ben-Hammouda et al. 2001). Increasing the intensity of ultraviolet-B
radiation enhance the allelopathic effects of Houndstongue (Cynoglossum officinale L.)
on some feeding grasses (Furness et al. 2008).It had been observed that rather than the
control plants, extracts of Helianthus annuus L. is more effective against the
germination of Amaranthus retroflexus L. under nutrient deficient condition (Hall et al.
1982). It was found that Ageratum conyzoides L. amplified their allelopathic effects on
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 15
the peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.), redroot amaranth (A. retroflexus), cucumber
(Cucumis sativus L.) and ryegrass (Lolium multiflo- rum Lam.) under stumpy
nutritional situation or in struggle with Bidens pilosa L. (Kong et al. 2002). During the
studies of Secale cereale L. in the context of the yields, phytotoxicity of tissues and
biological compounds affected by the three fecundity systems; this study reveals that
regardless of the huge amount of its biomass, low fertilization favors the phytotoxic
remains and biomolecules (Mwaja et al. 1995). Plants go through multifarious
biological changes in reaction to herbivores and infection whenever insect or
pathogenic species harasses them, beside it the amount of releasing allelochemicals also
increased (Mattner, 2006).
The recent literature shows that allelochemicals production and targeting plants retorts
is the result of the processes at cellular and molecular level (Baerson et al. 2005; Dayan,
2006; Albuquerque et al. 2010; Ding et al. 2007; Golisz et al. 2008; Song et al. 2008).
A gas is known as Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) which is very toxic and causing
biotic and abiotic pester in the cell is produced during the molecular oxygen reduction
process (Albuquerque et al. 2010; Resende et al. 2003; Veronese et al. 2003). The
formation of ROS can also be activated by allelochemicals. Weeds during the resistance
against other crops/weeds, pest and diseases also release allelochemicals (Belz, 2007).
The environmental, biogeographically and evolutionary research studies develop our
knowledge about allelopathy (Evans et al. 2011; He et al. 2009; Kaur et al. 2009;
Lankau, 2011; Lankau et al. 2009; Pollock et al. 2009; Thorpe et al. 2009; Wardle et
al. 2011). In ecology, the mechanism of communities’ formation is an issue of special
consideration (Evans et al. 2011; Lortie et al. 2004). Rabotnov, the Russian ecologist
hypothesized for developing communities’ it is important for adaptation with the
chemistry of other associated organisms (Evans et al. 2011; Rabotnov, 1981).
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 16
Biochemical compounds effects and inhibit the plant growth, disintegration, herbivore,
ecological interaction and nitrogen cycle (Evans et al. 2011; Hättenschwiler et al. 2011;
Hättenschwiler & Jørgensen, 2010; Hättenschwiler & Vitousek, 2000; Karban et al.
2006; Northup et al. 1998; Rabotnov, 1981).
In crop production practices the weed management through allelopathy is beneficial
and environmental friendly substitute for conventional herbicide; the differences in
their chemical structure they have the diverse mood of action (Kruse et al. 2000;
Macias, 1995; Narwal et al. 1998). To review the development of invasive species in
the natural and semi-natural environment by their allelopathic potential comprised.
Allelochemicals effects metabolic activities as it hinders totally inhibits and delayed
seed germination and seedling growth (Babaahmadi et al. 2013; Gomaa et al. 2014).
Functioning of the allelochemicals on molecular level influenced the composition and
augmentation (Einhellig, 1996). Studies at the genetic level can give faithful
information of allelochemicals about their allelopathic effects (Kruse et al. 2000; Amb
& Ahluwalia, 2016).
An extensive range of activities have been shown by a number of allelochemicals e.g.
a good number of alkaloids are noxious or inhibitory to diverse species belonging from
different groups including plants, microorganisms specially bacteria & fungi, pests and
mammal (Jabran et al. 2015; Kruse et al. 2000; Wink et al. 1998). Phenolic compounds
released during allelopathic activities are toxic for microflora and soil animals (Jabran,
2017; Gallet & Pellissier, 1997). Terpenoids as allelochemicals in crops of temperate
weather are not commonly found but conifers, mints, and euphorbias have in abundant
quantity. Terpenoids released to the environment by plants play an important role by
inhibiting seed germination, control herbivorous (specific and general), against
vectored and pathogenic fungi enhancing defense, attract the pollination agents and also
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 17
restrain the soil bacteria (Kruse et al. 2000; Langenheim, 1994). Multiple effects are
shown by mono-terpenoids individually, but its quantity to effects different species or
population is specified known as dosage factor (Langenheim, 1994).
Biological compound resulted from allelopathic activity harms the plants by inhibiting
their microsymbionts like nitrifying bacteria and mycorrhiza. Certain ectomycorrhizal
fungi allied with P. mariana growth affected by the K. angustifolia extorts have been
evidenced through natural processes and laboratory experiments (Yamasaki et al.
1998). It is proved by experimental work that Pinus sylvestris spreading seedling
mycorrhizal infection is reduced by the Empetrum hermaphroditum aqueous remains
(Nilsson et al. 1993). The symbiosis process between Rhizobium and legume species
actually inhibited by allelochemicals released from living plants and plants extracts
damaged or killed by herbicide (Putnam et al. 1986; Weston & Putnam, 1985). Carduus
nutans decomposed leaves negatively influence the ability of nitrogen fixation of
Trifolium repens and show its dominance in the territory with ryegrass (Kruse et al.
2000; Wardle et al. 2011).
Allelochemicals released to the soil by allelopathic plants alter the soil texture and
effects plant-soil relationships through different factors (Blum et al. 1999; Inderjit,
1998; Kruse et al. 2000). Soil properties influenced by a violent and brutal evergreen
weed plant Pluchea lanceolata. Higher concentration of Phenolic acid, pH, electrical
conductivity, potassium (K+) and soluble chloride (Cl-) were found in P. lanceolata
environs affecting seedling growth of different crops (Inderjit, 1998; Inderjit &
Dakshini, 1998; Kruse et al. 2000; Ullah et al. 2013; Jabran, 2017). Nutrients cycling
and their availability in the soil can badly affect by Phenolic acid (Appel, 1993; Kuiters,
1991). Allelochemicals concentration in soil can be reduced by microbial
decomposition (Soil detoxification or producing additional phytotoxic allelochemical)
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 18
and other physicochemical processes e.g., oxidation (Cseke et al. 2006; Albuquerque
et al. 2010; Kaur & Foy, 2001; Nair et al. 1990; Vidal & Bauman, 1997; Weidenhamer,
1996; Weiner, 2001). To the sandy and silt loam soil some allelochemicals catechin and
cosolute of Phenolic acid released by Centaurea maculosa Lam., which are vanished
through oxidation and sorption (Albuquerque et al. 2010; Tharayil et al. 2008).
Allelopathy is an appreciating factor of plant invasion and establishing in a new
environment. The studies recommended that the aggressive colonizers e.g. Elytrigia
repens and Vulpia myuros release allelochemicals is lead to thriving invasion (An et al.
1997; Friebe et al. 1995). The research study proved that the regeneration processes of
two indigenous species are interrupted through reducing their germination, growth rate
and survival by the allelopathic action of phytotoxin release from L. Camara (Gentle
& Duggin, 1997). Research showed that Bunia orientalis rapidly spreading in Europe
due to allelopathic effect. Lettuce and barley seedling growth is inhibited by B.
orientalis while week response showed by other two plants species to it (Dietz et al.
1996; Kruse et al. 2000). Some plants species e.g. Empetrum hermaphroditum, Kalmia
angustifolia, and Lantana camara perennially release active biological compounds for
invasion or dominance in an ecosystem (Gentle & Duggin, 1997; Mallik, 1998;
Zackrisson & Nilsson, 1992).
Allelopathic effects are indomitable due to soil chemistry involved in allelopathy
caused by allelochemicals concentration & its releasing timing is important for sensitive
vulnerable species, availability of nutrients, pH microorganisms and influence in the
community through competition (Rice 1984). Allelopathic intrusion among weeds and
crops is very much concern with the life cycle of weedy species ( Zohaib et al. 2016;
Dakshini & Dakshini, 1996; Dakshini, 1995; Inderjit & Dakshini, 1998; Inderjit &
Dakshini, 1995). Field experiments show that the perennial weed, Pluchea lanceolata
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 19
have allelopathic effects on numerous crop species (Dakshini & Dakshini, 1996;
Inderjit et al. 1996; Kruse et al. 2000). Wheat is allelopathically affected by Stellaria
media which is a policarpic annual weed (Inderjit & Dakshini, 1998). During growth
season the Polypogon monspeliensis (monocarpic weed) showed allelopathic
interference by releasing phenolic compounds in large quantities towards crops species
i.e. radish and cluster bean (Inderjit & Dakshini, 1995).
The allelopathic effect of inhibiting one another found more effectively and consistently
in those communities which have a meager number of species than in species affluent.
For dominance in the diverse plant community, plants need to release a sufficient
quantity of biocompounds in soil (Wardle et al. 2011). The uptake abilities of some
vulnerable species reduced, as there is large diversity in plants among the species to
species to uptake allelochemicals (Kruse et al. 2000; Perez, 1990; Thijs et al. 1994). In
communities with those plants which have allelopathic effects (may be more severe in
presence of phytotoxic invasive species) turn out to be dominant in low species
diversity (Kruse et al. 2000). For allelopathic expression measurement, it is
recommended that the relative density of contributor and recipient is an important
factor. Susceptible species endurance and augmentation show positive association with
density of non-susceptible species e.g. high density of Lantana camara negatively
affects the seedling growth of two vulnerable and sensitive species while when the
densities of affected plants are increased they show average seedling growth (Gentle &
Duggin, 1997; Thijs et al. 1994; Weidenhamer, 1996).
The tolerance of species to the allelopathic effect is not due to their coexistence;
however some of their characters like roots deepness, the thickness of cuticle, metabolic
pathway, and properties of the cell membrane (Kruse et al. 2000; Newman, 1978).
Physical aspects and microbial activities along with allelochemicals effects can play an
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 20
important role in coadaptation (Inderjit et al. 1996; Rice, 2012). Significantly in many
cases, the species use allelopathy as a strategic tool for adaptation not for competition
rather than in determination for environmental interaction. Species use allelopathic
phytotoxin as a weapon against other species for resources competition such as nutrient,
water, light etc. for their surveillance in an ecosystem (Kruse et al. 2000; Lankau et al.
2009).
Allelopathic effects depend on evolutionarily developed interaction. It's time needed to
understand the mechanisms in which alien species are very aggressive in invaded area
while not too much in their native lands. The evolutionary developed indigenous
species suppressed by allelopathic effects of exotic species due to the interaction
developed as a result of allelopathy and biochemically, it’s necessary to investigate how
communities affected by evolutionary history (Callaway, 2003; Evans et al. 2011). In
assessing the invasion mechanism the comparative application of ecological and
biochemical traits of species show significance in the native ranges (Hierro et al. 2005).
The assessment of assembling and amassing of allelopathic compounds in the novel
and local ecosystem, and sensitivity of indigenous species to new chemicals released
by invasive species, may be helpful in understanding these mechanisms (Evans et al.
2011; Sujeeun & Thomas, 2017). A biogeographic prototype of communications
among species in various ecosystems can be justified potentially by the Novel Weapons
Hypothesis (NWH). The NHW theory was first anticipated for allelopathic mechanism
of invasion Centaurea diffusa in North Americaon C. stoebe and this supported by
recent studies on biogeographic comparisons of alien species in indigenous and novel
ranges (Callaway & Aschehoug, 2000; Callaway & Ridenour, 2004; Evans et al. 2011;
Kim & Lee, 2011; Ni et al. 2010; Thorpe et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2010). The introduced
plant species develop a response to new ecosystem while the native species adapting
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 21
with novel organisms. This type of evolutionary response is noticed in coadaptation
with a native rival of Trifolium repens and the indigenous Leptocoris tegalicus co-
adapted with introduced plants (Carroll et al. 2005).
The research in genetic modification of allelopathic crops can enhance the ability to
suppress weeds andovercome the autotoxicity. To overcome this traditional plant
breeding is the best solution which recently got less attention(Bertin et al. 2003;
Albuquerque et al. 2010; Kruse et al. 2000; Weston & Putnam, 1985). The main
significance of breeding in non-edible crops to overcome the nearby species while in
edible crops to increase yields and to improve resistance against diseases as they have
a low potential of allelopathy (Bertholdsson, 2004; Albuquerque et al. 2010).
Allelopathic traits between the same or different species can be transmitted through
molecular and transgenic methods (Belz, 2007; Rice, 2012). Inhibition of weeds and
reducing herbicides use can be achieved by the transduction of allopathic gene to rice
(Zhou et al. 2008). For removal, the environmental hazardous contamination like
agrochemical residue, industrial pollution, and pesticides through genetically modified
species in future and it can be achieved through calibration of researcher from different
field and research labs (Macek et al. 2008; Olofsdotter et al. 2002).
In a study conducted by Golisz et al. 2008, the gene expression resulted by A. thaliana
in response when introducing to allelochemicals i.e. fagomine, gallic acid, and rutin in
the same way as responded to biotic and abiotic stress (). The some complication and
difficulties are facing during utilization of biotechnological technique and tools for the
augmentation of the allelopathic perspective of some crops, particularly when the
concerned genes belong to very established and known metabolic pathways and
encompass cyclic, tissue and genotype differences in the assembling of their metabolic
(Cambier et al. 2000; Albuquerque et al. 2010; Reberg et al. 2005; Wu et al. 2000).
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 22
Researcher of the University of Arizona finds during an evolutionary research study
that the extracellular secretion from many microorganisms released which transform
environment auspiciously. Dependability on Social evolution theory, for sustaining
such traits a significant role can be played by structured habitats, by restricting the
resettlement and extrication strains that endow in these products from 'cheater' strains
that do well to exclusive of paying the charge. It is thus astonishing that a lot of
unicellular, well-mixed microalgal populations endow in extracellular toxins that
bestow ecological remuneration upon the whole population, for example, by abolishing
nutrient competitors (allelopathy) (Driscoll, 2013).
Natural products derived from plants and fungi have traditionally been used in
ethnomedicine. Throughout the development of both Western and Eastern civilizations,
whole plants, fungi, their parts, derived compounds and extracts have functioned as
sources of food and medicine, symbolic articles in religious and social ceremonies, and
remedies to modify behavior. Plant and fungal extracts and compounds containing
physiologically active biochemicals have immense potential for producing new agents
of great benefit to mankind. In this context, systematic screening of secondary
metabolites of folk herbs and fungi may result in the discovery of novel and effective
antimicrobial compounds (Hussain et al., 2011). Recently, interest has been growing in
natural products due to their availability, fewer side effects and less toxicity as well as
better biodegradability when compared to other available antimicrobial agents and
preservatives. Thus, plants and mushroom may offer great potential and hope.
Consequently, natural products are attracting the attention of scientists because they are
cheaper, safer, eco-friendly and within the reach of the current medical community.
This paper gives an overview on the activity of plant and fungi derived extracts as well
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 23
as their constituents against a wide variety of microfungi, methodology and potential
uses (Figure 2.1 & 2.2).
From the past few decades the trend to understand the myth of allelopathy get more
attention among researcher and hence research studies in this regards proved the
allelopathic behavior of crops and weeds by crop rotation, cover crops, green manure,
intercropping, etc. Research studies prevail to explain the effects (positive and negative)
of plants on their communities. Abilities and chemistry of allelopathic plants (crops and
weeds) depend on the composition of soil, nutritional availability, community of
neighboring plants, ecological and environmental conditions and genetic makeup etc.
Modern techniques, methods have helped in recognizing latent biological compounds,
make easy to know that how the allelochemicals synthesis, releases to soil, mode of
action and how effects the environment. Genetical and evolutionary studies in this field
are introductory. Manipulation and identification of allelopathic genes are the
revolutionary achievements of researchers for control and weed management.
Importantly in future research allelochemicals formulation into a commercial weed
control product.
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 24
Figure 2.1. Approach for testing of antifungal activity of natural products from fungi and plants.
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 25
Fig. 2.2: Action of allelochemicals (black pentagons) as ROS inducing or ROS scavenging
agents in acceptor plants. Allelochemicals may scavenge ROS resulting in decreasing
intracellular ROS level. At low concentration they may act as growth stimulators leading in
hormetic effect. At high concentration or in susceptible acceptor plants allelochemicals may
induce overproduction of ROS and alteration in operation of antioxidant cellular system. Plant
reaction to allelochemical depends on signaling pathway activated by ROS and calcium ions
Materials and Methods
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 26
CHAPTER 03
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 Study area
Keeping in view the importance of exceptional biogeographical and geostrategic
position, existing between 23°-37° N and 61°-81° E, boarded by Afghanistan, Iran,
Russia, India and China (Fig. 3.1), Pakistan harbors a wide and diverse range of flora.
The diverse environmental and climatic conditions i.e. elevation, temperature and
rainfall resulted a relative rich and diverse flora of about 5700 species representing 22
families and about 150 genera (Shinwari & Shinwari, 2010; Flora of Pakistan, 2017).
Figure 3.1. Map of Pakistan (Flora of Pakistan, 2017)
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 27
3.2 Plant Materials
The leaf litter collection of 73 weeds were made from different crops, roadsides, and
meadows of Pakistan. Sandwich and dish pack screening methods were applied to
determine allelopathic potential of selected weeds targeted plants species. Previous
research studies showed that lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) is more reliable for germination
and susceptible to chemical (Fujii et al., 1990). Lactuca sativa L.G-LE01, Takii & Co.
Ltd, Kyoto Japan has been used for allelopathic assessment.
Fresh leaves of weeds species were collected, separately packed in paper bags and then
dried at 60°C in drying oven (Biobase) for 24 hours approximately. Until the further
experimental work the dried leaves were set aside in plastic bags and stored in air-tight
box. These oven dried weeds samples were studied and screened out at Ecology and
Biodivesity Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science, International Islamic
University, Islamabad.
3.3 Preparation of Agar Solution
Previous studies recommended that agar growth medium is best for seedling growth of
the lettuce in the sandwich method. The standard procedures were followed for agar
solution preparation. 1000 mL of distilled water was measured and then pour into 7.5
g (0.75%) agar media in the graduated cylinder. Top of flask was wraped with
aluminum foil, then placed it in the Autoclave at 120 °C for 15 minutes. After the
solution is done autoclaving, solution is cooled down at 40°C in autoclave to prevent
solidification.
3.4 Sandwich Method
For screening the allelopathic potential of selected weeds leaves leachates, the
sandwich technique adopted from Fujii et al., 2004. This method is proven most
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 28
effective for allelopathic activity determination and applied on large quantity of plants
allelopathic screening by researchers (Amini et al., 2014; Fujii et al., 2003; Fujii et al.,
2004, Shiraishi et al., 2002). The selected weeds plants (73 species) were screened out
by using this method. The set-up for sandwich method using multi-well was arranged
as shown in Fig 3.2 (Appiah et al., 2015). Previous studies recommended that agar
growth medium is best for seedling growth of the lettuce in the sandwich method. The
growth medium we used in the present study is agar (7.5 gram per 1000 ml distilled
water) solution. Selected weed species were screened out three time in replicates and
mean of the replication presented in data. The untreated control multi-well was set as
agar without plant materials. The multi-wells are sealed air tightly with plastic tap and
light tight with aluminum foil cover. Then mutli-well plates were placed in an incubator
(Biobase Model BJPX-HI10) for 72 hours at 25°C. The measurement of hypocotyl and
radicle were taken with the help of tweezer and graph paper.
Figure 3.7 (Fujii et al., 2004). Sandwich method: (a) six-well multidish plastic plate; (b) In each
multi-well plate placed 10 and 50 mg dried leaves; (c) Add 05mL agar two layer before and after
placing the dried leaves; (d) Placed five lettuce seeds vertically; (e) air tightly with plastic tap and
light tight with aluminum foil cover, and appropriately labeled multidish for incubation in dark
conditions.
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 29
3.5 Dish pack Method
Fujii et al., 2005, first time introduced dish pack screening technique for volatile
bioactive substances presence in plants. Dish pack method is very reliable and
acceptable to researcher, so this technique is widely using for determination of plants
volatile organic compounds. Using dish pack method, selected 73 weeds samples were
examined for possible volatile allelochemicals presence that may inhibit or promote
seedling growth of lettuce. Multi-dish plastic plates (6 well each was 36mm×18mm)
were used for analysis. The distances from the center of the source well (where plant
sample was placed) to the center of other wells were 41, 58, 82, and 92 mm (Fig. 3.9).
Oven-dried leaf litter (100 mg) were placed in source well while in other wells of multi-
dish filter paper were laid in then 0.75 ml distilled water was added to each well. Plant
material did not add to the source well of control treatment muti-well. Except the source
well in which plant material present, on the filter paper of each wells 07 seeds of
Lactuca sativa were placed. To avoid desiccation and loss of volatile compounds the
multi-wells placed are sealed air tightly with cellophane tap. The dishes were wrapped
around in aluminum foils from light intervention. For incubation process, at 25°C the
dishes were placed in an incubator ((Biobase Model BJPX-HI10) for three days. The
length of radicles and hypocotyl were measured and compared to control seedling
growth, this comparison shows the degree of inhibition.
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 30
Fig. 3.9 (Fujii et al., 2005): View from top of Multi-well plastic plate used in dishpack method
for allelopathic assessment.
3.6 Pest Control Technique
The following technique were applied to analyze the effects of weeds species on
phytopathogenic fungi;
3.6.1 Collection of Plant Material
The collection of 73 plus weeds plant leaf litter were made from different crops, fields,
roadsides, meadows and Margallah Hills National Park of Pakistan. Fresh leaves of
weeds species were collected, separately packed in paper bags and then dried at 60°C
in drying oven (Biobase) for 24 hours approximately. Until the further experimental
work the dried leaves were set aside in plastic bags and stored in air-tight box. These
oven dried plants samples were studied and screened out at Ecology Laboratory of
International Islamic University, Islamabad. Sandwich and dish pack screening
methods were applied to determine allelopathic potential of selected weeds plants. After
allelopathic screening process the top most toxic and noxious weeds were selected for
further experimentation. The plant materials of the toxic and collected labeled with
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 31
codes as Melilotus indica L. (16), Melilotus alba Desr. (18), Medicago parviflora
E.H.L. Krause (22) and Solanum nigrum L..(36 &102). All the plant samples were
authenticated in Department of Environmental Sciences, Islamic International
University Islamabad.
3.6.2 Extract Preparation
All the samples were dried at 60 °C for 24 hour in oven. A milling machine were used
for grinding dried leaves in powder form. The extracts of all samples were prepared
accordingly as described by Basri and Fan 2005. About 100 g of powdered sample was
extracted with 500 mL methanol for 48 hours in shaking incubator at 30 °C. The
extracts were filtered using Whatman No.1 filter and were concentrated under reduced
pressure at 40 °C using rotary evaporator. The crude extracts were allowed to dry at
room temperature till constant weight. The extracts were re-dissolved in dimethyl
sulfoxide (DMSO) at a concentration of 50 mg/mL for antifungal assay and was
sterilized by filtering through 0.2 µm Millipore filter. The sterilized extracts were tested
for sterility by taking 2 mL extract in 10 mL of sterile nutrient broth before incubation
at 37 °C for 24 hours. A sterile extract was indicated by the absence of turbidity in broth
after incubation period. The extracts were stored at 4 °C till further use.
3.6.3 Test Organisms and fungal Inocula Preparation
The fungal strains used in this study were obtained from Department of Microbiology,
Quaid e Azam University, Islamabad and the fungal strains included Pythium ultimum,
Rhizoctonia solani, Pyricularia oryzae, Fusarium fujikuroi, Rhizoctonia oryzae and
Fusarium oxysporum. These strains were grown on sabaruad dextrose agar and were
incubated at 30 °C for 48 hours. Later on the suspension were prepared with an optical
density (OD) of 0.1 at 630 nm.
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3.6.4 Antifungal Activity Determination
A simple technique automated quantitative microspectrophotometric assessment
(Broekaert et al., 1990) applied for antifungal activity measurement. Microtiter plates
of 96 well at 630 nm used for growth inhibition measurement. A routine analysis of
extracts under assay is performed with spore suspension (10 µL), extract (20 µL) and
potato dextrose broth (PDB) (70 µL) (HiMedia, Mumbai, India). The sterile distilled
water (20 µL) having micro-cultures used to played a role of negative control. The
Nystatin was applied as a positive control at 0.2 mg ml-1 (Satish et al., 2007).
3.6.5 Minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal
concentration (MFC)
The minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of plants extracts is known to be a
lowest concentration of plants extracts resulting in a more than 90% growth inhibition
as compared to the control during 48 hours. The MIC values of plants extracts were
determined through a microplate method (Eloff, 1998) after slight modification
(dilution of solutions). This technique includes the serial dilution of plant extract from
crude extract in the range of 1/2 to 1/100 dilution. The mixture contains 100 µL fungal
spore suspension (2×106 spore’s mL-1 in fresh PDB) and each extract dilution (100 µL)
in every well. The incubation of microplates was carried out at 27 °C for 48-72 hour in
a triplicate experiment followed by spectrophotometric analysis (at 630 nm) with a
microplate reader. The comparison between growth in control wells and extract blank
in uninoculated plates reveals the MIC values. Espinel-Ingroff et al. (2002) described
in vitro fungicidal activity through incubation (72 hours) at 27 °C, subculturing (20 µL)
from each positive well with no visible growth having more than 98 % inhibition
growth and the growth control onto PDA plates. The lowest extract concentration which
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 33
did not result in fungal growth on used medium is considered as minimum fungicidal
concentration.
3.7 Statistical analysis
The experimentation work was designed with three replicates in randomized.
3.7.1 Statistical Analysis for Dishpack and Sandwich Methods
For statistical analysis of data Microsoft Excel 2007 were used to evaluate of the
means, standard deviation (SD), and SD variance (SDV) were done.
Elongation % = (Average length of treatment radicle/hypocotyl) (1)
(Average length of control radicle/hypocotyl)
Inhibitory % =100 - (Average length of treatment radicle/hypocotyl) (2)
(Average length of control radicle/ hypocotyl)
3.7.2 Fungal Growth Inhibition statistical Analysis
An ELISA plate reader was used to measure absorbance at 630 nm of plates containing
spore and sediments which were prepared at 27 °C in 30 minutes. The absorbance was
measured to record the growth after 2 days of incubation at 27 °C through a triplicate
assay for antifungal activity. The growth inhibition was determined by give below
Broekaert et al. (1990) equation.
Growth Inhibition = [(∆C − ∆T) ÷ ∆C] × 100
Where ∆C = Corrected absorbance of the control microculture at 630 nm
∆T= Corrected absorbance of the test micro-culture.
It has been noted that absorbance (at 630 nm) of micro-culture after 2 days’ minus
measured absorbance after 30 minutes become equal to corrected absorbance of culture.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 34
CHAPTER 04
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 Weeds in Pakistan
Pakistan has a very rich and diverse flora of about 5700 vascular species including
weeds. Weeds are natural competitors in cropping system and cost $18.2 billion per
annum globally to agricultural yield. Worldwide about 30000 weeds species are
reported but only 250 weeds species are estimated which are common in agricultural
system (Marwat et al., 2013). Pakistan is an agricultural country and 70% of its
population is directly or indirectly dependent on agriculture. This sector is facing some
unavoidable problems in form of weeds and pest attack. A huge number of weeds are
present in our cash crops; wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses and fruits etc. Heavy
weeds infestation may cause complete crop failure. The unchecked weed propagation
in cropping system in Pakistan has significant loss to crop yield, erstwhile more than
50% yield is reduced in some crops (Marwat et al., 2013). Weeds harming our crops
in other ways also, as they harbor pest and plant diseases and propagate in agricultural
and natural systems (Dangwal et al., 2010). Several researchers reported weeds of crop
from various parts of Pakistan. Keeping in view the weeds flora of weeds a general and
comprehensive list of weeds in Pakistan is documented in Annex-D. The list of weeds
is prepared from previous research studies on weeds of Pakistan and from various
websites and communities included flora of Pakistan, Centre for Agriculture and
Biosciences International (CABI), Plant for a future (pfaf), Wikipedia, flora of India,
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 35
flora of China, Weed Science Society of Pakistan, Department of weeds Sciences
NARC, and some other relative links.
4.2 Selection of Weeds for Bioassay through Sandwich and Dish Pack
Methods
Weed is a valueless plant growing wild, especially one that grows on cultivated ground
to the exclusion or injury of the desired crop. The plant species aggressively grows
outsides their native habitat as invasive plants are also called weed. The weed
terminology does not exist taxonomically and has no biological significance because a
plant sometime is considered a serious weed while in other context it is grown and
wanted plant where it is a valuable crop such as a wild bramble and hemp are growing
among cultivated loganberries. Many plants widely considered as weeds, are sometimes
called beneficial weeds as they are cultivated and grown in gardens internationally.
Generally, weeds terminology has a negative connotation but a large number of known
weeds plants have beneficial and advantageous properties. Many weeds are edible, and
their leaves, stems, seeds and roots may be used for food and herbal medicines. Other
valuable importance of weeds is some weed species attract beneficial insects and help
to protect crops from pest attack, some weeds may also improve soil fertility such as
dandelions and some weeds have ornamental importance. Keeping in view the negative
and positive contextual of weeds we selected 73 weeds species for bioassay based on
their medicinal properties. The brief description of their habitat and distribution,
medicinal and economical importance and their allelopathic potential of all analyzed
weeds species.
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 36
1. Avena fatua L.
Family Leguminosae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name:
Wild Oat
Habit A.fatua is cool
seasonal an
erect grass
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution It is native of central Asia (Jones, 1976; Holm et al., 1977),
naturalized and well adopted in numerous parts of the world and
growing with spring cereals, but are also plentiful in winter
seasonal crops (cereals). This plant is widespread in Pakistan
(Hussain & Rashid, 1989).
Blooming Period January-May
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Used as forage, bio-mass, fibre, mulch, paper-making and
thatching and diseases resistance gene source (cabi, 2017). The
seeds of wild oats have therapeutic characteristics to treat
refrigerant, diuretic and emollient (pfaf, 2017)
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Wild oat is edible and has therapeutic usages but its doles are
dwarfed by its adverse effects.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Root and coleoptile growth of spring wheat seedlings is
inhibited by Wild oat extracts. Scopoletin, coumarin, p-
hydroxybenzoic and vanillic acid are known allelochemicals of
A. fatua (Pérez & Ormeño-Nuñez, 1991). Germination of Wild
oat is completely inhibited by exudates of mulberry (Jabran et
al. 2010). Assimilating triallate back into cropping systems is
possibility to control wild oat in crops (Hanson, et al., 2016).
Crop Infested Wheat, Rice, Barley
Major Documentation Hussain & Rashid, 1989; Jones, 1976; Holm et al., 1977; Pérez
& Ormeño-Nuñez, 1991; Jabran et al. 2010; Hanson, et al. 2016;
Plant for a future, 2017;
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2. Verbena tenuisecta L.
Family Verbenaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Moss
verbena
Habit Erect or semi
erect
Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution It is native of S. America, familiarized and adopted in
numerous parts of the world. In Pakistan, this plant is growing
in old fields, waste areas and roadsides, and distributed in
Abbottabad, Muzaffarabad, Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Lahore
districts.
Blooming Period Feberuary-May
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
No medicinal use is reported, Ornamental
Part Used Not reported
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not Reported
Crop Infested Wheat, Barley
F https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/all/verbena-tenuisecta/
http://www.tropicos.org/Name/33700044?projectid=32
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3. Amaranthus viridis L.
Family Amaranthaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Calalu, Slender
amaranth
Habit Herb, erect or
more rarely
ascending
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions of the
world, and penetrating further into the temperate regions. A
common weed of waste and cultivated ground in Pakistan,
ascending to at least 1220 m.
Blooming Period June-October
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
The plant decoction is used for dysentery and inflammation. The
root juice is used for urinary inflammation treatment. Yellow and
green dyes can be obtained from the whole plant. In India it is
used conventionally as a vegetable (Baloch et al., 1976;
Napompeth, 1982)
Part Used Leaves; Seed, Whole Plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
A. viridis may be an appropriate applicant for biological control,
based on the quantity of natural opponents of the plant (Ahmed
et al., 1989; Durai, 1990).
Crop Infested Rice, Wheat, Maiz, Sugarcane, sorghum
Major Documentation http://www.tropicos.org/Name/1100015?projectid=32
Baloch et al., 1976; Napompeth, 1982, Ahmed et al., 1989;
Durai, 1990
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4. Chenopodium ambrosioides L.
Family Chenopodiaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Mexican Tea
Habit Herb
Life form Annual/Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Cultivated Beds, grounds, patches, edges, stream sides- s.l. 1430
m; Possibly originating from tropical America. Earlier cultivated
as medicinal plant and make known to in tropical and subtropical
parts, where it is unswervingly adopted.
Blooming Period July-October
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It has diverse medicinal use such as Analgesic; Antiasthmatic;
Antifungal; Carminative; Stomachic; Vermifuge. It can also be
used as Dye; Insecticideal and tea (British Pharmacopoeia 1953;
López et al., 2000).
Part Used Seeds, Leaves and flowers
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Volatile compound from C. ambrosioides has inhibited the
growth of some plants species (Shen et al., 2005; Jiménez-
Osornio et al., 1996)
Crop Infested Maiz, Rice, Wheat
Major Documentation Quinlan et al., 2002; Arisawa et al.,1971; British Pharmacopoeia
1953; López et al., 2000; Shen et al., 2005; Jiménez-Osornio et
al., 1996
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5. Sida alba L.
Family Malvaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Prickly Sida,
Bonmethi
Habit Herb
Life form Annual/Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Anthropogenic (man-made or disturbed habitats). Distributed in
India, tropical Africa, Namibia and Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-
Natal, South Africa. Also in America.
Blooming Period June-October
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It is used as Antimicrobial for gonorrhoea, gleet and scalding
urine. It is also used to treat mild fever and fatigue (Konaté et al.,
2012; Naggar, 2004).
Part Used Leaves, root, Root bark
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
The growth of Sida Alba is inhibited in different allelopathic
experimentation (Worsham, 1991; Azania et al., 2003).
Crop Infested soyabeans, tobacco, maize, sorghum and sunflower
Major Documentation Konaté et al., 2012; Naggar, 2004; Heath & Heath, 2009;
Worsham, 1991; Azania et al., 2003;
http://www.holistic-online.com/herbal-med/_Herbs/h_sida-
spinosa.htm
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6. Anagallis arvensis L.
Family Primulaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Pimpernel, Red
Chickweed
Habit Forb/herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Gardens, fields, roadsides, wasteland, loading places, ballast soil
deposits. Plants patronizing hilly parts from altitudes of 1300-
2200 m
Blooming Period June–September.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It is used for treatment of Antidepressant; Antipruritic;
Antitussive; Antiviral; Cholagogue; Diaphoretic; Diuretic;
Expectorant; Homeopathy; Nervine; Purgative; Stimulant;
Vulnerary. As a vegetable its tender shoots can be cooked. It is
also used in soap (Akerreta et al., 2007; López et al., 2011).
Part Used Leaves
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
study the allelopathic effects of root and shoot leachates of
Anagallis arvensis allelopathic effects studies on different
species e.g Pennisetum americanum L., turnip, carrot,wheat
(Rebaz et al., 2001; Salam et al., 2011)
Crop Infested Wheat, Carrot, Turnip,
Major Documentation Akerreta et al., 2007; López et al., 2011; Rebaz et al., 2001;
Salam et al., 2011
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7. Phalaris minor Retz.
Family Poaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
littleseed
canarygrass,
Dumbi sittee
Habit Culms/Grass
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution In sandy alluvial soils it grows and also adopted in saline soil.
P.minor is found in tropical and temperate regions of Pakistan,
Indian subcontinent, Indonesia, middle East, and Australia.
Blooming Period March-May
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Used as a livestock fodder
Part Used Whole Plant
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Littleseed Canarygrass prying in wheat and barley. P.minor also
tested in weed control management experimentation (Om et al.,
2002; Jabran et al., 2010; Afentouli, & Eleftherohorinos, 1996).
Crop Infested Overruns almost all crops cultivated in winter. Wheat, Rice,
Barley
Major Documentation Om et al., 2002; Jabran et al., 2010; Afentouli, &
Eleftherohorinos, 1996;
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8. Salvia moorcroftiana Wall.
Family Lamiaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Kashmir Salvia
Habit white-woolly herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Cultivated lands, Open slopes and wasteland, 1500 - 2700
metres. . Salvia moorcroftiana native to the Himalayan
mountains and in the Kashmir Valley it is particularly common.
Blooming Period March-April
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Roots used for colds and coughs treatment, seed is used to treat
dysentery, haemorrhoids, colic and, externally, boils and leaves
for wounds dressing (Arafat, 2012).
Part Used Stems, Root, leaves
Commercial Value Medicinal
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Allelopathic effects of Salvia moorcroftiana on germination and
growth on different plants was studied (Khan et al., 2002).
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation Arafat, 2012; Khan et al., 2002
Results and Discussion
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9. Oxalis corniculata L.
Family Oxalidaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
creeping
woodsorrel
Habit Broadleaved
herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution O. corniculata is common throughout the world and within
several countries. It is considered a cosmopolitan weed of
tropical and temperature zones
Blooming Period Spring, Summer, Fall.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It can be used as raw or cooked, added to salads, cooked as a
potherb with other, milder flavoured greens or used to give a
sour flavor. The whole plant is anthelmintic, antiphlogistic,
astringent, depurative, diuretic, emmenagogue, febrifuge,
lithontripic, stomachic and styptic. It is used for influenza, fever,
urinary tract infections, enteritis, diarrhoea, traumatic injuries,
sprains and poisonous snake bites. A good source of vitamin C.
The leaves are used as an antidote to poisoning by the seeds of
Datura spp, arsenic and mercury. The leaf juice is applied to
insect bites, burns and skin eruptions. It has antibacterial activity
(Q-bank, 2013; Holm et al., 1991; Holm et al., 1979; PFAF,
2017).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
O. corniculata allelopathy examined on seed germination and
seedling growth of rice and wheat. It is also examined in weed
control techniques (Kumar et al. 2012; Hussain & Oecologia,
1980; Jha, & Dhakal , 1990).
Crop Infested Wheat, rice, barley,
Major Documentation Q-bank, 2013; Holm et al., 1991; Holm et al., 1979; PFAF,
2013; Kumar et al. 2012; Hussain & Oecologia, 1980; Jha, &
Dhakal , 1990;
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10. Cannabis sativa L.
Family Cannabaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Marijuana, Hemp
Habit Forb/herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Russia, China, India, Pakistan, Iran and cultivated elsewhere. A
very adaptable species from plains to 10000 ft., It plentifully grows
on roadside particularly in Northern areas of Pakistan.
Blooming Period April-September.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Hemp has valuable fibres used for ropes and strings production.
From the resin of stem, leaves, flowers and even from the fruits a
strong tranquilizer is obtained, e.g. Ganja, charas and Bhang. The
seeds are rarely eaten. The seed oil is used as luminant and in
making of paints, varnishes and soap. Hemp may be used for
treatment of Cancer, Glaucoma, HIV/AIDS, Muscle spasms,
Seizures, Severe pain, Severe nausea, Cachexia or dramatic weight
loss and muscle atrophy (Singh & Thapar, 2003).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Hemp seed are soelling by many commercial seed suppliers. It is
used in fiber industry, medicinal and traditional beverages.
Narcotic smuggler is selling it as chars and ganja.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
C. sativa plants was applied to study its allelopathic effect on the
morphological and biochemical parameters of Parthenium
hysterophorus. Maximum reduction was reported in biological
activities against P. hysterophorus by C. sativa dry leaf leachates
(Mahmoodzadeh, 2015; McCain & Noviello, 1985).
Cannabis sativa also studied for its allelopathic effect on Lactuca
sativa germination capability and seedling growth. Some plants
species are applied for biological control of C.Sativa.
Crop Infested Wheat, Maize, Rice
Major Documentation Singh & Thapar, 2003; Mahmoodzadeh, 2015; McCain &
Noviello, 1985;
Results and Discussion
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11. Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist
Family Asteraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
fleabane, hairy
horseweed
Habit Forb/herb
Life form Annual
Biennial
Habitat and Distribution This weed is widely distributed in crop fields, gardens, roadside
and waste places. First time C. bonariensis was reported from
Argentina and is possibly inherent to South America (Michael,
1977). Now widely distributed in most temperate region of
Asia, Africa, Europe and central America.
Blooming Period Whole year
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
limited uses of C. bonariensis is reported, in some parts of the
world it is cultivated as a medicinal plant for its possible
antimicrobial and antiviral effects (Lopez et al. 2001; USDA-
ARS, 2004; Ayaz et al., 2017). Fungicidal properties against
soil-borne phytopathogens are also reported (Arora et al., 2003,
Aiyelaagbe et al., 2016)
Part Used Leaves
Commercial Value Antibacterial and antifungal properties with its known chemical
composition make it a choice for pesticide industries.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
The root growth of Conyza bonariensis significantly suppressed
by Berberine (Zhou et al., 2016). C. bonariensis allelopathic
potential is investigated against some plants e.g. Brassica
tournefortii (El-Gawad, 2014).
Crop Infested Perennial crops e.g. Apples, alfalfa
Major Documentation Michael, 1977; Lopez et al., 2001; USDA-ARS, 2004; Arora et
al., 2003; Aiyelaagbe et al., 2016; Ayaz et al., 2017; Zhou et al.,
2016; El-Gawad, 2014.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 47
12. Trichodesma indicum (L.)
Family Boraginaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Indian borage
Habit Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Roadsides and stony dry wastelands, at elevations up to
1,500meters.
The plant is found as a weed in many areas of the tropics and
subtropics in Indian Ocean - Mauritius; Asia - Afghanistan; E.
Asia - Pakistan, Nepal, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar
Blooming Period Spring, Summer, Fall.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
In herbal medicine jargon, it is thermogenic, emollient,
alexeteric, anodyne, anti-inflammatory, carminative,
constipating, diuretic, depurative, ophthalmic, febrifuge and
pectoral. This herb is also used in arthralgia, inflammations,
dyspepsia, diarrhoea, dysentery, strangury, skin diseases and
dysmenorrhea (Chopra et al., 1986; Prabukumar &
Uthayakumar, 2006).
Part Used Leaves, Flowers
Commercial Value Medicinal
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Trichodesma indicum applied for weed control and weed
management experimentation (Nasir & Sultan, 2004).
Crop Infested Wheat, rice, Mustard
Major Documentation Chopra et al., 1986; Prabukumar & Uthayakumar, 2006; Nasir &
Sultan, 2004.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 48
13. Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.
Family Brassicaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Swine
Wartcress
Habit Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Waste places, roadsides and cultivated fields. Perhaps a native
of S. America, but commonly introduced almost throughout the
world.
Blooming Period March-July
Local Occurrence: Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Leaves are cooked as a vegetable. The plant is ascribed with
antiscorbutic, digestive, expectorant, febrifuge, stimulant and
tonic properties. The plant is valued in traditional medicine as a
treatment for cancer, gangrene, haemorrhoids, allergies and
wounds. A plant decoction and leaf bandage is used to treat
headache and fevers (Khaliq et al., 2013; Naseem et al., 2009).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Commercially important plant in some regions
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Extracts of Coronopus didymus has allelopathic effect on wheat
germination and its early seedling growth. Also applied on weed
management assessment (Cheema et al., 1997; Douza et al.,
2004).
Crop Infested Sunflower, Wheat, potato, pea, carrot and onion crops
Major Documentation http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Lepidium+did
ymum
Khaliq et al., 2013; Naseem et al., 2009; Haider et al.2010;
Cheema et al., 1997; Douza et al., 2004; Prabhakar et al., 2006;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 49
14. Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.
Family Asteraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Canada thistle
Habit Erect herb
Life form Annual,
Biennial
Habitat and Distribution This weed is widely distributed in crop fields, gardens, roadside,
open disturbed area and pasture. Cirsium arvense is inherent
species of Europe; but now it has global distribution between 37
to 59 degrees’ North latitude.
Blooming Period March-April
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
The root of this plant has diverse uses as medicine like tonic,
diuretic, astringent, antiphlogistic, anticancer and hepatic, raw
leaves are cooked (pfaf, 2017; Akhtar et al., 2001)
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Several researchers reported allelopathic potential of C.
oleraceum against many plants (Akhtar et al., 2001 Ravlić et al.,
2013; Barabasz-Krasny et al., 2017).
Crop Infested It is found in both disturbed and no-tillage agricultural fields
used for producing most annual, winter annual, and perennial
agronomic and horticultural crops.
Major Documentation http://www.pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?LatinName=Cirsium+arve
nse
Akhtar et al., 2001; Ravlić et al., 2013; Barabasz-Krasny et al.,
2017
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 50
15. Melilotus indica L.
Family Leguminosae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Yellow sweet
clover
Habit Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Melilotus indica originated from the Mediterranean and south-
western Europe, and from India. It invaded almost Europe,
warm temperate North America (southern and Pacific USA),
Chile, Australia, Japan, southern Africa and Hawaiii, and is
now common in all continents.
Blooming Period April-October
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Production of Honey, erosion control, soil improver, fodder,
medicines.
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
M. indica examined along with other weeds and crops species
for its allelopathic activity. Literature indicates that it has
allelopathic potential (Brown & Brooks, 2002; Anaya et
al.1987.
Crop Infested Rice, wheat
Major Documentation UC SAREP, 2006; Wilken et al., 1998; Brown & Brooks, 2002;
Macías et al., 1997; Anaya et al.1987; El‐Khatib et al 2004;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 51
16. Melilotus alba Desr.
Family Leguminosae
Aromaticity: Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
White sweet
clover
Habit Erect Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Melilotus alba breeds in complete sun shine places or fractional
shadow, but cannot endure impenetrable shade. In soil which
have calcareous and loamy characteristics; M.alba loves to
grows there such as roadsides, abandoned fields etc. (Cole,
1990)
Blooming Period March-September
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
M.alba traditionally used as salad, cocked green and flavouring.
Also, used as forage for livestock. It plays a very important role
in production of honey and soil restoration. Methanolic extracts
of M. alba have best antitumor activities (Karakaş et al., 2012).
M. alba contain flavones, volatile oils, resins, and tannins
(Grigorescu et al., 1986).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Aqueous extracts of Croton inhibit seedling of M.alba (Sisodia
& Siddiqui 2010). White sweet clover also analyzed in
experimentation for weeds control treatment (Iqbal et al. 2010).
Crop Infested Wheat, Maiz, rice and barley
Major Documentation Cole, 1990; Karakaş et al., 2012; Grigorescu et al., 1986;
Sisodia and Siddiqui 2010; Iqbal et al., 2010
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 52
17. Oenothera rosea L'Hér. ex Aiton
Family Onagraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Rose Evening
Primrose / Rose
of Mexico
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Originate from Mexico; which has route wild in various parts of
Pakistan, distributed throughout world in warmer regions. It
grows in sandy to clay, with streams or in low weedy areas,
l000-2000 m elev.
Blooming Period April-September
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Ornamental, Anti-inflammatory (Márquez et al., 2009)
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Oenothera rosea analyzed for its sensitivity to temperature and
humidity. Its Phytosociology and allelopathic potential also
studied by different scientist (Malik et al., 2013).
Crop Infested Wheat, Rice
Major Documentation Márquez et al., 2009; Wenjun et al., 2012; Malik et al., 2013;
Guo et al. 2008;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 53
18. Parthenium hysterophorus L.
Family Asteraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Parthenium
weed, bitter
weed,
Habit Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution From semi-arid, subtropical, tropical and warmer temperate
regions is recorded. It is observed as one of the nastiest weeds
invaded almost all continents including south Asian countries
Pakistan, India and Bangladesh and aggressively spreading.
Blooming Period Round the year
Local Occurrence: Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Parthenium weed potential uses are reviewed, some are
mentioned here where it is used for herbal remedy, antitumor,
antiamoebic, weed control agent, insecticide, herbicide, manure,
fungicide nematicide etc. Additionally, it can be used as a foliar,
supplementation and oxalic acid production (Shabbir et al., 2012;
EPPO, 2014).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Parthenium hysterophorus has been using traditionally for
treating some diseases.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
For reducing weed populations parthenium weed was examined
and applied in rice crop. The role of allelopathic compounds were
recorded parthenium weed (Parsons and Cuthebertson, 1992;
Hiremath and Ahn, 1997).
Crop Infested Wheat, Rice, maize , mung bean
Major Documentation Shabbir et al., 2012; EPPO, 2014; Parsons and Cuthebertson,
1992; Hiremath and Ahn, 1997; Sudhakar, 1984
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 54
19. Taraxacum officinale L.
Family Asteraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Dandelion
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Distributed and widespread in different habitats, but have a habit
of to bloom best in anthropogenic areas such as pastures, paths,
waste ground, savannahs and road sides.
Blooming Period April - September
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc.)
Diuretic, tonic and slightly aperient. It is also used for treatment
of pile, gall stones and liver & kidney mixtures. Dandelion is
rarely used as vegetable and green salad. Dandelion wine is
prepared from its flower (Cavieres et al., 2008).
Part Used Leaves, Root, Flower
Commercial Value Used in traditional medication
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Taraxacum officinale leaves and roots extracts applied on the
seeds germination and initial growth of L. westerwoldicum for
its allelopathic examination. The literature review shows that
Taraxacum officinale are used in different experimentation and
as a weed controlling plant (Jankowska et al., 2009; Mizutani et
al., 1989).
Crop Infested Rice
Major Documentation Blackshaw et al., 2001; Cavieres et al., 2008; Jankowska et al.,
2009; Mizutani et al., 1989;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 55
20. Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause
Family Leguminosae
Aromaticity Not reported
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Not reported
Habit Herb
Life form Not reported
Habitat and Distribution . Not reported
Blooming Period Not reported
Local Occurrence Not reported
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc.)
Not reported
Part Used Not reported
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation http://www.tropicos.org/Name/13060432?projectid=32
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 56
21. Sonchus asper L. Hill ssp. asper
Family Asteraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Spiny Milk-
thistle, Prickly
Sowthistle
Habit Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Arable land, meadows, wasteland, roadsides and fields. S.asper
is distributed in Europe, Africa, N.W. and S. Asia
Blooming Period Feberuary-September
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc.)
The plant is powdered and applied as a dressing to wounds and
boils. It is used for skin ailments treatment of also reported
(Khan et al. 2010).
Part Used Young leaves and stem tops
Commercial Value In Pakistan for the treatment of different diseases
ethnopharmacologically Sonchus asper is used.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
S. asper reported as best agent to inhibit microbes and have
phytotoxic activities. Acetone extract of Sonchus asper reported
allelopathic effect on hyphal growth of Moni liacinerea and on
seed germination and seedling growth of Festuca arundinacea,
Trifolium repens and Poa annua (Xu et al., 2011; Qin et al.,
2013).
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation Upadhyay et al., 2013; Khan et al. 2010; Khan et al., 2011; Xu
et al., 2011; Qin et al., 2013;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 57
22. Rumex nepalensis Spreng
Family Polygonaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Nepal Dock
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution At higher altitudes R. nepalensis is very common. Found on
slopes at 900-4000 m, loves to grow in shades and humid
condition. Widely distributed in SW China, Himalaya, N.
Pakistan, SE Aafghanistan, N. Persia (rare), Turkey; scattered
isolated localities in Java, India, Syria, N. Africa, Europe: Italy
(Abruzzen), Balcan Peninsula (Pindus and Macedonia).
Blooming Period June-September
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc.)
Used as a vegetable. For the treatment of rheumatism, colic,
stomach-ache and abdominal pains instigated by intestinal
parasites (Manandhar, 2002).
Part Used Tender young leaves, shoots, roots
Commercial Value Pharmacological
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Literature review shows that Rumex nepalensis examined in
experimentation work for allelopathy, weed management etc.
(Riaz & Javaid. 2011; Nourimand et al., 2011; Uludag et al.,
2006)
Crop Infested Wheat, Barley, Rice, Maiz, almost in all crops in Pakistan
Major Documentation Manandhar, 2002; Tripathi et al., 1981; Riaz & Javaid. 2011;
Nourimand et al., 2011; Uludag et al., 2006
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 58
23. Convolvulus arvensis L.
Family Convolvulaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Feld bindweed,
field morning-glory,
morning glory
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Except Australia. Convolvulus arvensis is distributed
throughout the world in the temperate and tropical regions
Blooming Period Throughout the year
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc.)
Leaves Tea used as a wash on spider bites while flower tea for
fever and heal wounds. Leaves and Root can use for laxative
problem (Mitich et al., 1990).
Part Used Leaves, flowers, root
Commercial Value Pharmacological
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Allelopathy of morning glory (Convolvulus arvensis L.) water
extracts reported on germination and seedling growth of maize,
wheat and rabi weeds. It is also examined as a cover crop (;
Cheema et al., 2002; Shahrokhi et al., 2011).
Crop Infested Wheat, Sugarcane, Maize,
Major Documentation Mitich et al., 1990; Baličević et al., 2014; Cheema et al., 2002;
Eskelsen & Crabtree, 1995; Shahrokhi et al., 2011
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 59
24. Solanum erianthum D Don.
Family Solanaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Potato tree
Habit Ever green Shrub,
Subshrub
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution It is native to southern United States. The species loves to grow
in well-drained soil and sunny areas. Solanum erianthum can be
found in roadsides, gardens, fields and in edges of fields and
forests. It is distributed in S. Asia, N. Australia and US.
Blooming Period Throughout the year
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Worldwide this plant used for a massive ethnobotanical and
pharmaceutical uses and used for the treatment of dysentery,
intestinal pain, poison antidote, mouth sore treatment (Wiart,
2006), toothache, leech-bites (Ignacimuthu et al., 2006), skin
sores (Mabberly, 2008), diuretic, anti-malarial, leprosy,
venereal diseases and to stimulate the liver functions (Modise
and Mogotsi, 2008), oral analgesic for stomach ache and as an
antimicrobial agent (Villa-Ruano et al., 2013).
Part Used Whole Plant
Commercial Value Used in the pharmaceutical industry as steroid precursors to
produce anti-inflammatory corticosteroids, contraceptive
steroids, and anabolic steroids (Modise and Mogotsi, 2008)
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not Reported
Crop Infested Perennial crops
Major Documentation Wiart, 2006; Ignacimuthu et al., 2006; Modise and Mogotsi,
2008; Mabberly, 2008; Villa-Ruano et al., 2013
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 60
25. Vicia sativa L.
Family Leguminosae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name:
Common Vetch
Habit Forb/herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution V. sativa is a non-native weed grows easily in moist and sunny
places with loamy soil of hedgerow and cultivated beds. This
plant is distributed in all continents. V. sativa also widespread
all over Pakistan (Fazili & Khan, 1991).
Blooming Period June- August
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
The seed of common vetch are cooked for its nutritious
properties also used as foliage. The plant is used as anti-poison
(Shinwari & Khan, 2000; Ahmad & Husain, 2008)
Part Used Leaves, seed
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Zohaib et al., 2014 reported the allelopathic potential of V.
sativa water extracts on germination and seedling growth of
pulses at various concentrations were reported by
Crop Infested Mustard, sunflower, barley, corn, Rice
Major Documentation Fazili & Khan, 1991, Shinwari & Khan, 2000; Ahmad &
Husain, 2008;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 61
26. Lantana camara L.
Family Verbenaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
lantana, shrub
verbena
Habit Evergreen shrub
Life form Throughout the
year.
Habitat and Distribution Lantana camara is a native plant of tropical America,
extensively adopted in different tropical and subtropical regions
Blooming Period February-April
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Ornamental plant of gardens. Antimicrobial, fungicidal and
insecticidal properties are reported with the extracts of Lantana
leaves (Kumari et al., 2017; Sreeramulu et al., 2017; Rajan &
Varghese, 2017). Traditionally this plant is used for the
treatments of cancer, skin itches, leprosy, rabies, chicken pox,
measles, asthma and ulcers.
Part Used Leaves, Flower, Stem
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical importance
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Many researchers reported the allelopathic potential of lantana
leaf extracts on different plants (Manohar et al., 2017; Ruwanza
& Shackleton, 2016). The leaves of this plant have great
potential of allelochemicals (Mishra et al., 2016).
Crop Infested Lantana reduce growth of crops by formation of dense thickets
Major Documentation Ruwanza & Shackleton , 2016; Kumari et al., 2017; Sreeramulu
et al., 2017; Rajan & Varghese, 2017; Manohar et al., 2017
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 62
27. Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd.
Family Asteraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name:
Purple Fleabane,
Janglijiri, ironweed
Habit Herbs
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution: Commonly found in sandy soils grasslands, roadsides and
humid area of Afghanistan, India, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar,
Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka; Africa (Flora of China)
Blooming Period November-Feberuary
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Anti-bacterial, anti-oxidentant and fungicidal properties of
Purple Fleabane are reported in previous studies (Santosh et al.,
2013; Ratnam et al., 2014; Gopalkrishna et al., 2016). The plant
is widely used as an anthelmintic and to control diabetes GIT
infections, halitosis, indigestion and pneumonia (Toyang &
Verpoorte, 2013).
Part Used Leaves, Flower
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical application
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not found
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation Toyang & Verpoorte, 2013; Santosh et al., 2013; Ratnam et al.,
2014; Gopalkrishna et al., 2016;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 63
28. Achyranthes aspera Linn
Family Amaranthaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Devil's horsewhip,
rough chaff flower
Habit Erect or ascending
herbs or shrubs;
0.8-4 m high
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Disturbed areas, road sides, gardens, crops, grasslands, savanna
and forest margins. This species is often found in Pakistan, the
moist or shaded areas near trees in savanna or pasture lands
where it grows in dense thickets.
Blooming Period June-October
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It is used to treat bleeding piles, digestive disorders, fever,
cough, dysentery, dropsy, insect bite, psoriasis, paralysis, spleen
enlargement, abdominal pains, wounds etc.
Part Used Leaves; Seed, Roots Whole Plant
Commercial Value Medicinal and commercial importance in different region of the
world.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Achyranthes aspera used in weed plants control techniques
(Dogra e.al 2012).
Crop Infested Rice, Wheat.
Major Documentation Khan et al.2006; Dogra e.al 2012
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 64
29. Cyperus iria L.
Family Cyperaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Java grass
Habit Herb
Life form Perennials
or
sometimes
annuals
Habitat and Distribution Cyperus rotundus is native to Africa. It is considered as one of
the world’s worst weeds. It grows in all types of soils and can
also survive high temperatures. C. rotundus can be found in
cultivated fields, waste areas, roadsides, pastures and natural
areas.
Blooming Period April -October
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Cyperus iria is an important medicine in India and China and
note its use by pharmaceutical companies to produce diuretics,
anthelminthics and treatments for coughs, bronchial asthma and
fever. It makes a poor fodder but has value in binding together
soil. However, its negative attributes as a weed far outweigh its
usefulness (CABI, 2017).
Part Used Whole Plant
Commercial Value Pharmacological
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
The weed leaf, stem and root extracts reduced the growth of the
rice seedlings and showed selective activity in the varieties. The
C. iria leaf and stem extracts showed comparatively higher
growth inhibitory effects than those from the root (Ismail, et al.,
2011)
Crop Infested Rice, Wheat.
Major Documentation CABI, 2017; Quayyum et al., 2000; Alsaadawi & Salih, 2009
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 65
30. Solanum nigrum L.,
Family Solanaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name:
Black nightshade
Habit Annual or
sometimes biennial
herb, 0.2-1.0 m
tall, reproducing
only by seed
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution S. nigrum complex are largely confined to disturbed situations
such as cultivated land, roadsides, wasteland, uncompetitive
pastures, and exposed river beds and banks. Cosmopolitan,
absent from the Arctic and subarctic regions of the both
hemisphere.
Blooming Period Annual or around the year
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Genotypes of the S. nigrum complex with large fruits are
sometimes cultivated, the fruit being used in pies, and young
shoots are also sometimes eaten as pot herbs. The taxon is very
variable, and edible cultivars could undoubtedly be selected and
improved by standard plant breeding methods (Edmonds and
Chweya, 1997; Mabberley, 1997).
Part Used Leaves; fruit,
Commercial Value Medicinal and commercial importance in different region of the
world because used as curing differed ailments.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Allelopathic effects of weeds extracts against seed germination
of different plants (Shen et. al., 2005; Jainu and Devi 2006).
Crop Infested Rice, wheat, cucumber,
Major Documentation Edmonds and Chweya, 1997; Mabberley, 1997; Kadioglu et al.
2005; Shen et. al., 2005; Jainu and Devi 2006; Jain et. al., 2011;
Marinov-Serafimov, P. (2015).
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 66
31. Urtica dioica Linn.
Family Urticaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Nettle or stinging
nettle
Habit Herbaceous
perennial
flowering plant
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Wasteland, hedgerows, fields and woods. Nettles do particularly
well in soils with high levels of nitrogen and are often found
growing around abandoned buildings. Widespread in the
temperate regions of both hemispheres of Pakistan.
Blooming Period Annual or around the year
Local Occurrence Commonly found in temperate region of Pakistan.
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
In vitro immunomodulatory activity of flavonoid glycosides by
using from Urtica dioica L. Use of Urtica dioica and Nigella
sativa in the prevention of carbon tetrachloride‐induced
hepatotoxicity in rats (Akbay et al, 2003).
Part Used Leaves
Commercial Value Medicinal and commercial importance in different region of the
world because used as curing differed ailments.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Assessed for phytotoxic and allopathic potential (Amini et al.
2014; Khan et al.2014).
Crop Infested Rice, Wheat.
Major Documentation Akbay et al, 2003; Türkdoğan et al. 2003; Amini et al. 2014;
Khan et al.2014
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 67
32 Malva parviflora L.
Family Malvaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Small-flowered
mallow, little
mallow,
marshmallow
Habit Erect,
sprawling or
decumbent
herb growing
up to 50cm
high
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Mostly found in all soil types and common in waste land and
found in sheep yards, watercourses, closed yards and roadsides.
Premiarily occurred in southern Australia and locally found in
Pakistan.
Blooming Period Through out the year
Local Occurrence Endemic to Pakistan
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It has anti-bacterial and anti-inflammatory activity (Shale et al.,
1999).
Part Used Leaves, Seeds.
Commercial Value Oil and seed are been used for commercial purposes.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Reported as strong allelopathic; have effect on photosynthesis
and growth of cultivated plants such as barley (El-Khatib. 2000;
Al-Johani et al., 2012).
Crop Infested Wheat, Barley
Major Documentation Shale et al., 1999; Shale et al., 2012; El-Khatib. 2000; Al-Johani
et al., 2012;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 68
33 Euphorbia helioscopia L.
Family Euphorbiaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Cat's milk,
madwoman's
milk,
Habit Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution It might found in Gardens, vegetable patches, fields, soil heaps,
waste ground and More or less throughout Europe, N. Africa
and Asia; introduced into N. America. Common or abundant in
sandy fields or on wet sandy clay by irrigation canals; also on
rocky slopes
Blooming Period July–September
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
The plant is used as hydrogogue, cathartic, and milky juice is
applied to eruptions. Seeds are given with roasted pepper for the
treatment of cholera.
Part Used Leaves stem, roots and seeds
Commercial Value Commercially important in world.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Aqueous and biochemical extracts of E. helioscopia has
allelopathic effect on seedling and germination of wheat,
chickpea and lentil (Tanveer et al., 2012; Tanveer et al., 2010).
Crop Infested Wheat, Chickpea, and lantil
Major Documentation Tanveer et al., 2012; Tanveer et al., 2010;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 69
34. Centaurea iberica Spreng.
Family Asteraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Iberian knapweed;
Iberian starthistle
Habit Forb/herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution C. iberica distributed worldwide in cultivated land, disturbed
areas, roadsides, grassland and moist places.
Blooming Period June-September.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Traditionally this plant is used for pain relief, arthritis
inflammation, fever, headache, and wounds healing. Globally
the researchers analyzed C. iberica for anti-inflammatory and
healing properties (Koca et al., 2009), antidiabetic (Hussain et
al., 2004) and hypoglycaemic activity (Abdel-Jalil, 2002).
Senatore et al. (2005) analyzed chemical compounds of C.
iberica and isolated 91 volatile components.
Part Used Arial parts
Commercial Value Steroidal component make valuable for pharmaceutical uses
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Mustard, Wheat, Barley, Pulses
Major Documentation Abdel-Jalil, 2002; Hussain et al., 2004; Senatore et al. 2005;
Koca et al., 2009
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 70
35. Oxalis corymbosa DC.
Family Oxalidaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Pink woodsorrel
Habit Lilac oxalis is a
perennial plant
growing about
15cm tall.
Life form Perennials
Habitat and Distribution Moist, shady places at elevations of 45 - 1,200 metres. A native
of South America. Naturalised in West Europe, South America
and Subtropical countries.
Blooming Period March-April
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Not reported yet.
Part Used Flowers, leaves and Roots.
Commercial Value
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Allelopathy of Oxalis Corymbosa assessed on several plants and
result shows that it has inhibitory effects on seedling and
germination (Yu et al. 2007; Yuping & Yanyan 2011).
Crop Infested
Major Documentation Yu et al. 2007; Yuping & Yanyan 2011;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 71
36 Solanum Xanthocarpum Schrad. & J.C. Wendl.
Family Solanaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Wild eggplant
/Kantakari / Indian
Solanum
Habit Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution The plant is native to Asia and found in Nepal, Pakistan, Bhutan,
Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, China, Iran, Yemen, Thailand,
Afghanistan and Saudi Arabia
Blooming Period Mostly throughout the year.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Used as food. It is also used as antioxidant, anticancer, anti-
asthmatic and anti HIV perspective.
Part Used Fruits, Whole plant
Commercial Value Has commercial values locally and globally.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Allelopathically analyzed its effects on germination and
inhibition towards crops (Serafimov, 2015; Shen et al., 2005).
Crop Infested Wheat, cucumber and radish seedling, grain legume crop
Major Documentation Serafimov, 2015; Shen et al., 2005;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 72
37 Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton
Family Brassicaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Watercress
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution N. officinale introduced from Europe and America and now
commonly found in Europe and Temperate Asia. This plants
grows at watercourse sides, dykes, flushes etc with moving
water, usually in chalk or limestone areas.
Blooming Period April-July
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Heat and thermosonication treatments on peroxidase inactivation
kinetics in watercress. N. officinale use traditionally as a
cardioprotective agent in Iran and now its potential is proved by
scientific investigation (Bahramikia and Yazdanparast 2008).
Part Used Leaves, seed
Commercial Value
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Allelopathic effects reported. N. officinale defended against
herbivory through releasing allelochemicals by glucosinolate—
myrosinase system (Newman et al., 1996).
Crop Infested Wheat
Major Documentation Ziwen et al., 1992; Cruz et al., 2006; Bahramikia, &
Yazdanparast, 2008; Newman et al., 1996
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 73
38 Ipomoea cornea. fistulosa (Mart. ex Choisy)
Family Convolvulace
ae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Bush morning
glory, morning
glory tree
Habit Shrubs up to
2.5 m high,
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Originally from the America tropics, now cultivated or
naturalized in most subtropical or tropical countries of the
world.
Blooming Period July-November, perhaps longer.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Anti-cancer, Antimicrobial activity and molecular
characterization
Part Used Whole Plant
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Influence of some plant extracts and microbioagents on some
physiological traits (Pashi and Tayung 2013; Mhmoud et al.,
2004).
Crop Infested Faba beans
Major Documentation Khatiwora et al., 2010; Pashi and Tayung 2013; Mhmoud et al.,
2004
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 74
39 Xanthium strumarium L.
Family Asteraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Cocklebur, Rough
cocklebur,
Canada cocklebur
Habit Herbs,
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution River banks, lake shores, cultivated ground and pastures.
Blooming Period July-August
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Bioactivity-guided fractionation for anti-inflammatory and
analgesic properties, potential for anti-cancer agent.
Part Used Leaves, Seeds
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Xanthium strumarium have significant effects on soffe beens and
some medicinal plants (Gilani et al., 2010; Peneva 2007)
Crop Infested Lentil, Coffee
Major Documentation Han et al., 2007; Erosa et al., 2007; Gilani et al., 2010; Peneva
2007
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 75
40 Aloe vera L.
Family Asphodelaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Ghikwar
Habit Succulent
herbs. Stem
short,
producing
suckers at the
base.
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Cultivated in the Mediterranean region for a very long time;
place of origin uncertain; widely naturalized in Portugal,
Turkey, China (S. Yunnan), Pakistan, India and Nepal, West
Indies and Central America
Blooming Period January-April
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Used for food purposes, vastly used in cosmetic industries. Anti-
microbial properties make more important.
Part Used Stem, Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Effect of Chinese traditional medicinal plants on the biological
activity of a red-tide causing alga (Zhou et al., 2007).
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation Eshnu and He, 2004; Habeeb et al., 2007; Zhou et al., 2007
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 76
41 Carthamus oxyacantha M.Bieb.
Family Asteraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Wild Safflower,
Jeweled distaff
thistle
Habit Spiny-leaved
herb, growing
up to 1.5 m tall
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Dry, open areas, plains, mountains. Nearly always on disturbed
or waste ground.
Blooming Period April-July
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Nutritional uses and medicinaly it is used for the treatment of
diuretic and to cure biliousness.
Part Used Seed
Commercial Value Not found
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Carthamus oxyacantha allelpathic effects on chickpea crop are
reported by Khan et al., (2014).
Crop Infested Wheat, chickpea, winter crops
Major Documentation Bukhsh et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2014; Khan et al., 2011
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 77
42 Coriandrum sativum L.
Family Umbelliferae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Coriander
Habit Herbaceous
Plants 15-60
cm tall,
branched.
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Coriandrum sativum native of Italy and it is cultivated in
diverse area. In hilly and plains area Coriander plant is very
commonly cultivated. Uncertainly Coriander is also
distributed in wild fields.
Blooming Period Early spring-early summer.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
As a domestic remedy Coriander is a usually used for i
digestive problems, treating flatulence, diarrhoea and colic
(E Launert – 1981; S Javadi et al. 2008). It helps to reduce
the gut spasm and nervous tension effects (A Chevallier,
1996). The seed is aromatic, carminative, expectorant,
narcotic, stimulant and stomachic (A Grieve – 1984; E
Launert – 1981; EA Omer et al. 2016; IM Talaat, et al. 2014;
GA Stuart Rev, 1998; D Bown – 1995). Some attentiveness
is recommended, though, because the seeds become
narcotic; if it is used too freely (A Grieve – 1984). For
rheumatic pain treatment its seeds can be applied externally
and also used as lotion (A Chevallier, 1996; M Stuart –
1979). The other uses of Coriander include Fuel; Insecticide;
Depurative Oil; Expectorant. Antidiarrhoeal; Antihalitosis;
Appetizer; Aromatherapy; Aromatic and Fungicide
(pfaf.org- 2017).
Part Used Leaves, Seeds
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 78
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Hoary cress germination reduced from 13.8 to 27% by
coriander and lovage (Raylic et al., 2013). M Akmal et al
2011 reported in their article that seedlings of Trigonella and
coriander inhibit the growth of spinach. Zea mays radicle
length IS suppressed and Plumule length is reduced
C.sativum during medicinal plants allelopathic evaluation
(AA Baeshen, 2014). At high densities lettuce seed
germination is inhibited by all examined species including
C.sativum of family Apiaceae (Steven Lamoureux and Ross
Koning 1998). y. Growth of some weeds species are
inhibited by aromatic and medicinal plants for example
caraway, coriander and fennel (R Baličević, et al. 2015,
Đikić a,b, 2005).
Crop Infested Maze, beans or a leguminous
Major Documentation Saeed and Tariq 2007; Raylic et al., 2013; Neffati and
Marzouok 2008
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 79
43. Cyperus rotundus L.
Family Cyperaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Coco grass; java
grass
Habit Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution C. rotundus is widely distributed in the tropics and subtropics
regions, loves to grow in all soil type, altitude, humidity, soil
moisture and pH, but not in high salt content soils. C. rotundus
is known as one of the world’s worst weeds. More than in 90
countries it has been reported as a noxious weed of cultivated
fields which infesting at least 52 different crops worldwide
(Holm et al., 1977).
Blooming Period April -October
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
C. rotundus is an important medicinal plant used for the
treatment of several diseases and problems like diuretics,
anthelminthics and bronchial asthma in India and China (cabi
2017). It is also used as fodder for animals
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical companies used for medicine production
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Alsaadawi & Salih (2009) reported C. rotundus as toxic and
strong allelopathic plant which inhibited the seedling growth of
tomato, cucumber, sorghum, soybean, cowpea and mungbean.
Crop Infested Almost all crops
Major Documentation Alsaadawi & Salih, 2009;
http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/17506
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 80
44 Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don) Hand.-Mazz.
Family Asteraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Murang, Kaliziri,
Batula
Habit Kaliziri is a
perennial herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Commonly found in Western Himalayas, at altitudes of 550-
4000m.
Blooming Period March-August
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Leaf paste with mustard oil is rubbed on leucoderma and wounds.
Root extract is taken for fever and colic. The seeds are
carminative and used for horse-bites (Flower of India)
Part Used Leaves
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Wheat,
Major Documentation Flower of India
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 81
45. Lythrum salicaria Linn.
Family Lythraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Purple loosestrife
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Lythrum salicaria is native of old world. It has very flexible
adoption to inhabit in many habitats and ecological range
worldwide but is a common species of humid places.
Blooming Period July-September
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It is well known ornamental plant of gardens. As a medicinal
plant, it is widely used in Asia for treatment of diarrhoea,
chronic intestinal catarrh, haemorrhoids, eczema, varicose veins
and bleeding of the gum (Tunalier et al., 2007; Piwowarski et
al., 2015).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Medicinal and ornamental purposes
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Loydi et al., (2015) reported that grass litter leachate has
allelopathic effect on L. salicaria and reduced its germination.
L. salicaria have phenolic composition which may have
allelopathic potential towards other plants.
Crop Infested Not found
Major Documentation Tunalier et al., 2007; Piwowarski et al., 2015; Loydi et al.,
2015; CABI, 2017
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 82
46 Peganum harmala L.
Family Nitrariaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Syrian rue,
African rue
Habit Glabrous herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution India, Tibet, Pakistan westwards to North Africa, Europe and
Russia.
Blooming Period April-October
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Seed powder is used in asthma, colic and jaundice and as an
anthelmintic against tapeworms and for reducing temperature in
chronic malaria. Seeds are regarded as narcotic, hypotonic,
antispasmodic, antiperiodic, emetic, alterative, lactagogue,
antitumor and antinociceptive (Lamchouri et al., 1998; Monsef
et al., 2004).
Part Used Seeds
Commercial Value Have commercial values locally and regionally.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Extracts from the parts (leaf, stem and root) of P. harmala have
allelopathic potential towards Avena fatua L. and Convolvulus
arvensis L so it can be used as natural herbicide. More phenolic
acids are presents in leaves other than stems and roots of
P.harmala (Sodaeizadeh et al. 2009) while highest levels of
alkaloids identified in seeds and roots other than stems and leaves
(Herraiz et al. 2010). Seven phenolic acids were extracted from
leaf extracts of P. harmala (Sodaeizadeh et al. 2009). Growth of
dicot plants lettuce and amaranth significantly inhibited by the
alkaloids of Peganum harmala L. than the tested wheat and
ryegrass which are monocot plants (Shao et al., 20.13).
Crop Infested Mono cot and dicot crops
Major Documentation Sodaeizadeh et al., 2009; Sodaeizadeh et al., 2010; Shao et al.,
2013, Herraiz et al. 2010, Lamchouri et al. 1998;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 83
47. Saxifraga rotundifolia L.
Family Saxifragaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Round-leaved
saxifrage
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Widely distributed in humid cliffs, stony soils and shady places
at 2,300–7,200 ft. above sea level.
Blooming Period April-August
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Not Reported
Part Used Not Reported
Commercial Value Not Reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not Reported
Crop Infested Not Reported
Major Documentation http://wiki.medicinalplants-
uses.com/index.php?title=Saxifraga_rotundifolia#Habitat
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 84
48. Commelina benghalensis Linn
Family Commelinaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Benghal dayflower,
Wandering jew
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution C. benghalensis described from Bengal. It grows in moist and
shady area. This plant is widely distributed in Tropics and
subtropics of Asia and Africa and extending to Japan, Philippine
and Australia. It is also reported in America.
Blooming Period June-September.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It is used as animal fodder and sometimes as vegetable. Also, it
is used for the treatment of skin inflammations, sore throats and
leprosy (flora of Pakistan).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmacological uses
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Researcher reported its allelopathic potential towards other
plants and crops e.g. Sorghum vulgare, Zea mays, Vigna radiate
and Brassica napus (Yang et al., 2011; Baratelli et al., 2012).
Crop Infested Corn, Rice
Major Documentation Yang et al., 2011; Baratelli et al., 2012:
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 85
49. Cuscuta californica Hook. & Arn.
Family Convolvulaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
California
Dodder
Chaparral
dodder,
Habit annual herb or
vine (parasitic)
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Found in grassland and plant communities, and can be found in
weedy, partially developed areas.
Blooming Period Febeuary-August
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
For the treatment of UTI, spleen and hepatic problems dodder is
used. Analgesic activity of this plant is also reported.
Part Used Whole Plant
Commercial Value Pharmacological, traditional medication
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
For weed management assessment dodder is applied as it has
potential due its Phytotoxic Constituents to suppress other
weeds species. Extraction of some weeds are applied to suppress
dodder in fields (Mahmoodzadeh, 2010; Khanh et al., 2008;
Seyyedi, et al., 2013).
Crop Infested Sun flower, wheat, alfalfa,
Major Documentation Kaiser et al., 2015; Ghule et al., 2011; Mahmoodzadeh, 2010;
Khanh et al., 2008; Seyyedi, et al., 2013;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 86
50. Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk.
Family Leguminosae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Trefoil
Rattlepod
Habit Divaricately
branched
herbs,
Life form Annual/peren
nial
Habitat and Distribution Commonly distributed in seashore sandy places, lush and grassy
land, along tracks; below 100-2800 m. widespread in South
Asia, Himalaya regions to Australia (Flora of China 2016).
Blooming Period January-March and August-December
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc.)
C.medicaginea contains exceptional nutriments because it has
starch, protein dietetic fiber, oligosaccharides, phyto-chemicals
and minerals. They are often nominated for diseases resistance
because of its food richness quality (Kathirvel and Kumudha,
2012). It is used as fodder for cattles. C. medicaginea is used
traditionally for treatment of white discharge by Chhattisgarh
peoples (Tirkey, 2006). Its seeds contain polysaccharide
composed of d-galactose and d- mannose (Gupta and Bemiller,
1990).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Somewhere used in traditional medication
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
C. medicaginea leaf leachates did not affect the seedling growth
when its exudates were applied on Zea mays, mungo Glycine
max and Eleusine coracana (Bhatt, et al. 1994). P. juliflora and
P. cineraria exudates inhibited the C. medicaginea seedling
growth and germination (Goel and Nathawat 1990).
Crop Infested Wheat, maize
Major Documentation Kathirvel and Kumudha, 2012; Tirkey, 2006; Gupta &
Bemiller, 1990; Goel and Nathawat 1990; Bhatt, et al. 1994
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 87
51. Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC.
Family Papilionaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Snout-bean,
burn-mouth-
vine, and
jumby-bean.
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Rhynchosia minima is an almost cosmopolitan plant on the
heavier textured soils of the tropics and subtropics. It is widely
distributed in Asia, Africa, Australia and America.
Blooming Period January-March
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
R. minima have wide range of medicinal uses for the treatment
of anthelmintic, wounds healing, helminthic infections,
abortifacient, asthma and piles. It has the potential to be
developed as natural antioxidants and anticancer ingredients for
the food and pharmaceutical industries (Haider & Zhong, 2014;
Jia et al., 2015).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Food and pharmaceutical industries
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Cotton,
Major Documentation Haider & Zhong, 2014; Jia et al., 2015;
http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000060.htm
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 88
52. Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.
Family Asteraceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Virgate wormwood
Habit Woody herb
Life form Biennial or
perennial
Habitat and Distribution A. scoparia is commonly found in sandy-clay soils, field
borders and roadsides from 400 msl to 2200 msl after rainfall in
the late summer months. This plant is widely distributed C & E
Europe, Iraq, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan (Balochistan,
N. W. F. P., and Punjab), N. W. India, China, Mongolia, Russia
(Flora of Pakistan).
Blooming Period July-November
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
A. scoparia is used for diverse medicinal purposes as
Antibacterial (Moghaddam & Sani, 2015), Anticholesterolemic
(Sajid et al. 2016), Antipyretic (Habib & Waheed, 2013),
Antiseptic, Cholagogue, Diuretic and Vasodilator (Yu et al.,
2016).
Part Used Leaves, flowers
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical industries
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Volatile oil from Artemisia scoparia suppressed radical
elongation and seedling growth in Cyperus rotundus and
Phalaris minor (Grichi et al., 2016)
Crop Infested Not found
Major Documentation Habib & Waheed, 2013; Moghaddam & Sani, 2015; Sajid et al.
2016; Grichi et al., 2016
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 89
53. Pteris cretica L.
Family Pteridaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Pteris cretica,
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Slow-growing evergreen Pteris cretica (fern) is native to old
world (Europe, Asia and Africa). It is found at humid places, old
buildings and rock faces and widely distributed in tropical and
subtropical regions of the world.
Blooming Period Non-flowering (Missouri botanical garden)
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Grown as ornamental garden plant. Decoction is prepared to
promote diuresis and cure cystitis. The fronds of Pteris cretica
are used and results as antibacterial in pest form on wounds are
made into a paste and applied in wounds (Liu et al., 2009;
Benniamin, 2011).
Part Used Leaves
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation Liu et al., 2009; Benniamin, 2011;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 90
54. Digera muricata (L.) Mart.
Family Amaranthaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common Name False Amaranth
Habit Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Common in southern Asia from tropical Arabia and the Yemen
to Afghanistan, India, Ceylon, Malaysia and Indonesia. Also in
S., C. and E. tropical Africa and Madagascar. All over the place
as a weed of agronomy, disturbed and waste places, and exist
abundantly as such in Pakistan up to 1500 m.
Blooming Period August-September
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and other
Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/ Forage
etc.)
A Boundless Multipurpose Medicinal Plant. Used for digestive
and urinary disorder. It has Antioxidant and Antibacterial
properties. Rarely used as vegetable (Wang et al., 2013).
Part Used Flowers and leaves
Commercial Value Pharmacological use
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Digera muricata examined for Phytochemical and Antimicrobial
Activity. It is also examined antioxidant and fertility effects on
rats (Sharma & Vijayvergia 2013; Mathad & Mety, 2010).
Literature review shows that D. muricata have strong allelopathic
characteristics (Khan, et al., 2011; Bindu & Jain, 2011; Aziz &
Shaukat, 2014)
Crop Infested Maiz,
Major Documentation Sharma et al., 2014; Wang et al., 2013; Sharma & Vijayvergia
2013; Mathad & Mety, 2010; Khan, et al., 2011; Bindu & Jain,
2011; Aziz & Shaukat, 2014
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 91
55. Adiantum capillus-veneris L.
Family Pteridaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Southern
maidenhair fern
Habit Forb/Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Evergreen A. capillus-veneris is consider native to southern half
of the US, Eurasia and Australia. It prefers damp places year-
round. It is widely distributed in warm temperate to tropical
regions (pfaf.org).
Blooming Period Non-flowering (pfaf.org)
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It is used for assembling refreshing summer drink, tea. Medicinal
uses include antidandruff, antitussive, depurative, expectorant,
tonic and vermifuge (pfaf.org). A. capillus–veneris also reported
as potent antimicrobial against E. coli (Singh et al., 2008) and
fungicidal against fungal strains (Ishaq et al., 2014).
Part Used Leaves
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Not Reported
Major Documentation http://pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Adiantum+capillus-
veneris (retrieved at August 3, 2017); Singh et al., 2008; Ishaq et
al., 2014
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 92
56. Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don) Benth.
Family Lamiaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common Name Lemon Savory,
Lemon Scented
Thyme
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution A frequent plant growing in a wide variety of habitats, from the
plains up to c. 2400 m. Distributed in E. Afghanistan, Pakistan,
Kashmir, NW India, Himalayas to Bhutan and China.
Blooming Period Round the year
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and other
Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/ Forage
etc.)
Medicinally used for Antiseptic, antifungal, antibacterial
Odontalgic and Vulnerary (Zeb et al., 2015; Shaheen et al.,
2015).
Part Used Flowers and leaves
Commercial Value Pharmacological use
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Reported for medicinal assessment and weeds flora of different
areas.
Crop Infested Wheat, Maiz, Sugarcane
Major Documentation Zeb et al., 2015; Shaheen et al., 2015; Kumar et al. 2012;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 93
57. Argyrolobium roseum (Camb.) Jaub & Spach
Family Leguminosae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name:
Sumbal, Kashmal
Habit A medium sized
shrub or Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution A. roseum found in tropical and sub-temperate tracts of the north-
western Himalayan region of the Indian subcontinent (Ahmed et al.,
2008)
Blooming Period April-June
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It is used for the treatment of several problems like inflammation of
liver, stomach and bladder and skin diseases. Methanolic extracts of A.
roseum protected the liver function from the hepatotoxic effect of
paracetamol (; Hussain et al. 2014). Ahmed et al., (2008) reported the
presence of natural antidiabetic and insulin secreting product(s) in A.
roseum.
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Not Reported
Major Documentation https://www.medicinalplantsarchive.us/medicinal-uses/argyrolobium-
roseum-camb-jaub-spach.html; Ahmed et al., 2008; Hussain et al. 2014;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 94
58. Nerium oleander L.
Family Apocynaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Oleander, Rose
Bay
Habit Evergreen
shrub
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution From the Mediterranean to Persia, China and Japan, commonly
found in rock-strewn watercourse beds, ascending to 5,000 ft.,
also distributed throughout Pakistan.
Blooming Period April-October
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc.)
Oleander is toxic but it is broadly used in medicine for Cancer,
Cardiac, Diaphoretic, diabetes, Emetic; Expectorant,
Parasiticide, Resolvent, Skin and Sternutatory. Other usage
included dye, Hedge, Hedge, Insecticide, Latex, Parasiticidea
and Soil stabilization (Uygur & İskenderoğlu, 1997. Anjum et
al., 2010).
Part Used Flowers and leaves
Commercial Value Pharmacological, insecticidal
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Due to its insecticidal characteristic it is widely assessed to
control weeds and insects. Its allelopathic effect are also
reported (Pathak et al., 2000, Roni et al., 2013).
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation Uygur & İskenderoğlu, 1997. Anjum et al., 2010;
Rajyalakshmi et al., 2011; Pathak et al., 2000, Roni et al.,
2013;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 95
59. Cissampelos pareira L.
Family Menispermacea
e
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Abuta, barbasco,
velvetleaf
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Plant distributed in shaded, frost free posters and in moist
environments. The plant is very common in hedges at the
foothills and up to c. 2300 m. Common plant of India and
Pakistan.
Blooming Period March-October
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and other
Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/ Forage
etc.)
It has many medicinal applications in stops bleeding,
balances menstruation, relieves pain, reduces spasms,
relaxes muscles, stops inflammation, increases urination,
prevents ulcers and reduces fever (Ganguly et al., 2007;
Wu et al., 2008).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Used in homeopathic industry.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Reported for medicinal evaluation and extraction, weeds
effecting crops in India and impacts of invasive plants on
vegetation (Singh et al., 2013; Murty & Venkaiah,
2011).
Crop Infested Wheat, Maiz, Sugarcane, rice
Major Documentation Ganguly et al., 2007; Wu et al., 2008; Singh et al., 2013;
Murty & Venkaiah, 2011;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 96
60. Salvia aegyptiaca L.
Family Lamiac
eae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Egypti
an sage
Habit Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Islands, NW and N. Africa, Sudan, Ethiopia, Arabian peninsula,
Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India. It found up to 800m. In the
world, S. aegyptiaca extended from the Canaries to Asia, through
northern Africa and the Middle East.
Blooming Period March-May.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It is commonly used in local folk medical practices and in
cosmetics. For example, the seeds are used as a demulcent for
diarrhoea and for piles (Ghazanfar, 1999). The whole plant is used
in diarrhoea, gonorrhoea and haemorrhoids, eye diseases, and as
an antiseptic, antispasmodic and stomachic (Rizk and El-Ghazaly,
1995). It is also used in cases of nervous disorders, dizziness and
trembling (Hussein, 1985).
Part Used Whole Plant
Commercial Value Sold commercially as folk medical practices.
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Wheat, Maize, Rice, cultivated beds.
Major Documentation http://plants.jstor.org/compilation/Salvia.aegyptiaca;
http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=5&taxon_id=25
0090589;
Rizk, & El-Ghazaly, 1995; Al-Yousuf et al., 2002; Gorai et al
2011; Janošević et al., 2016;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 97
61. Typha minima Funck ex Hoppe
Family Typhaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Bulrush
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Typha minima is glabrous and light-loving plant, native to
marshes and wetlands in Europe and Asia.
Blooming Period June-August
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
http://pfaf.org reported some important medicinal uses of
this plant are anticoagulant, diuretic, mmenagogue and
haemostatic.
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Not Reported
Major Documentation www.missouribotanicalgarden.org;
http://pfaf.org/User/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Typha+mini
ma
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 98
62. Anisomeles indica (L.)
Family Lamiaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Catmint
Habit Woody
herbs
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Anisomeles indica loves to grow in sunshine open places,
teak forests, grasslands and cultivated fields on wet soils.
A widespread species which, in the Himalayan part of its
wide range, reaches its western limit in Pakistan.
Blooming Period April-September
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
For traditional medication, Anisomeles indica is used as
powerful astringent, rheumatism, arthritis, carminative,
skin problems, febrifuge and tonic. The antimicrobial
activities of A. indica against many bacterial and fungal
species are also reported (Kundu et al., 2013; Kavitha et
al., 2017).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Rice,
Major Documentation https://florafaunaweb.nparks.gov.sg; Useful tropical
plants; Kundu et al., 2013; Kavitha et al., 2017
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 99
63. Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss.
Family Lamiaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Koi booi, Spina
ghazai, Chotta
kanda
Habit Shrub
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Endemic to Kashmir (Pakistan). It seems to be widespread
in Pakistan. Habitually found in waste, field and dry
Blooming Period April-June
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc.)
Otostegia limbata have antibacterial properties and used for
mouth sores, throat pains and wounds healing. Used as
fodder (Kausar, et al., 2016; Khan et al., 2009).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value For production of Saponin, pectin, and resin
(Phytochemicals)
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Otostegia limbata assessed in ethnobotanical studies,
vegetation mapping, antibacterial assessment and vegetation
description studies etc. (Malik & Malik, 2004; Amjad &
Arshad, 2014; Ali et al., 2015).
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation Kausar, et al., 2016; Khan et al., 2009; Malik & Malik, 2004;
Amjad &Arshad, 2014; Ali et al., 2015
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 100
64. Plantago lanceolata L.
Family Plantaginaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Ribwort Plantain,
Habit Forb/herb
Life form Annual, Biennial,
Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Plantago lanceolata is native to Europe and Central Asia. Now it’s
become cosmopolitan plant and naturalized in tropical area of all
continents. This plant breeds in disturbed areas, roadsides and
grasslands with neutral and basic soils.
Blooming Period April-August
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Ribwort Plantain have plentiful medicinal application but the most
significantly used as antibacterial, astringent, expectorant and
haemostatic (Samuelsen, 2000; Kültür, 2007).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Cotton, corn, mango, citrus
Major Documentation http://www.pfaf.org; Samuelsen, 2000; Kültür, 2007
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 101
65. Commelina benghalensis Linn.
Family Commelinaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/Common
Name
Dayflowers
Habit Herb
Life form Annual,
Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Commelina is the largest genus of family Commelinaceae
included 170 species. Widely distributed in tropical and
sub-tropical area. Growing as weed in woodland garden
sunny edge, dappled shade, and cultivated beds.
Blooming Period Different species of the genus have different blooming
period.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Commelina sp. are world widely used for the treatments of
several complications including cosmetic, cardiovascular,
hypertension, dermatological, digestive, diarrhea and
tumor (Foster et al 2000; Bista, 1997).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
The root exudates from C. benghalensis had different
allelopathic effects on on four crops-Sorghum vulgare,
Zea mays, Vigna radiate and Brassica napus (Yang et al.,
2011).
Crop Infested Maize, wheat, barley
Major Documentation Shah, & Khan 2006; Foster et al 2000; Bista, 1997
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 102
66. Potamogeton lucens Linn.
Family Potamogetonaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Shining Pondweed
Habit Herb
Life form Annual, Perennial
Habitat and Distribution In many aquatic ecosystems, Potamogeton species are
distributed worldwide. However, the highest range of
species existed in the northern hemisphere, particularly in
North America which is considered as its native land.
Blooming Period July-August
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Potamogeton sp. are world widely used for medicinal,
edible and forage purposes (Zhang, et al., 2014).
Part Used: Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
The allelopathic effect of Potamogeton spp on M.
aeruginosa are analyzed by coexistence and exudates
experiments which strongly inhibit the growth of M.
aeruginosa (Zhang et al., 2009). P. schweinfurthii extracts
inhibited the growth of phytoplankton (Tamire et al.,
2016). Nakai et al., (2010) reported that from the root of
P. australis anti-cyanobacterial compound are released.
While Potamogeton lucens exert little or no allelopathic
activity (Jasser, 1995).
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation Flora of Pakistan, Flora of America; Nakai et al., 2010;
Zhang, et al., 2014; Tamire et al., 2016:
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 103
67. Scrophularia altaica Murray
Family Scrophulari
aceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Figworts.
Habit Herb
Life form Annual,
Perennial
Habitat and Distribution The Scrophularia genus comprises about 200 flowering
plants species. The species of this genus is widely
distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere, but
rigorously found in Asia with only a few species in Europe
and North America.
Blooming Period June-August
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Not found
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrophularia, retrieve, 2017;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 104
68. Sida cordata (Burm. f.) Borss. Waalk
Family Malvaceae
Aromaticity: Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name:
Long-stalk
Sida, Heart-
Leaf Sida,
Habit Herb
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Native to India, grows in meadows and along roadsides. S.
cordifolia are distributed throughout the tropical and sub-
tropical savannas all over India, Pakistan and Srilanka.
Blooming Period October-December
Local Occurrence: Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc.)
Sida cordifolia extensively used for the treatments of
different disease and problems. Mostly used for RTI, UTI,
erectile dysfunction, skin problem, nerve pain, tonic and
weight loss.
Part Used: Leaves, flowers, whole plant
Commercial Value Used in preparation of herbal medicine extensively
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
For scientific justification of Sida cordata traditional
application in diabetes its Ethyl acetate fraction was
examined.
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation Manandhar, 2002; Shah & Khan, 2014;
http://www.webmd.com/vitamins-
supplements/ingredientmono-837-
sida%20cordifolia.aspx?activeingredientid=837&activeingr
edientname=sida%20cordifolia
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 105
69. Taverniera cuneifolia (Roth) Arn.
Family Taverniera
cuneifolia
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Wedge-Leaf
Taverniera,
East-indian
Moneywort
Habit Shrub
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Taverniera cuneifolia native to Pakistan and India and
found in waste places of plain area.
Blooming Period Around the year
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
T. cuneifolia is traditionally used for various diseases
treatment purposes such as expectorant, blood purification,
anti-inflammatory, wound healing, antiulcer and used in
treating spleen tumors (Mangalorkar et al., 2013)
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation Mangalorkar et al., 2013; Flora of Pakistan, Flora of India
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 106
70. Euphorbia hirsuta L.
Family Euphorbiaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name:
Hairy Spurge,
Habit Herb
Life form Annual
Habitat and Distribution Nitrophilous and moist loving herbaceous plant, grows at
margins of rivers, streams, ditches, lagoons and marshes
places of sub-tropical regions at elevation 0-700 (1300).
Blooming Period June-October
Local Occurrence Common (Threatened status)
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Traditionally used as analgesic, laxative and purgative
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Not reported
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Not reported
Major Documentation http://www.botanical-
online.com/alcaloideseuphorbiaangles.htm ;
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 107
71. Myrsine africana. L.
Family Primulaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Cape myrtle,
African
boxwood
Habit Small
evergreen
shrubs
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution Widely distributed in Asia and Africa.
Blooming Period September-November
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
Blood purifier, anthelmintic, Laxative, Emmenagogue,
Hedge, Hedge Wood.
Part Used Flashy fruit and leaves
Commercial Value Pharmacological
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not Reported
Crop Infested Growing in old fields, waste areas and roadsides
Major Documentation http://www.plantzafrica.com/plantklm/myrsinafr.htm
http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Myrsine
+africana
Gamble-1972, Gupta-1945, Chopra-1986, Ruffo
at.al,2002, Chopra et al-1986
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 108
72. Barleria cristata Lam
Family Acanthaceae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Philippine
violet
Habit Shrub
Life form Perennial
Habitat and Distribution B. cristata is native to Asia including Pakistan, China, India
etc. B. cristata can be found grow in warm and humid area
along pathways, slopes, watercourses, and xeric vegetation at
elevations below 100 m up to 2600 m. It is also neutralized in
in dry and wet regions of ruderal sites and semi-natural
habitats (Rojas-Sandoval and Acevedo-Rodriguez, 2015).
Blooming Period September-December
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
It is grown as ornamental plant. The juice of leaves and roots
are used traditionally for the treatment of catarrhal infections
including tuberculosis, as diaphoretic and expectorant.
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Pharmaceutical
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
Not reported
Crop Infested Wheat,
Major Documentation http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/8509;
http://medplants.blogspot.com/2015/05/barleria-cristata-
vajradanti-semmulli.html
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 109
73. Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf
Family Legumi
nosae
Aromaticity Yes
Vernacular/ Common
Name
Angleto
n grass;
blueste
m, Hindi
grass
Habit Herb
Life form Perennia
l
Habitat and Distribution D. annulatum is globally distributed in tropical and
subtropical regions with its capability to grow on a varied
soils texture and tolerance to drought and salinity.
Blooming Period March-November.
Local Occurrence Common
Local Medicinal and
other Uses of the weed
(Edible/ Medicinal/
Forage etc)
D. annulatum is commonly used as forage for cattles. It is
also used to control soil erosion on inclined patches for
improving degraded grassland (Cook et al., 2005). D.
annulatum also reported as antifungal (Shafique & Bajwa,
2004), antiviral, antimicrobial and cytotoxic activities
(Awad et al., 2015).
Part Used Whole plant
Commercial Value Commercialized fodder grasses
Previous Allelopathic
Potential/ Assessment
Reported
D. annulatum germination and radicle growth is
significantly suppressed by Euphorbia granulata Forssk
(Hussain, 1980).
Crop Infested Wheat, Rice, Maize, Sugarcane,
Major Documentation https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scrophularia, retrieved on t 4,
2017; Shafique & Bajwa, 2004; Awad et al., 2015
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 110
4.3 Bioassay activity evaluation of 73 weeds from Pakistan for
allelopathic potential assessment
This study represents the comprehensive screening of allelopathic activity of weeds
from Pakistan by applying sandwich and dish pack methods. The source for existing
research of weed control towards classifying the potent organic compounds for
controlling weeds in crops is the screening of large quantities of plants. Strong
allelopathic weeds species have been acknowledged from analysis to provide direction
for further research. Under laboratory conditions 73 weeds were examined for their
allelopathic potentials through latest bioassay activity evaluation techniques. In
Pakistan, the allelopathic activity evaluation of plants through bioassay techniques is
quite rare. There is a dire need to develop a complete data base of plants having strong
allelopathic potential through application of these latest techniques. The research
information generated from the present work can be used as a benchmark for future
research on the allelochemical identification and characterization. During the follow up
work of present endeavor; methanolic leaf extracts of strongest allelopathic species
shall be tested for antioxidant activities on crops pathogens and will also be
recommended as allelopathic cover crop for biological control of weeds to support
agro-environment conservation.
The development and growth of vulnerable plants are effecting by allelochemicals
through reducing radicle, extension of sprouts, seed distension, root axis curling, seed
discoloration and lack of root hairs (Bhadoria, 2011, Appiah et al., 2015). Using of
chemical substances known as herbicides and pesticides are utmost influential and
effective way to control weeds and pests. To supplement the nutrient requirements and
pest control in ecological system heavy doses of synthetic chemicals i.e. fertilizers and
pesticides are being used. By their nature, many weeds have a natural ability to develop
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 111
resistance aginst herbicies. The demand of herbicides have been increased globally
while fungicides and insecticides are reduced because of disease and insect resistant
breeding and advanced pest management system. Resistance is developing in different
pests by continuous application of synthetic chemical in large quantity that is also a
serious threat to environment. In this context, the researcher pays more attention to
herbicidal resistant weeds.
Allelochemicals isolated from plants are imperative substitute of agrochemical which
can play vital role in reducing problems arises from poor agricultural techniques and
synthetic pesticides application in bulk quantity (Macías et al., 2003; Appiah et al.,
2015). In crop production practices the weed management through allelopathy is more
beneficial and environmental friendly substitute for conventional herbicide as
allelochemicals have shorter half-lives and different chemical structure with diverse
mode of action (Kruse et al., 2000; Narwal et al., 1998; Appiah et al., 2015). The
demand of organic products in market has been increased during last decades (Appiah
et al., 2015). Now it is officious to focus on study for finding some organic products to
control and weed management, thereby abating or side stepping the common practices
and applications of herbicides in upcoming days and reduce the hazardous effects on
human and environment. From past decade, the scientists are giving more attention to
organic compounds as alternative of pesticides.
Pakistan looses an amount of 28 billion annually due to weeds in wheat crops. The total
losses all over the world are more than its production. To avoid weeds losses new weed
control measures must be adopted. The major weeds like Ammi visnaga, Carthemus
oxyacantha, Avena fatua, Phalaris minor, Cirsium avense, Convolvulus arvensis,
Chenopodium album and Euphorbia helioscopia are very much competitive with wheat
and cause serious losses to wheat crop in Pakistan. (Hassan et al., 2003). Allelopathy
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 112
is natural friendly technique for controlling weeds and it also reduces the cost of
production of all cereal crops. It also acts as a source of some useful molecules, which
help in the reduction of weed problem in wheat crop. (Albuquerque et al., 2011). Maize
(Zea mays L.) is another important cereal crop of Pakistan, 36% of it is grown on rain-
fed areas, while 64% is cultivated under irrigated conditions. It is grown on an area of
990200 thousand hectares yielding 3734 (metric) tons annually with an average yield
of 3839 kg ha-1 (Akhtar et al. 2015). Weed species permeating the maiz crop are
functions of a complex collaboration among soil characteristics, climate and cultural
practices. These dynamics vary across regions and bend the composition and number
of predominant weeds of economic importance to corn production (Knezevic et al.
2003). Maize play momentous role in cropping system of Pakistan providing both feed
and food contemporaneously (Nabi 2013).
This research study mainly focused on screening of selected medicinal weed species
collected from different crops, fields, roadsides, meadows of Pakistan. Unfortunately,
in Pakistan yields of crops are very low because of weed interference e.g. wheat per
acre yields does not go beyond 30-35% of its potential in Pakistan (Waheed et al.,
2009). Population of the country has increasing at the fastest rate of world. To meet the
growing food requirements of the country, crops production should fulfill this demand.
The agricultural lands are squeezing so the increase in cropping land is impossible. To
get the potential yields from existing land, is only possible by increasing its yield by
vertical improvement. Increase in crop production may be possible by utilizing this
research information to reduce the resistance through biological control of weeds and
pests.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 113
4.4 Allelopathic Evaluation of Weeds through Sandwich Method
This study represents the comprehensive screening of allelopathic activity of selected
weeds from Pakistan by applying sandwich method. The source for existing research
of weed control towards classifying the potent organic compounds for controlling
weeds in crops is the screening of large quantities of plants. Strong allelopathic weeds
species would be acknowledged from analysis to provide direction for further
researches. Under laboratory conditions 73 selected medicinal weeds were examined
for allelopathic potential.
This research statement only engrossed on recognition and introduction of allelopathic
potential in selected weeds from Pakistan. The next follow up work will focus on the
application of top strong allelopathic plants for cover crops and their application against
crop pathogens as pesticides.
The statistical analysis of the data is represented in Table 4.1, which described the
allopathic effect of leachates of 73 weeds plants on lettuce seedling elongation (Radicle
and hypocotyl percentage elongation). It is evident that elongation percentage of radical
and hypocotyl ranged 0-74% and 0-148% (10mg), 0-75% and 0-84% (50mg)
respectively in Sandwich method (Table: 4.2) as compared with control.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 114
Table 4.1: Evaluation of allelopathic activity in 73 selected weeds through Sandwich method
S.No. Botanical Name Family Name
Extension(%) Criterion
R-10mg H-10mg
Control 100.00 100.00
16 Melilotus indica L. Papilionaceae 0.00 0.00 **
22 Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause Papilionaceae 0.00 0.00 **
18 Melilotus alba Desr Papilionaceae 0.82 3.41 **
69 Peganum harmala L. Nitrariaceae 5.05 30.61 **
14 Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Brassicaceae 6.57 19.39 **
52 Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton Brassicaceae 7.58 24.49 **
6 Anagallis arvensis L . Primulaceae 9.09 33.67 *
126 Taverniera cuneifolia (Roth) Arn. Papilionaceae 13.70 33.77 *
81 Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. Papilionacaea 13.73 35.92 *
36 Solanum nigrum L., Solanaceae 14.14 45.92 *
37 Urtica dioica Linn. Urticaceae 15.15 48.98 *
32 Achyranthes aspera Linn Amaranthaceae 15.66 41.84 *
60 Coriandrum sativum L. Apiaceae 16.33 51.13 *
110 Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss Lamiaceae 17.16 55.34 *
1 Avena fatua L. Poaceae 18.03 80.67
20 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae 18.11 29.55
15 Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Asteraceae 18.58 82.35
57 Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae 19.70 50.00
41
Centaurea iberica Trevir. ex
Spreng. Asteraceae 22.73 45.92
13 Trichodesma indicum (L.) Boraginaceae 24.04 67.23
93 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. Amaranthaceae 24.51 70.87
27 Solanum erianthum D Don Solanaceae 24.81 54.30
133 Helianthus annuus L. (petals) Asteraceae 25.98 66.02
106 Typha minima Funck ex Hoppe Typhaceae 27.27 42.86
121 Potamogeton lucens Linn. Potamogetonaceae 27.40 28.57
38 Malva parviflora L. Malvaceae 27.76 57.14
2 Verbena tenuisecta Briq. Verbenaceae 27.78 55.10
34 Cyperus iria L. Cyperaceae 28.79 69.39
97 Argyrolobium roseum (Camb.) Jaub &
Spac Papilionaceae 29.09 63.10
127 Euphorbia hirta L., Euphorbiaceae 30.13 71.92
10 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae 30.81 66.33
23 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill ssp. asper Asteraceae 33.74 67.05
91 Pteris cretica L. Pteridaceae 34.31 60.19
90
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. &
Kitam. Asteraceae 34.80 57.28
44 Oxalis corymbosa DC. Oxalidaceae 35.35 77.55
11 Cannabis sativa Linn. Cannabaceae 36.07 90.76
28 Vicia sativa L. Papilionacaea 36.21 56.82
66 Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don) Hand.-
Mazz. Asteraceae 38.37 78.20
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 115
83 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. Papilionaceae 39.71 85.44
19 Oenothera rosea L' Her. ex Ait. Onagraceae 41.56 77.27
125 Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss. Malvaceae 42.16 87.38
129 Barleria cristata L. Acanthaceae 42.82 81.05
25 Convolvulus arvensis Linn. Convolvulaceae 44.36 82.12
21 Taraxacum officinale L. Asteraceae 44.44 67.05
56
Ipomoea cornea ssp. fistulosa (Mart.
ex Choisy) Convolvulaceae 45.71 102.26
7 Phalaris aquatica Linn. Poaceae 45.86 75.50
116 Commelina benghalensis Linn. Commelinaceae 46.58 76.62
95 Adiantum caperis -veneris L. Pteridaceae 47.88 79.76
30 Vernonia anthelmintica (Linn.) Asteraceae 50.21 76.14
113 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae 50.23 79.22
4 Chenopodium ambrosioides Briq. Chenopodiaceae 50.27 87.39
59 Carthamus oxyacantha M.Bieb. Asteraceae 50.61 76.69
3 Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae 50.75 90.07
101 Salvia aegyptiaca L. Lamiaceae 50.91 94.05
29 Lantana camara L . Verbenaceae 51.85 84.09
5 Sida alba L. Malvaceae 51.88 94.04
12 Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Asteraceae 52.63 78.15
24 Rumex nepalensis Spreng Polygonaceae 54.32 88.64
98 Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae 54.55 92.86
122 Scrophularia altaica Murray Scrophulariaceae 54.79 57.14
40 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbiaceae 56.33 93.23
99 Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae 56.36 111.90
58 Aloe vera (L.) Burm. Asphodelaceae 57.58 88.10
96
Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham. ex
D.Don) Lamiaceae 57.58 90.48
108 Anisomeles indica (L.) Lamiaceae 58.18 111.90
132 Pentanema divaricatum Cass. Asteraceae 59.48 73.06
134 Helianthus annuus L. (Sepals) Asteraceae 61.76 105.83
67 Lythrum salicaria Linn. Lythraceae 62.86 148.87
131
Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.)
Stapf Poaceae 67.41 89.04
9 Salvia moocroftiana Wall. Lamiaceae 68.42 86.09
8 Phalaris minor Retz. Poaceae 69.92 101.99
62 Cyperus rotundus Linnaeus Cyperaceae 71.84 99.25
74 Saxifraga rotundifolia L. Saxifragaceae 74.29 99.25
Mean 36.92 68.84
SD 19.17 27.55
Mean-1SD 17.76 41.30
Mean-1.5SD 8.17 27.52
Mean-2SD -1.41 13.75
Mean-2.5SD -10.99 -0.02
R is the length of seedling radicle and H is the length of seedling Hypocotyl
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 116
Fig. 4.1: Frequency Distribution of Percentage Inhibition among selected weeds through
sandwich method
Results indicate that growth of lettuce radicles were more inhibited than its hypocotyl
when treated by Sandwich method (Fig.4.1). The plant families with the highest number
of weeds species inspected were Asteraceae (13 species), Papilionaceae (8 species),
Poaceae (4 species) with Amaranthaceae and Lamiaceae having 3 species each. Eight
families have 2 species each i.e., Brassicaceae, Convolvulaceae, Euphorbiaceae,
Lamiaceae, Malvaceae, Oxalidaceae, Solanaceae, and Verbenaceae. Allelopathic effect
of only one species was examined from each of other 26 families including
Acanthaceae, Apiaceae, Apocynaceae, Asphodelaceae, Asteraceae, Boraginaceae,
Cannabaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Commelinaceae, Cyperaceae, Cyperaceae, Lythraceae,
Malvaceae, Menispermaceae, Nitrariaceae, Onagraceae, Plantaginaceae,
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
80-100 60-79 40-59 20-39 below 19
Nu
mb
er o
f M
edic
inal
wee
ds
Spec
ies
Percentage Inhibition
R-10mg
H-10mg
R-50mg
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 117
Polygonaceae, Potamogetonaceae, Primulaceae, Pteridaceae, Pteridaceae,
Saxifragaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Typhaceae and Urticaceae.
Sandwich method data of inhibition of radical at 10 mg categorized species into 5
classes (Table 4.1). Complete inhibition in the first group (80-100%) is shown by
Melilotus indica and Medicago parviflora. Strongest inhibitory activity i.e., 90-99%
was observed in 4 species (Melilotus alba, Peganum harmala, Coronopus didymus,
Nasturtium officinale). 80-86% inhibition was exhibited by Taverniera cuneifolia,
Crotalaria medicaginea, Solanum nigrum, Urtica dioica, Achyranthes aspera,
Coriandrum sativum, Otostegia limbata, Avena fatua, Parthenium hysterophorus,
Cirsium arvense, Xanthium strumarium, and Anagallis arvensis. The lowest inhibitory
activity in this study was observed in 7 plant species in the range of 20-39% by
Helianthus annuus, Lythrum salicaria, Dichanthium annulatum, Salvia moocroftiana,
Phalaris minor, Cyperus iria., and Saxifraga rotundifolia. Members of Papilionaceae
were ranked the strongest inhibitory plant species among the evaluated samples using
the sandwich method. Over all there were 8 species from papilionaceae out of which 5
exhibited 80-100 % inhibition while 3 others showed 60-79% inhibition of radical
growth (Table 4.2).
During sandwich method investigations, Melilotus indica has been identified as the
strongest allelopathic plant among all 73 weed species followed by Medicago
parviflora. M. indica showed strong inhibition on hypocotyl and radicle elongation of
lettuce seeds. M. indica belong to Papilionaceae family and is an annual herbaceous
plant, commonly known as yellow sweet clover. M. indica is native of south-western
Europe, also believed from India. It invaded almost the whole globe and in Pakistan
and now communal to all continents. M. indica “Yellow sweet clover” blooms during
April-October. It has different uses and some known usages are Honey production,
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 118
erosion control, soil improver, fodder, and medicines (Sarep, 2006; Brown & Brooks,
2002). Extracts from M. indica show fairly good antibacterial and antitumor activities
in screening experimentations (Karakas et al., 2012; Miri, et al., 2013). The occurrence
of C-glycosides, methylene-dioxypterocarpan, pterocarpane, prenylated pterocarpan
and flavone glycoside from this plant have also been reported (Yadava and Jain, 2005).
Yellow sweet clover examined along with other weeds and crops species for its
allelopathic potential. Previous research work also supported that M. indica has strong
allelopathic potential (Macías et al., 1997; Anaya et al., 1987; El-Khatib et al., 2004).
Medicago parviflora was found the second strongly inhibitory species during the
present sandwich analysis. Allelopathic activities or other ecological information of
Medicago parviflora were not reported previously.
Melilotus alba was ranked third most noxious weed during sandwich analysis among
the all selected weeds from Pakistan (Table 4.1). Melilotus alba commonly known as
white sweet clover and it is also a species of family Papilionaceae. M. alba is an erect
annual herbaceous plants species. Melilotus alba breeds in complete sun shine places
or fractional shadow, but cannot endure impenetrable shade. M. alba loves to grows in
soil that has calcareous and loamy characteristics; such as roadsides, abandoned fields
etc. (Cole, 1990). It is a common plant and blooms in March to September. M. alba
traditionally used as salad, cocked green, flavoring and also used as forage for livestock.
It plays a very important role in production of honey and soil restoration. Methanolic
extracts of M. alba have best antitumor activities (Karakas et al., 2012). Biochemical
compound flavones, volatile oils, resins, and tannins are reported from M. alba
(Grigorescu et al., 1986). From literature review it has been concluded that allelopathic
potential of M. alba is not reported yet while it inhibited the lettuce seedling growth
during sandwich analysis; so, it is a new finding in allelopathic analysis. M. alba in
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 119
combination with other plants have been used in weeds management. Aqueous extracts
of Croton inhibit seedling of M. alba (Sisodia and Siddiqui, 2010). White sweet clover
also analyzed in experimentation for weeds control treatment (Iqbal et al., 2010).
Peganum harmala is perennial glabrous herb of family Nitrariaceae commonly known
as Syrian rue, blooms in April-October. Syrian rue is distributed in many countries i.e.
India, Pakistan, Russia, USA, North Arica and Europe. Its seed powder is traditionally
used to treat problems such as asthma, colic and jaundice and as an anthelmintic against
tapeworms and for reducing temperature in chronic malaria. Seeds are reported as
narcotic, hypotonic, antispasmodic, antiperiodic, emetic, alterative, lactagogue,
antitumor and antinociceptive (Lamchouri et al., 1998; Monsef et al., 2004). More
phenolic acids are presents in leaves other than stems and roots of P.harmala
(Sodaeizadeh et al., 2009) while highest levels of alkaloids identified in seeds and roots
other than stems and leaves (Herraiz et al., 2010). Seven phenolic acids were extracted
from leaf extracts of P. harmala (Sodaeizadeh et al., 2009). Growth of dicot plants
lettuce and amaranth significantly inhibited by the alkaloids of Peganum harmala L.
than the tested wheat and ryegrass which are monocot plants (Shao et al., 20.13).
Extracts from the parts (leaf, stem and root) of P. harmala have allelopathic potential
towards Avena fatua and Convolvulus arvensis the result of this study also showed its
strong inhibitory properties when analyzed through sandwich method. The present
study and previous work recommended that it can be used as natural herbicide for weed
control.
Nasturtium officinale is perennial hydrophyte herb; a member of the mustard family
(Brassicaceae). N. officinale introduced from Europe and America and now commonly
found in Europe and Temperate Asia. Watercress grows at stream sides, dykes, flushes
etc with moving water, usually in chalk or limestone places (Flora of Pakistan, 2016).
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 120
N. officinale folk medicinal uses areincluded cardioprotective agent in Iran and now its
potential is proved by scientific investigation (S Bahramikia and R Yazdanparast 2008).
Watercress used for waste water treatment and also have potential as anticarcinogen
(Engelen et al., 2006). N. officinale defended against herbivory through releasing
allelochemicals by glucosinolate—myrosinase system (Newman et al., 1996). The SM
assessment showed that the watercress is potent and strong allelopathic weeds and
ranked 6th among the assessed selected weeds.
Crotalaria medicaginea is divaricately branched herbs and belongs to Leguminosae
family. Crotalaria medicaginea commonly called Trefoil Rattlepod. Trefoil Rattlepod
blooms during January to March and August to December that is why some scientists
considered it is annual and some put it in perennial plants list. Trefoil Rattlepod
commonly distributed in seashore sandy places, lush and grassy land, along tracks;
below 100-2800 m. widespread in South Asia, Himalaya regions to Australia (Flora of
China 2016). C.medicaginea contains exceptional nutriments because it has starch,
protein dietetic fiber, oligosaccharides, phyto-chemicals and minerals. They are often
nominated for diseases resistance because of its food richness quality (Kathirvel and
Kumudha, 2012). It is used as fodder for cattles. C. medicaginea is used traditionally
for treatment of white discharge by Chhattisgarh peoples (Tirkey, 2006). Its seeds
contain polysaccharide composed of d-galactose and d- mannose (Gupta & Bemiller,
1990). C. medicaginea leaf leachates did not affect the seedling growth when its
exudates were applied on Zea mays, mungo Glycine max and Eleusine coracana (Bhatt,
et al., 1994), while P. juliflora and P. cineraria exudates inhibited the C. medicaginea
seedling growth and germination (Goel and Nathawat 1990). During sandwich analysis
it has been listed among top ten potent and strong allelopathic weeds.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 121
Coriandrum sativum is a medicinal plant species of family Umbelliferae commonly
known as Coriander. As a domestic remedy Coriander is a usually used for i digestive
problems, treating flatulence, diarrhoea and colic (Launert, 1981; Javadi et al., 2008).
It helps to reduce the gut spasm and nervous tension effects (Chevallier, 1996). The
seed is aromatic, carminative, expectorant, narcotic, stimulant and stomachic (Grieve,
1984; Launert, 1981; Omer et al., 2016; Talaat, et al., 2014; Stuart, 1998; Bown, 1995).
Some attentiveness is recommended, though, because the seeds become narcotic; if it
is used too regularly (Grieve, 1984). For rheumatic pain treatment, its seeds can be
applied externally and can also use as lotion (Chevallier, 1996; Stuart, 1979). The other
uses of Coriander include Fuel; Insecticide; Depurative Oil; Expectorant.
Antidiarrhoeal; Antihalitosis; Appetizer; Aromatherapy; Aromatic and Fungicide
(pfaf.org- 2017). C.sativum is annual herb grows 15-60 cm tall, branched and blooms
in early spring to early summer. Coriandrum sativum native of Italy and it is cultivated
in diverse area and also distributed in wild fields (Flora of Pakistan, 2017). Hoary cress
germination reduced from 13.8 to 27% by coriander and lovage (Raylic et al., 2013).
Akmal et al 2011 reported that seedlings of Trigonella and coriander inhibit the growth
of spinach. Zea mays radicle length is suppressed and plumule length is reduced
C.sativum during medicinal plants allelopathic evaluation (Baeshen, 2014). At high
densities lettuce seed germination is inhibited by all examined species including C.
sativum of family Apiaceae (Steven Lamoureux and Ross Koning 1998). Growth of
some weeds species are inhibited by aromatic and medicinal plants for example
caraway, coriander and fennel (Baličević, et al., 2015, Đikić, 2005). The result of this
allelopathic assement strongly support the previous research work. Hence, C.sativum
has medicinal importance and can be used as natural herbicide for weeds management.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 122
The results presented in this research study hereby described the allelopathic potential
of weeds collected from different area of Pakistan. Information obtained from the
bioassay through sandwich could be aid in the development of natural herbicides
(bioactive compounds) from plant and also the utilization of these plants in sustainable
weed control.
4.5 Allelopathic Evaluation of Weeds through Dish Pack Method
This study represents the comprehensive screening of allelopathic activity of selected
weeds from Pakistan by applying Dish Pack Method (Table 4.2). The source for current
study of weed control towards classifying the strong allelochemicals for controlling
weeds in crops is the screening of large quantities of plants. Strong allelopathic weeds
would be acknowledged from analysis to provide direction for further researches.
Under laboratory conditions 73 medicinal weeds species were examined for their
allelopathic potentials.
The statistical analysis of the data is represented in Table 4.2, which described the
allopathic effect of leachates of 73 weeds plants on lettuce seedling elongation (Radicle
and hypocotyl percentage elongation). It is evident that elongation percentage of radicle
and hypocotyl ranged 7-150 % in Dish Pack method (Table: 4.2) as compared with
control.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 123
Table 4.2: Evaluation of allelopathic activity of volatiles in 73 selected weeds through Dish pack method
S. No. Botanical Names Family
Extension % Criteria
Radicle Hypocotyl
14 Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. Brassicaceae 1.93 7.48 ***
18 Melilotus alba Desr Papilionaceae 6.77 30.73 **
16 Melilotus indica L. Papilionaceae 9.67 41.53 **
38 Malva parviflora L. Malvaceae 10.81 49.85 **
36 Solanum nigrum L., Solanaceae 13.06 61.58 **
52 Nasturtium officinale W .T. Aiton Brassicaceae 22.14 66.05 **
37 Urtica dioica Linn. Urticaceae 25.68 83.58 *
34 Cyperus iria L. Cyperaceae 26.58 71.85 *
28 Vicia sativa L. Papilionacaea 31.98 79.91 *
22
Medicago parviflora E.H.L.
Krause Papilionaceae 39.19 83.58 *
32 Achyranthes aspera Linn Amaranthaceae 49.10 87.98
81 Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. Papilionacaea 49.90 89.69
3 Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae 52.71 113.79
57 Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae 52.95 113.71
8 Phalaris minor Retz. Poaceae 53.68 70.60
1 Avena fatua L. Poaceae 57.54 93.02
44 Oxalis corymbosa DC. Oxalidaceae 59.03 114.55
132 Pentanema divaricatum Cass. Asteraceae 61.68 92.51
13 Trichodesma indicum (L.) Boraginaceae 65.76 107.14
113 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae 68.50 66.31
56
Ipomoea cornea ssp. fistulosa
(Mart. ex Choisy) Convolvulaceae 68.58 115.38
29 Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae 69.37 122.43
9 Salvia moocroftiana Wall. Lamiaceae 70.60 81.40
15 Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. Asteraceae 71.83 85.71
62 Cyperus rotundus Linnaeus Cyperaceae 71.91 100.47
129 Barleria cristata L. Acanthaceae 77.68 95.57
133 Helianthus annuus L. (sepals) Asteraceae 77.68 85.63
11 Cannabis sativa Linn. Cannabaceae 78.34 117.11
7 Phalaris aquatica Linn. Poaceae 81.73 127.91
6 Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae 82.69 122.92
12 Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Asteraceae 82.69 99.67
126 Taverniera cuneifolia (Roth) Papilionaceae 83.64 99.42
125 Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss. Malvaceae 84.27 105.50
41
Centaurea iberica Trevir. ex
Spreng. Asteraceae 86.81 124.58
25 Convolvulus arvensis Linn. Convolvulaceae 87.50 149.48
66
Saussurea heteromalla (D.Don)
Hand.-Mazz. Asteraceae 89.14 114.98
20 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae 89.93 116.74
59 Carthamus oxyacantha M.Bieb. Asteraceae 91.14 122.82
60 Coriandrum sativum L. Apiaceae 92.13 108.89
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Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 124
93 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. Amaranthaceae 93.69 100.77
4 Chenopodium ambrosioides Briq. Chenopodiaceae 93.81 110.47
21 Taraxacum officinale L. Asteraceae 94.14 85.04
116 Commelina benghalensis Linn. Commelinaceae 94.85 98.32
96
Micromeria biflora (Buch.-Ham.
ex D.Don) Lamiaceae 95.21 90.00
131
Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.)
Stapf Poaceae 95.31 100.96
90
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. &
Kitam. Asteraceae 95.72 100.00
91 Pteris cretica L. Pteridaceae 95.72 94.62
98 Nerium oleander L. Apocynaceae 96.74 109.23
122 Scrophularia altaica Murray Scrophulariaceae 96.99 105.50
134 Helianthus annuus L. (Petals) Asteraceae 97.93 95.57
83 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. Papilionaceae 98.15 105.05
23 Sonchus asper (L.) Hill ssp. asper Asteraceae 98.65 93.84
97
Argyrolobium roseum (Camb.)
Jaub & Spach Papilionaceae 99.29 100.00
2 Verbena tenuisecta Briq. Verbenaceae 100.10 102.99
74 Saxifraga rotundifolia L. Saxifragaceae 100.80 89.69
101 Salvia aegyptiaca L. Lamiaceae 101.83 106.92
110 Otostegia limbata (Benth.) Boiss Lamiaceae 102.46 89.18
5 Sida alba L. Malvaceae 102.63 128.21
69 Peganum harmala L. Nitrariaceae 103.59 108.01
10 Oxalis corniculata L. Oxalidaceae 104.13 93.75
127 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae 104.99 100.92
24 Rumex nepalensis Spreng Polygonaceae 106.31 118.04
95 Adiantum caperis -veneris L. Pteridaceae 106.42 102.31
106 Typha minima Funck ex Hoppe Typhaceae 107.14 87.65
19 Oenothera rosea L' Her. ex Ait. Onagraceae 111.22 99.67
27 Solanum erianthum D Don Solanaceae 112.61 120.23
121 Potamogeton lucens Linn. Potamogetonaceae 117.13 105.61
67 Lythrum salicaria Linn. Lythraceae 117.61 95.92
99 Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae 117.65 105.08
58 Aloe vera (L.) Burm. Asphodelaceae 118.53 109.76
108 Anisomeles indica (L.) Lamiaceae 121.19 92.99
40 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbiaceae 233.48 102.47
30 Vernonia anthelmintica (Linn.) Asteraceae 234.24 115.81
Mean 83.10 97.08
SD 39.35 22.53
Mean-1SD 43.75 74.55
Mean-1.5SD 24.07 63.28
Mean-2SD 4.39 52.02
Mean-2.5SD -15.28 40.76
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 125
Fig. 4.2: Frequency Distribution of Percentage Inhibition among medicinal weeds
through Dishpack method
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
80-100 60-79 40-59 20-39 below 19 stimulatory
Nu
mb
er o
f M
edic
inal
wee
ds
Spec
ies
Percentage Inhibition
R-10mg
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 126
Fig. 4.3: Range of Percentage Inhibition in Radicle (-R) and Hypocotyl (-H) of 73
Weed Species by Dishpack (DP) method
In dish pack method (Table: 4.3), Coronopus didymus ranked at the top with 98%
inhibition rate of radical. Next 4 plants with strong inhibition are in the range of 86-
93% i.e., Melilotus alba, Melilotus indica, Malva parviflora and Solanum nigrum.
Nasturtium officinale, Urtica dioica, Cyperus iria., Vicia sativa, Medicago parviflora,
comes next in the ranking showing 60-79% inhibition in radical growth rate.
Achyranthes aspera, Crotalaria medicaginea, Amaranthus viridis, Xanthium
strumarium, Phalaris minor, Avena fatua, Oxalis corymbos showed 40-59%. 39 plant
species showed relatively weak inhibitory potential against the control plant species. 20
plant species exhibited stimulatory potential i.e., Verbena tenuisecta, Saxifraga
rotundifolia, Salvia aegyptiaca, Otostegia limbata, Sida alba, Peganum harmala,
Oxalis corniculata, Euphorbia hirta , Rumex nepalensis, Adiantum caperis-veneris,
Typha minima, Oenothera rosea, Solanum erianthum, Potamogeton lucens, Lythrum
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
SW-R (10) SW-H (10) SW-R (50) SW-H (50) DP-R DP_H
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 127
salicaria, Cissampelos pareira, Aloe vera, Anisomeles indica, Euphorbia helioscopia
and Vernonia anthelmintica. Euphorbia helioscopia and Vernonia anthelmintica
remain conspicuous by having more than 200% elongation rate.
Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm. ranked at the top in radical inhibition during Dish pack
analysis. C. didymus is annual or biennial herb (Flora of Pkaistan, 2017), its decumbent
and angled stems grow 15-30 centimetres in length and commonly called Swine
Wartcress or Lesser swinecress. C. didymus of family Brassicaceae is perhaps native to
South America (Clapham et al., 1981; Stace, 2010). Swine Wartcress commonly
distributed throughout the world and grows in waste and agricultural fields, along with
pavement but mostly found in sandy soil. Extraction of C.didymus have substantial
antiallergic, antimicrobial, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic and
hepatoprotective activity (Busnardo et al., 2010; Mantena et al., 2005). Viral inhibitory
activity of Lesser swinecress extracts also reported against BVDV-1 virus (Ruffa et al.,
2004). Extracts of C. didymus has allelopathic effect on wheat germination and its early
seedling growth (Khaliq et al., 2013). The results of the present investigation also
support and proved that C. didymus has sturdiest volatile inhibitory properties against
L. sativa through dish pack.
Melilotus alba and M.indica also showed strong inhibition during dishpack method and
ranked at second and third respectively among all selected weeds. Malva parviflora was
recorded as forth most noxicious with strong inhibition. Malva parviflora is native plant
of Pakistan. It is annual erect herb, mostly found in all soil types and common in waste
land and found in sheep yards, watercourses, closed yards and roadsides. Premiarily
occurred in southern Australia and locally found in Pakistan. It has anti-bacterial and
anti-inflammatory properties (Shale et al., 1999; Shale et al., 2012). Previously reported
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 128
with strong allelopathic effect on photosynthesis and growth of cultivated plants such
as barley (El-Khatib. 2000; Al-Johani et al., 2012).
Solanum nigrum is found among fifth most strong allelopathic plants during Dish pack
analysis. S. nigrum also commonly known as black nightshade is an annual but some
time biannual tall herb reproducing only by seed. S. nigrum complex are largely
confined to disturbed situations such as cultivated land, roadsides, wasteland,
uncompetitive pastures, and exposed river beds and banks. Genotypes of the S. nigrum
complex with large fruits are sometimes cultivated, the fruit being used in pies, and
young shoots are also sometimes eaten as pot herbs (Edmonds and Chweya, 1997;
Mabberley, 1997). The taxon is very variable, and edible cultivars could undoubtedly
be selected and improved by standard plant breeding methods. Extracts of S. nigrum
have allelopathic potential against seed germination of different plants (Kadioglu et al.,
2005; Marinov, 2015).
4.6 Antifungal activity of allelopathic weeds Medicago parviflora,
Solanum nigrum, Melilotus alba and Melilotus indica against soil-born
phytopathogenic fungi
This research study based on the assessment to found the substitute of chemical
fungicides mostly used for fungal disease control. It will be an additional and valuable
advantage if these antifungal characteristics and properties found in noxious weeds.
Fungicidal assessment of plant extract of 04 notorious crops weeds which affecting and
reduce crop production. These weeds were selected on basis of their strong allelopathic
potential against Lettuce (Lactuca sativa) during sandwich and dish pack analysis of
weeds of Pakistan. Methanolic extract of all the selected weed plants i.e. Melilotus
indica L., Melilotus alba Desr., Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause and Solanum
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 129
nigrum L. are screened for their fungicidal activities against the soil-borne fungal
phytopathogens Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizoctonia oryzae, Fusarium fujikuroi, Fusarium
oxysporum, Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia oryzae. We used
microspectrophotometric assessment technique for the antifungal evaluation. Minimum
inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of the
extracts were determined. The amended methanolic extract and known fungicide
Nystatin for respective fungal strain were consider as negative and positive control
respectively. Results indicated that growth of all the mentioned fungal strains were
significantly inhibited. The values of the weed extracts determined ranging between
0.781-25 mg/mL while MFC values ranging between 3.125-25 mg/mL.
This current research investigation is therefore, commenced to assess the worth of some
of the common crops weed extracts Melilotus indica, Melilotus alba , Medicago
parviflora and Solanum nigrum against the soil-borne fungal phytopathogens like
Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizoctonia oryzae, Fusarium fujikuroi, Fusarium oxysporum,
Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia oryzae.
Among the mentioned weeds extracts, Medicago parviflora showed highest activity
against Pythium ultimum among all extract and the lowest activity was shown by extract
Melilotus indica L. against Fusarium oxosporum. Overall all of the extract showed
potent activities against all fungal strains. Among the fungal strains, Pythium ultimum,
Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxosporum were highly susceptible compared to the
rest of the strains tested. Rhizoctonia oryzae, Fusarium fujikoroi and Pyricularia oryzae
were slightly resistant compared to the other strains tested. The positive control
Nystatin also showed potent activity against all fungal strains as shown in Fig. 4.4. The
highest activity shown by Nystatin against Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia oryzae.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 130
Figure 4.4: Growth inhibition of fungal strains by crude extracts of plants.
4.6.1 Minimum Inhibitory Concentration
Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of all extracts was determined
against all tested fungal strains. About seven dilutions were prepared and
were tested for MIC in triplicate. The dilutions of extract ranges from (0.781-
25 mg/mL) and the positive control Nystatin was (156.25-5000 units/mL).
The minimum inhibitory concentration of all the extracts varied from strain
to strain. Fusarium oxysporum was the most susceptible strains among all
strains tested for MIC. The MIC shown by all extracts against Fusarium
oxysporum was in the range of 6.25-12.5. On the contrary the Pyricularia
oryzae and Fusarium fujikuroi were the most resistant strains among all
tested strains for MIC. Most of the extracts showed least minimum inhibitory
concentration against these strains. The MIC of all extracts against these
strains was 0.781 mg/mL. The positive control Nystatin also showed potent
activities against fungal strains tested. The MIC of Nystatin was in range of
15.25-1250 Unit/mL as shown in table 4.4.
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
120.0
Rhizoctoniasolani
Rhizoctoniaoryzae
Fusariumfujikuroi
Fusariumoxysporum
Pythiumultimum
Pyriculariaoryzae
% Ih
ibit
ion
Fungal strains
Melilotus indicus L. Melilotus alba Desr. Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause Solanum nigrum L. Nystatin
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 131
4.6.2 Minimum Fungicidal Concentration
The minimum fungicidal concentration of all the crude extracts was
established. The MFC values were in the range of 3.125-25 mg/mL. The
highest minimum fungicidal activity was observed against Pyricularia oryzae
and Fusarium fujikuroi that was 3.125 mg/mL. On the other side, no MFC
was shown against Pythium ultimum species by extract M. parviflora and in
addition all of the extracts showed poor MFC against Pythium ultimum and
Fusarium oxysporum with a concentration of 6.25-25 mg/mL as shown in
Table 4.3.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 132
Table 4.3: Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal
concentration (MFC) of crude extracts of plants names
Names
MIC (mg/mL) MFC (mg/mL)
Pyt
hiu
m
ult
imu
m
Rh
izo
cto
nia
sola
ni
Pyr
icu
lari
a
ory
zae
Fu
sari
um
fuji
kuro
i
Rh
izo
cto
nia
ory
zae
Fu
sari
um
oxy
spo
rum
Pyt
hiu
m
ult
imu
m
Rh
izo
cto
nia
sola
ni
Pyr
icu
lari
a
ory
zae
Fu
sari
um
fuji
kuro
i
Rh
izo
cto
nia
ory
zae
Fu
sari
um
oxy
spo
rum
Melilotus
indica L.
12.
5 12.5 0.78 0.78 3.125 12.5 25 6.25 3.125 3.125 3.125 25
Melilotus a
lba Desr.
12.
5 12.5 0.78 0.78 6.25 12.5 25 25 3.125 3.125 12.5 25
Medicago
parviflora
E.H.L.
Krause
6.2
5 6.25 0.78 0.78 1.56 12.5 - 12.5 3.125 3.125 3.125 25
Solanum
nigrum L.
3.1
25 6.25 0.78 0.78 1.56 6.25 6.25 12.5 3.125 3.125 3.125 12.5
Nystatin*
(Unit/mL)
12
50 1250 156.3 156.3 625
125
0
250
0
250
0 312.5 312.5 1250 2500
Nystatin*: Nystatin was used in units/ml.
Weeds plants of notorious nature and allelopathic potential with limited reported
antifungal activity were selected for authentication of their use against fungal
pathogens. For this purpose, the top most noxious and allelopathic plants which were
examined by Sandwich and Dish pack screening methods. These notorious weeds
included Melilotus indica L., Melilotus alba Desr., Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause
and Solanum nigrum L. Methanolic extracts of above mentioned plants leaves were
tested against soil born phytopathogenic fungi, i.e. Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizoctonia
oryzae, Fusarium fujikuroi, Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia
oryzae. Methanolic fractions exhibited more promising results than aqueous fractions
in suppressing the fungal growth (Buch and Arya, 2017).
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 133
Rhizoctonia solani (Ceratobasidiaceae family), a form of rot, commonly found in most
soils and cause several disease in almost all agricultural crops (Huang et al. 2008; Feng
et al. 2017). Susceptibility of all cultivars to this pathogen make them vulnerable for
pest attacks (Singh et al. 2002). R. solani effectively controlled with the application of
systemic fungicides and antibiotics (e.g. jinggangmycin or validamycin) (Yang et al.
2012; Feng et al. 2017). Biological control of R. solani are reported from about 100
years through microorganisms mostly by using fungal strains e.g. Trichoderma spp.,
Chlonostachys rosea and Coniothyrium minitans etc. (Daguerre et al., 2017) bacterial
strains like Streptomyces strains, Bacillus sp., Pseudomonas spp. etc and bacterial virus
strains isolated from the endosphere or rhizosphere (Gnanamanickam & Mew 1992;
Ahsan et al. 2017). Antifungal activities of different medicinal plant extracts diluted
with 50% Acetone e.g. Trachystemon orientalis, Smilax excelsa, siam weed and wild
sunflower etc. from Turkey and Sir Lanka have been reported against R. solani
(Dissanayake & Jayasinghe 2013; Onaran & Sağlam 2016). This research study focused
on the top most noxious weeds of agricultural system which have already affect the
yield production worldwide including Pakistan. Medicago parviflora is herbaceous
weed distributed in harvested crops and fields, never reported its medicinal,
antimicrobial or any other ecological properties. M. parviflora showed highest
antifungal activity against R. solani strain succeeded by M. alba, S. nigrum and M.
indica.
Rhizoctonia oryzae commonly known as teleomorph or Waitea circinate belong to
family Ceratobasidiaceae. This pathogenic fungus causes several diseases in crops like
sheath spot of rice, root rot and crown of wheat, stalk rot of maize and root rot of barley
(Paulitz et al. 2003; Aye et al. 2009; Doussoulin et al. 2016). Pesticides extracted from
plants are favored for risk reduction associated with chemical control techniques.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 134
Clove, neem, rosemary and pelargonium extracts suppressed fungal growth including
R. oryzae (San & Matsumoto, 2011). The reported plants extracts used for biological
control of soil-borne pathogenic fungi R. oryzae have economical and medicinal
application while the plants used for antifungal activities are toxic weeds. Results of
this study indicated that M. parviflora again showed highest antifungal activity against
R. oryzae. S. nigrum leaf extracts were found to give the second-best suppression
against the tested fungi.
Worldwide many Fusarium spp. are distributed and have economic importance by
producing toxic and deadly secondary metabolites to environment which leads to cause
diseases in plants, animals and as well in human (Leslie & Summerell 2006). Known
reported species included Fusarium poae, F. verticillioides and members of the F.
solani species complex (FSSC), F. oxysporum species complex (FOSC) and the F.
graminearum species complex (Streit et al. 2012; Herron et al., 2015). However, most
agricultural plants are host to Fusarium fujikuroi (Leslie & Summerell 2006; Herron et
al., 2015). F. fujikuroi is hemibiotrophic fungus and can be transmitted to host vertically
(seed-borne) or horizontally (soil- or aerial-borne, or through wounds) where it causes
show root, stalk and ear rot, as well as wilting, stalk thinning and reduced aerial and
root growth (Wu et al. 2011; Karla et al. 2014). The other sturdiest pathogenic and
globally distributed fungus of this group is Fusarium oxysporum (soil-borne
ascomycete). Many commercially cultivated harvests and some other crops are host to
F. oxysporum strains which infected and killed the harvested crops. F. oxysporum
transmitted to host through root, block its vascular system and stops transportation
process which cause flaccid, streak and eventually the plant die. Additionally, Fusarium
oxysporum covers outside plant kingdom, into Animalia and deceitful human pathogen,
reported in immunocompromised patients the well-identified agents producing invasive
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 135
fungal diseases. These fungal infections in mammals are eventually fatal as resistant
developed in F. oxysporum against available antifungal drugs.
Previous research studies have already been reported many in vitro efficacy of different
higher plant extracts and their constituents examined for successful biocontrol of
Fusarium fujikuroi and Fusarium oxysporum because of their fungi toxicants nature
with less harming ecosystem capability due to their biodegradability (Najar et al.
2011; Ankita and Dwivedi, 2012; Bashar & Chakma, 2014). Among all the tested plants
extracts only few showed 100 % suppress the mentioned soil-borne fungi i.e. F.
fujikuroi and F. oxysporum. The present research study is to assess the potential of
methanolic extract of allelopathic weeds leaves extracts to control the pathogenic
fungus F. fujikuroi and F. oxysporum. The result of obtained from research work
indicated that S. nigrum and M. parviflora showed 106.2 % and 105.5 % suppression
respectively to the tested Fusarium species.
Pythium ultimum is also a soil-borne pathogenic fungus of family Pythiaceae. P.
ultimum causes a wide range of problems like damping-off, seedling blight root rot and
stem rot diseases of hundreds of diverse plant hosts including corn, soybean, carrot,
cucumber, melon, potato, wheat, fir, and many ornamental species (Cheung et al. 2008;
Farr & Rossman 2014). P. ultimum is abundantly found in soil moisture and high soil
temperature regions of the world. It is very problematic to control soil-borne pathogenic
P. ultimum only with fungicides like mefenoxam, thiadiazole, etridiazole,
propamocarb, dimethomorph, and phosphonates and this method also uneconomical
(Gholve et al., 2014). Biologically P. ultimum controlled through microorganisms
included some bacterial strains of Bacillus, Streptomyces and Pseudomonas species and
fungal strains like Trichoderma, Gliocladium and Candida (Berendsen et al., 2012).
Garlic extracts and essential oils of Thymus vulgaris, Lavandula sp. and Mentha
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 136
piperita and Methanol extract, obtained from Tagetes patula plant, controlled P.
ultimum (Mares et al. 2004; Cruz et al. 2013). The reported plants used for antifungal
assessment are either ornamental or have agricultural importance but here in this
research the plants selected for antifungal assessment are totally unwanted plants.
Medicago parviflora showed highest while Melilotus indica showed lowest activity
against Pythium ultimum among all tested weeds extract.
Pyricularia oryzae is a virulent specie of family Magnaporthaceae employ a
hemibiotrophic stratagem to enter host and sequentially establishing infection at
biotrophic and necrotrophic stages (Kankanala et al. 2007; Marcel et al. 2010). Rice
blast is the most destructive reported problem worldwide caused by P. oryzae, which
lead to a notable reduction in yields about 30 % of rice production (Koga, 2001; TeBeest
et al. 2007; Skamnioti and Gurr, 2009; Moghaddam and Soltani, 2013). Previous
research studies disclose that fungal resistant to chemical treatments and genetic
manipulation have been established (Kim & Kim,1997). Turmeric, garlic, van tulsa and
Ginger extracts are reported as significant antifungal agent against P.
oryzae (Khanzada, and Shah, 2012; Gurjar et al. 2012). In this current investigations,
M. parviflora and S. nigrum leaf extracts show highest suppressive activity respectively
against Pyricularia oryzae.
Fungitoxicity effects of the phyto-extracts indicate the potentials of selected plant
species as a source of natural fungicidal material. These extracts exhibit significant
fungicidal properties that support the importance of these plants in agroecosystem. In
the case of fungal infection, these mechanisms include synthesis of bioactive organic
compounds (Domenico et al. 2012) and antifungal proteins (Morrisey and Osbourn,
1999) and peptides (Selitrennikoff, 2001; Dissanayake & Jayasinghe 2013)
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 137
All the selected and assessed unwanted plants for fungicidal activities show strong
fungal inhibition. Results showed that Medicago parviflora and Solanum nigrum have
strong suppressive potential for the fungal growth of all tested soil born
phytopathogenic fungi. Outcome of the present research study could be an important
step towards the possibilities of using natural unwanted plant products as biopesticides
in the control of plant diseases caused by R. solani, R. oryzae, F. fujikuroi, F.
oxysporum, P. ultimum and P. oryzae. Further studies are needed to determine the
chemical identity of the bioactive compounds responsible for the observed antifungal
activity. Natural plant-derived fungicides may be a source of new alternative active
compounds, in particular with antifungal activity.
Overall results indicate that growth of lettuce radicles were more inhibited than its
hypocotyl when treated by both methods Sandwich and dishpack (Fig.4.3). Sandwich
method data of inhibition of radical at 10 mg categorized species into 5 classes (Table
4.1). Complete inhibition in the first group (80-100%) is shown by Melilotus indica and
Medicago parviflora. Strongest inhibitory activity i.e., 90-99% was observed in 4
species (Melilotus alba, Peganum harmala, Coronopus didymus, Nasturtium officinale.
80-86% inhibition was exhibited by Taverniera cuneifolia, Crotalaria medicaginea,
Solanum nigrum, Urtica dioica, Achyranthes aspera, Coriandrum sativum, Otostegia
limbata, Avena fatua, Parthenium hysterophorus, Cirsium arvense, Xanthium
strumarium, and Anagallis arvensis. The lowest inhibitory activity in this study was
observed in 7 plant species in the range of 20-39% by Helianthus annuus, Lythrum
salicaria, Dichanthium annulatum, Salvia moocroftiana, Phalaris minor, Cyperus iria,
and Saxifraga rotundifolia. Members of Papilionaceae were ranked the strongest
inhibitory plant species among the evaluated samples using the sandwich method. Over
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 138
all there were 8 species from papilionaceae out of which 5 exhibited 80-100 %
inhibition while 3 others showed 60-79% inhibition of radical growth (Table 4.1).
In dish pack method (Table: 4.2), Coronopus didymus ranked at the top with 98%
inhibition rate of radical. Next 4 plants with strong inhibition are in the range of 86-
93% i.e., Melilotus alba, Melilotus indica, Malva parviflora and Solanum nigrum,
Nasturtium officinale, Urtica dioica, Cyperus rotundus, Vicia sativa, Medicago
parviflora, comes next in the ranking showing 60-79% inhibition in radical growth rate.
Achyranthes aspera, Crotalaria medicaginea, Amaranthus viridis, Xanthium
strumarium, Phalaris minor, Avena fatua, Oxalis corymbos showed 40-59%. 39 plant
species showed relatively weak inhibitory potential against the control plant species. 20
plant species exhibited stimulatory potential i.e., Verbena tenuisecta, Saxifraga
rotundifolia, Salvia aegyptiaca, Otostegia limbata, Sida alba, Peganum harmala,
Oxalis corniculata, Euphorbia hirta , Rumex nepalensis, Adiantum caperis-veneris,
Typha minima, Oenothera rosea, Solanum erianthum, Potamogeton lucens, Lythrum
salicaria, Cissampelos pareira, Aloe vera, Anisomeles indica, Euphorbia helioscopia
and Vernonia anthelmintica. Euphorbia helioscopia and Vernonia anthelmintica
remain conspicuous by having more than 200% elongation rate.
Weeds plants of notorious nature and allelopathic potential with limited reported
antifungal activity were selected for authentication of their use against fungal
pathogens. For this purpose, the top most noxious and allelopathic plants which were
examined by Sandwich and Dish pack screening methods. These notorious weeds
included Melilotus indica L., Melilotus alba Desr., Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause
and Solanum nigrum L. Methanolic leaf extracts of above mentioned plants were tested
against soil-born phytopathogenic fungi, i.e. Rhizoctonia solani, Rhizoctonia oryzae,
Fusarium fujikuroi, Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium ultimum and Pyricularia oryzae.
Results and Discussion
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 139
Methanolic fractions exhibited more promising results than aqueous fractions in
suppressing the fungal growth (Buch and Arya, 2017). All the selected and assessed
unwanted plants for fungicidal activities show strong fungal inhibition. Results showed
that Medicago parviflora and Solanum nigrum have strong suppressive potential on
fungal growth of all tested soil-borne phytopathogenic fungi. New herbicides and
antifungals are needed, particularly in the developing world, to treat cropping system
weeds competition for nutrients and fungal infections. The current study showed that
Medicago perviflora has strong inhibition potential to lettuce seedling and also on
fungal species. Outcome of this present research study could be an important step
towards the possibilities of using natural unwanted plant products as herbicides and
biopesticides for biological control of weeds and crops diseases caused by fungi.
Conclusion and Recomendations
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 140
CHAPTER 05
CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATIONS
5.1 CONCLUSION
From the past, few decades the trend to understand the myth of allelopathy get more
attention among researcher and hence research studies in this regards proved the
allelopathic behavior of crops and weeds by crop rotation, cover crops, green manure,
intercropping, etc. Research studies prevail to explain the effects (positive and negative)
of plants on their communities. Abilities and chemistry of allelopathic plants (crops and
weeds) depend on the composition of soil, nutritional availability, community of
neighboring plants, ecological and environmental conditions and genetic makeup etc.
Modern techniques, methods have helped in recognizing latent biological compounds,
make easy to know that how the allelochemicals synthesis, releases to soil, mode of
action and how effects the environment.
The results presented in the current research study hereby described the allelopathic
potential of weeds collected from different area of Pakistan. The top strongest and
potent allopathic weeds were applied for further fungicidal assessment, the results
showed strong inhibition against crop pathogenic fungi. Results showed that Medicago
parviflora and Solanum nigrum have strong suppressive potential against fungal growth
of all tested soil-borne phytopathogenic fungi. It has been concluded that selected
weeds may have strong allelochemical potential that can help in the development of
Conclusion and Recomendations
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 141
bioactive compounds from plant species to be used as natural herbicides for sustainable
control of weeds. This present research study could be an important step towards the
possibilities of using natural unwanted plant products as bio-pesticides in the control of
plant diseases caused by R. solani, R. oryzae, F. fujikuroi, F. oxysporum, P. ultimum
and P. oryzae
5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
Using this research information as benchmark for future research works on the
allelochemical identification and characterization.
Information as such could aid in the development of bioactive compounds from
plant species into natural herbicides and also the utilization of these plants in
sustainable weed control.
Further studies are needed to determine the chemical identity of the
bioactive compounds responsible for the observed antifungal activity.
Natural plant-derived fungicides may be a source of new alternative
active compounds, in particular with antifungal activity.
Genetical and evolutionary studies in this field are introductory. Manipulation
and identification of allelopathic genes will be the revolutionary achievements
of researchers for control and weed management.
Importantly in future research allelochemicals formulation into a commercial
weed and phytopathogenic pest control product.
It is also recommended as allelopathic cover crop for biological control of
weeds to support agro-environment conservation
References
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment Page | 1
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ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
ANNEXURE
Annexure A: Weeds of Pakistan S.No Name Family
1 Abutilon indicum L Malvaceae
2 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae
3 Acrachne racemosa (B. Heyne ex Roem. & Schult.) Ohwi Poaceae
4 Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Amaranthaceae
5 Ageratum conyzoides L. Asteraceae
6 Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Simaroubaceae
7 Alhagi maurorum Medic. Papilionaceae
8 Alloteropsis cinicina (L.) Poaceae
9 Alopecurus nepalensis Trin. ex Steud. Poaceae
10 Alternanthera pungens Kunth Amaranthaceae
11 Alternanthera sessilis L. Amaranthaceae
12 Alysicarpus monilifer (L.) Moraceae
13 Amaranthus blitoides S. watson Amaranthaceae
14 Amaranthus hybridus L. Amaranthaceae
15 Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae
16 Anagallis arvensis L. Primulaceae
17 Argyreia nervosa (Burm. f.) |Convolvulaceae
18 Aristida adscensionis L. Pocaeae
19 Aristida cyanantha Nees ex Steud. Pocaeae
20 Arnebia hispidissima (Lehm.) A. DC. Boraginaceae
21 Artemesia scoparia Waldst. & Kit., Pl. Rar. Hung Asteraceae
22 Asparagus officinalis L. Asparagaceae
23 Asphodelus tunifolius Caven Asphodelaceae
24 Astragalus eremophilus Boiss. Papilionaceae
25 Astragalus hvmosus L. Papilionaceae
26 Atriplex stocksii Boiss. | Chenopodiaceae
27 Avena fatua L. Poaceae
28 Bidens pilosa L. Asteraceae
29 Boerhavia procumbens Banks ex Roxb. Nyctaginaceae
30 Bolboschoenus affinis Roth. Cyperaceae
31 Bolboschoenus maritimus (L.) Palla Cyperaceae
32 Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf Poaceae
33 Brachiaria reptans (L.) Poaceae
34 Brassica tournefortii Gouan |Brassicaceae
35 Briza minor L.
36 Bromus catharticus Vahl Poaceae
37 Bromus pectinatus Thunb. Poaceae
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
38 Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) L'Hér. ex Vent. Moraceae
39 Buglossoides arvensis (L.) I.M. Johnst Boraginaceae
40 Bulbostylis barbata Rottb. Cyperaceae
41 Bulbostylis densa Wall. Cyperacea
42 Capparis cartilaginea Decne. Capparidaceae
43 Cyperus iria L Cyperaceae
44 Corchorus olitorius L Tiliaceae
45 Cyperus rotundus L. Cyperaceae
46 Corchorus tridens L. Tiliaceae
47 Calendula arvensis L. Asteraceae
48 Calendula officinalis L. Asteraceae
49 Calotropis procera (Aiton) R. Br. Asclepiadaceae
50 Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae
51 Bromus catharticus Vahl, Symb. Capparidaceae
52 Carduus argentatus L. Asteraceae
53 Carthamus oxyacantha M. Bieb. Asteraceae
54 Carthamus persicus Desf. ex Willd. Asteraceae
55 Carthamus tinctorus L. Asteraceae
56 Cassia accidentalis L Caesalpiniaceae
57 Cassia occidentalis hort. ex Steud. Caesalpiniaceae
58 Celosia argentea L. Amaranthaceae
59 Cenchrus ciliaris L. Poaceae
60 Centaurea iberica Trevir. ex Spreng Asteraceae
61 Centaurium pulchellum (Sw.) E.H.L. Krause Gentianaceae
62 Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Medic Brassicaceae
63 Chenopodium album L. Chenopodiaceae
64 Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Chenopodiaceae
65 Chenopodium murale L. Chenopodiaceae
66 Chloris barbata Sw. Poaceae
67 Cichorium intybus L. Asteraceae
68 Cirsium arvense (L.) Asteraceae
69 Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk) Hook. f. Orobanchaceae
70 Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Cucurbitaceae
71 Cleome viscosa L. Capparidaceae
72 Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. Capparidaceae
73 Cnicus benedictus L. Asteraceae
74 Commelina benghalensis L. Commelinaceae
75 Convolvulus arvensis L. Convolvulaceae
76 Convolvulus spicatus Peter ex Hallier f. Convolvulaceae
77 Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronquist Asteraceae
78 Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist Asteraceae
79 Conyzanthus squamatus (Spreng.) Tamamsch. Asteraceae
80 Corchorus aestuans L. Tiliaceae
81 Corchorus depressus (Linn.) Tiliaceae
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
82 Corchorus olitorius L. Tiliaceae
83 Coronopus didymus (L.) Brassicaceae
84 Cousinia minuta Boiss. Asteraceae
85 Cressa cretica L Convolvulaceae
86 Crotalaria medicaginea Lamarck, Encycl Papilionaceae
87 Cucumis prophetarum L.f. Cucurbitaceae
88 Cucumis melo (MilL.) J.H. Kirkbr. Cucurbitaceae
89 Cirsium wallichii DC. Asteraceae
90 Cuscuta japonica Choisy Convolvulaceae
91 Cymbopogon commutatus (Steud.) Stapf Poaceae
92 Cymbopogon distans (Nees ex Steud.) Will. Watson Poaceae
93 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Poaceae
94 Cyperus alulatus J. Kern Cyperaceae
95 Cyperus bulbosus Vahl Cyperaceae
96 Cyperus compressus L. Cyperaceae
97 Cyperus difformis L. Cyperaceae
98 Cyperus haspan L., Cyperaceae
99 Cyperus iria L. Cyperaceae
100 Cyperus laevigatus L., Cyperaceae
101 Cyperus longus L. Cyperaceae
102 Cyperus niveus Retz. Cyperaceae
103 Cyperus nutans Vahl Cyperaceae
104 Cyperus rotundus L Cyperaceae
105 Cyperus esculentus L. Cyperaceae
106 Cyperus strigosus L. Cyperaceae
107 Dampiera stricta (Sm.) R.Br. Goodeniaceae
108 Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. Poaceae
109 Datura alba F. Muell. Solanaceae
110 Datura innoxia Mill. Solanaceae
111 Descurainia Sophia (L.) Webb ex Prantl Brassicaceae
112 Desmostachya bipinnata (L.) Poaceae
113 Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf Poaceae
114 Digera arvensis Forssk. Amaranthaceae
115 Digera muricata (L.) Mart. Amaranthaceae
116 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler Poaceae
117 Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers. Poaceae
118 Digitaria nodosa Parl. Poaceae
119 Digitaria setigera Roth Poaceae
120 Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P. Beauv. Poaceae
121 Elaeocarpus glabrescens Mast. Elaeocarpus
122 Euphorbia prostrata Aiton Euphorbiacae
123 Echinochloa colona (L.) Poaceae
124 Echinochloa frumentacea Link Poaceae
125 Echinops echinatus L. Asteraceae
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
126 Eclipta prostrata (L.) Asteraceae
127 Eclipta alba L. Asteraceae
128 Eleocharis atropurpurea (Retz.) J. Presl & C. Presl Cyperaceae
129 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae
130 Emex spinose L. Polygonaceae
131 Emex spinosa (L.) Polygonaceae
132 Eragrostis pilosa (L.) Poaceae
133 Erigeron allochrous Botsch. Asteraceae
134 Erigeron canadensis L. Asteraceae
135 Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E. Hubb. Poaceae
136 Eruca sativa Mill. Brassicaceae
137 Euphorbia helioscopia L. Euphorbiaceae
138 Euphorbia indica Lam. Euphorbiacae
139 Euphorbia oblongata JPG Euphorbiaceae
140 Euphorbia prostrata Aiton Euphorbiaceae
141 Euphorbia dracunculoides Lam. Euphorbiaceae
142 Fimbristylis miliacea L. Vahl Cyperaceae
143 Fagonia cretica L. Zygophyllaceae
144 Fagonia indica Burm. f. Zygophylaceae
145 Farsetia jacquemontii Hook. f. & Thomson Brassicaceae
146 Filago pyramidata L. Asteraceae
147 Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forssk.) Bubani Cyperaceae
148 Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl Cyperaceae
149 Fimbristylis miliacea (L.) Cyperaceae
150 Fimbristylis quinquangularis (Vahl) Kunth Cyperaceae
151 Fimbristylis squarrosa Vahl Cyperaceae
152 Fumaria parviflora Lam. Fumariaceae
153 Galium aparine L. Rubiaceae
154 Galium tricorne Stokes Rubiaceae
155 Gynandropsis pentaphylla Blanco Capparidaceae
156 Heliotropium europaeum L. Boraginaceae
157 Heliotropium arborescens L. Boraginaceae
158 Heliotropium strigosum Willd. Boraginaceae
159 Hyoscyamus niger L. Solanaceae
160 Hypecoum pendulum L. Papaveraceae
161 Ifloga spicata (Forssk.) Sch. Bip. Asteraceae
162 Imperata cylindrica (L.) Poaceae
163 Indigofera cordifolia B. Heyne ex Roth Fabaceae
164 Indigofera hochstetteri Baker Papilionaceae
165 Indigofera linifolia (L. f.) Retz. Papilionaceae
166 Indigofera oblongifolia Forssk. Papilionaceae
167 Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. Convolvulaceae
168 Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. Convolvulaceae
169 Ipomoea alba Willd. Convolvulaceae
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
170 Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. Poaceae
171 Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae
172 Sceletium tortuosum (Kanna) Aizoaceae
173 Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Cyperaceae
174 Lactuca dissecta D. Don Asteraceae
175 Lactuca serriola L. Asteraceae
176 Lamium album L. Lamiaceae
177 Lamium amplexicaule L. Lamiaceae
178 Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae
179 Lathyrus aphaca L. Fabaceae
180 Lathyrus sativus L. Fabaceae
181 Launaea nudicaulis (L.) Asteraceae
182 Launaea angustifolia (Desf.) Kuntze Asteraceae
183 Launaea procumbens (Roxburgh) Ramayya & Rajagopa Asteraceae
184 Launaea resedifolia L. Asteraceae
185 Leersia hexandra Sw. Poaceae
186 Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae
187 Leptochloa chinensis (L.) Nees Poaceae
188 Leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi Poaceae
189 leptochloa panicea (Retz.) Ohwi Asteraceae
190 Leptodenia pyrotechnica Apocynaceae
191 Linum corymbulosum Rchb. Linaceae
192 Leucas cephalotes (Roth) Spreng. Lamiaceae
193 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae
194 Malcolmia africana (L.) Brassicaceae
195 Malcolmia africana (L.) W.T. Aiton Brassicaceae
196 Malva neglecta Wallr. Malvaceae
197 Malva parviflora L. Malvaceae
198 Malva verticillata L. Malvaceae
199 Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke Malvaceae
200 Medicago laciniata (L.) Papilionaceae
201 Medicago lupulina L. Fabaceae
202 Medicago polymorpha L. Fabaceae
203 Medicago sativa L. Fabaceae
204 Medicago citrina. (Font Quer) Greuter Fabaceae
205 Melilotus alba L. Fabaceae
206 Melilotus indica (L.) Papilionaceae
207 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) M. Roem. Cucurbitaceae
208 Nepeta compestris Benth. Lamiaceae
209 Nerium indicum Mill. Apocynaceae
210 Neslia apiculata Fisch., C.A. Mey. & Avé-Lall. Brassicaceae
211 Nonea philistaea Boiss. Boraginaceae
212 Nonea pulla (L.) DC. Boraginaceae
213 Ochthochloa compressa (Forssk.) Hilu Poaceae
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
214 Oenothera rosea L'Hér. ex Aiton Onagraceae
215 Oligomeris linifolia (Vahl.) Resedaceae
216 Onosma chitralicum I.M. Johnst. Boraginaceae
217 Orobanche alba Stephan. Orobanchaceae
218 Oryza sativa Linn. Poaceae
219 Oxalis stricta L. Oxalidaceae
220 Oxyria digyna (L.) Polygonaceae
221 Persicaria maculosa Gray Polygonaceae
222 Paspalum scrobiculatum L. Poaceae
223 Panicum repens L. Poaceae
224 Papaver alpinum L. Papaveraceae
225 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteraceae
226 Paspalidium geminatum (Forssk.) Stapf. Poaceae
227 Paspalidium punctatum (Burm.) Poaceae
228 Paspalum distichum L. Poaceae
229 Peganum harmala L. Nitrariaceae
230 Pennisetum divisum (J.F. GmeL.) Henrard Poaceae
231 Phalaris minor Retz. Poaceae
232 Phragmite karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. Malvaceae
233 Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud. Poaceae
234 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Verbenaceae
235 Phyllanthus niruri L. Euphorbiaceae
236 Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. Euphorbiacae
237 Physalis peruviana L. Solanaceae
238 Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae
239 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae
240 Plantago ovate Forssk Plantaginaceae
241 Plantago amplexicaulis Cav. Polygonaceae
242 Poa annua L. Poaceae
243 Poa bulbosa L. Poaceae
244 Polygonum barbatum L. Polygonaceae
245 Polygonum biaristatum Aitch. & Hemsl. Polygonaceae
246 Polygonum plebejum R. Br. Polygonaceae
247 Polypogon hissaricus (Roshev.) Bor Poaceae
248 Polypogon monspeliensis (L.) Poaceae
249 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae
250 Portulaca quadrifida L. Portulacacae/
Aizoaceae
251 Psammogeton biternatum Edgew. Apiaceae
252 Pycreus flavidus (Retz.) T. Koyama Cyperaceae
253 Ranunculus laetus Wall. ex Royle Ranunculaceae
254 Ranunculus muricatus L. Ranunculaceae
255 Rhynchosia capitata (B. Heyne ex Roth) DC. Papilionaceae
256 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC. Papilionaceae
257 Robinia pseudoacacia L. Papilionaceae
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
258 Rottboellia exaltata L. f. Poaceae
259 Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Clayton Poaceae
260 Rumex dentatus L. Polygonaceae
261 Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae
262 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth. Lamiaceae
263 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Solanaceae
264 Saccharum bengalense Retz. Poaceae
265 Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. Poaceae
266 Sagittaria guayanensis Kunth Alismataceae
267 Salsola baryosma (Schult.) Chenopodiaceae
268 Saponaria vaccaria L. Caryophyllaceae
269 Saussurea costus (Falc.) Lipsch. Compositae
270 Scandix pecten-veneris L. Umbelliferae
271 Schoenoplectus juncoides (Roxb.) Palla Cyperaceae
272 Schoenoplectus lateriflorus (J.F. GmeL.) Lye Cyperaceae
273 Schoenoplectus litoralis (Schrad.) Palla Cyperaceae
274 Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Cyperaceae
275 Scirpus juncoides Roxb. Cyperaceae
276 Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) Spreng. ex Steud. Papilionaceae
277 Sesbania sesban (L.) Fabaceae
278 Sesuvium sesuvioides Verdc. Aizoaceae
279 Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. Poaceae
280 Setaria palmifolia (J. Koenig) Stapf Poaceae
281 Silene arenosa C. Koch Caryophyllaceae
282 Silene conoidea L. Caryophyllaceae
283 Silene vulgaris (Moench) Garcke Caryophyllaceae
284 Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn. Asteraceae
285 Sisymbrium irio L. Brassicaceae
286 Solanum nigrum L., Solanaceae
287 Solanum surattense Burm. f. Solanaceae
288 Sonchus arvensis L. Asteraceae
289 Sonchus asper (L.) Asteraceae
290 Sonchus oleraceus L. | Asteraceae
291 Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Poaceae
292 Spergula arvensis L. Caryophyllaceae
293 Spergula fallax (Lowe) E.H.L. Krause Caryophyllaceae
294 Sporobolus coromendelianus (Ritz.) Kunth Poaceae
295 Stellaria media (L.) Caryophyllaceae
296 Sueda fruticosa Forssk. ex J.F. Gmel. Chenopodiaceae
297 Tribulus Terrestris L. Zygophylaceae
298 Tagetes minuta L. Asteraceae
299 Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth Tamaricaceae
300 Taraxacum officinale L. Asteraceae
301 Torilis leptophylla (L.) Rchb. f. Umbelliferae
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
302 Torilis nodosa (L.) Umbelliferae
303 Trianthema monogyna L. Asteraceae
304 . Trianthema portulacastrum L. Aizoaceae
305 Trianthema triquetra Rottl & Willd Aizoaceae
306 Tribulus longipetalus Viv. Zygophylaceae
307 Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae
308 Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllaceae
309 Trichodesma indicum (L.) Lehm. Boraginaceae
310 Trichosanthes dioica Roxb. Cucurbitaceae
311 Trifolium repens L. Fabaceae
312 Trigonella corniculata (L.) Papilionaceae
313 Trigonella monantha C.A. Mey. Papilionaceae
314 Tulipa stellata Hook. Liliaceae
315 Diplotaxis tenuifolia (L.) DC. Brassicaceae
316 Urtica dioica L. Urticaceae
317 Verbascum conomendelienum Scrophulariaceae
318 Verbena officinalis L. Verbenaceae
319 Verbena tenuisecta Briq. Verbenaceae
320 Vernonia anthelmintica (L.) Willd. Asteraceae
321 Vernonia cinerea (L.) Asteraceae
322 Veronica didyma Ten. Scrophulariaceae
323 Vetiveria zizanioides (L.) Poaceae
324 Vicia hirsuta (L.) Papilionaceae
325 Vicia monantha Retz. Papilionaceae
326 Vicia peregrina L. Papilionaceae
327 Vicia sativa L. Papilionaceae
328 Vicia tetrasperma (L.) Moench Papilionaceae
329 Chrysopogon zizanioides (L.) Roberty Poaceae
330 Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.) Maréchal Papilionaceae
331 Vigna trilobata (L.) Verdc. Papilionaceae
332 Withania coagulans (Stocks) Dunal Solanaceae
333 Withania somnifera (L.) Solanaceae
334 Xanthium strumarium L. Asteraceae
335 Zeuxine strateumatica (L.) Orchidaceae
336 Zygophyllum simplex L. Zygophylaceae
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
Annexure B: Top ten noxious allelopathic medicinal weeds (Sandwich
Method) 16. Melilotus indica L.
22. Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
18. Melilotus alba Desr
69. Peganum harmala L.
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
14. Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.
52. Nasturtium officinale W.T. Aiton
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
06. Anagallis arvensis L .
81. Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk.
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
36. Solanum nigrum L.
37. Urtica dioica Linn.
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
Annexure C: Top ten noxious allelopathic medicinal weeds (Dish Pack
Method)
14. Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.
18. Melilotus alba Desr
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
16. Melilotus indica L.
38. Malva parviflora L.
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
36. Solanum nigrum L.
52. Nasturtium officinale W .T. Aiton
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
37. Urtica dioica Linn.
34. Cyperus Sp .
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
28. Vicia sativa L.
22. Medicago parviflora E.H.L. Krause
ANNEXURE
Allelopathy evaluation of weeds for environmental risk assessment
Annexure D: Antifungal Assessment Using Microtiter Plate Technique
(a)
(b)