Download - Air environemnt i d mall
AIR ENVIRONEMNTAIR ENVIRONEMNTDR. I.D. MALLDR. I.D. MALL
Department of Chemical Engg.Department of Chemical Engg.Indian Institute of Technology, RoorkeeIndian Institute of Technology, Roorkee
Roorkee- 247667Roorkee- 247667
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AIR IS LIFE.LIFE STARTS WITH
AIR AND ENDS WITH AIR.
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The Five Basic Physical ElementsThe Five Basic Physical Elements
From the Vedic times, around 3000 B.C. to 1000 B.C., Indians (Indo-Aryans) had classified the material world into four elements viz. Earth (Prithvi), fire (Agni), air (Maya) and water (Apa). To these four elements was added a fifth one viz. ether or Akasha. According to some scholars these five elements or Pancha Mahabhootas were identified with the various human senses of perception; earth with smell, air with feeling, fire with vision, water with taste and ether with sound. Whatever the validity behind this interpretation, it is true that since very ancient times Indians had perceived the material world as comprising these 5 elements. The Buddhist philosophers who came later, rejected ether as an element and replaced it with life, joy and sorrow.
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Fast growing unplanned and indiscriminate urbanization: Cause of recent ecological imbalances
MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL CRISIS WHICH MANKIND IS FACING DUE TO URBAN AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT ARE:
Large scale contamination of water and air. Deforestation Increase in urban slums Generation of huge solid waste consisting of hazardous material. Water scarcity and ground water depletion. Global warming Greenhouse effect Ozone layer depletion
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AIR POLLUTION Atmosphere has gone significant changes in the last Two billion years
From the fourteenth century until recently the primary air pollutants have been coal smoke and gases released in industrialised areas.
Air pollution control actions thirteenth century
Most of the major effort in the world has taken place since 1945, before that other matters were in the priority list
1930s and 1940s: Factory issuing a thick plume of smoke was considered a sign of prosperity
1945-1969 awareness of air pollution problems gradually increased
Passage of National environmental policy Act and the clean air act of 1970
In the late 1980s: New theme entered the air pollution area- a GLOBAL AIR POLLUTION
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MAJOR AIR POLLUTION PROBLEM EMERGED
Greenhouse effect Ozone depletion Acidification Smog formation Eutrophication Human health
Environmental concern earlier considered a luxury which only a developed country US can afford
For people who are worried for their meal, home medial bill air pollution may not be very important
For a person whose basic needs has been satisfied air pollution control can be of much greater cause of concern
Poor people are more exposed to more severe pollution
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ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES AND MONITORING
Soil Quality (depth structure, fertility, degree of salination or acidification, stability.
Air Quality, climatic changes
Water Quantity, quality, seasonability, area of man made lakes, Extent of irrigation canal.
Biota Abundance/ scarcity of species of genetic resourceExtent of crops ecosystemVegetation and forestsDiversity of speciesExtent of provision of resting ground, etc. for migration of speciesPest and disease organism
Noise Residential, shop floor, industrial
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The AtmosphereThe Atmosphere
N2 780900 ppm (78.09%) O2 209400 ppm (20.94%) Argon 9300 ppm (0.93 %) CO2 372 ppm (0.037%) Everything else is less than 0.003 % or 30 ppm
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Layers of the AtmosphereLayers of the Atmosphere
Stratosphere begins at about 10 miles above the surface.
P drops with altitude.
Does T drop with altitude?
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REAL WORLD
Atmospheric interactions
Source
Air quality
Receptors
Pollutant emissions Effects
Emission Air quality models
Air quality
Methodology Air Chemistry
Input Input
output Input
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AIR QUALITY IMPACT ANALYSIS
Atmospheric Interaction
Source Receptors
Effects
Air quality
Pollutant emissions
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Worse Air Pollution DisasterWorse Air Pollution Disaster London, England, 1952 From December 5 to 8, 1952 4,000 Londoners perished.
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The effect of air pollution is slow and cumulative.
Earlier principle cause of death was influenza, tuberculosis and typhoid fever
New diseases came- arteriosclerosis, heart, malfunctioning, stroke, emphysema and cancer
Cigrette smoking earlier smoking had little effect on overall life expectancy
Bhopal tragedy due to methyl isocynate killed 2500 people
Lekages from Hydrogen sulphide from natural gas processing plants killed hundreds of people
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A Few Well-Known Air Pollution Episodes Around theGlobe in the 20th Century.
Region affected Date Cause Pollutant Effects
Meuse valley,Belgium
December1930
Temperatureinversion
SO2 63 deaths
Los Angeles, USA July 1943 Low windcirculation
smog unknown
Donora, PA, USA October 1948 Weatherinversion
SO2 20 deaths
London, England December1952
Subsidenceinversion
SO2,smog
3,000 excess deaths
New York City,USA
December1962
Shallowinversion
SO2 269 excess deaths
Bhopal, India December1984
Accident methyliso-cyanate
> 2,000 deaths
Chernobyl, Ukraine April 1986 Accident Radioacti-vity
31 immediate deaths, >30,000 ill
Lake Nyos, Africa April 1986 Natural CO2 1,700 deaths
Kuala Lampur,Malaysia
September1997
Forest fire CO, soot Unknown
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Concentrations of Principal Air Pollutants in Megacities inthe Developing World.
Country / City SO2,g/m3
TSP (PM-10), g/m3
CO, g/m3 NOx, g/m3 Pb, g/m3
China:Beijing (1997)Nationalaverage(1997)
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3 to 248
377
32 to 741
NA 122
4 to 140 (1995data)
NA
Mexico:Mexico City(1996)
244 to482
218 to 442 90,000 to140,000
295 to 619 NA
India:New Delhi(1987)
40 to 90 700 to 1400 NA 45 to 65 0.37 to 4.6
WHOguideline(1999)
500 (10min)125 ( 24hr) 50 ( 1 yr)
200 to 250 100,000 ( 15min)60,000 (30 min)30,000 (1 hr)10,000 (8 hr)
200 (1 hr)40 ( 1 yr)
0.5 ( 1 hr)
NAAQS(USA )
1,300 (3hr)365 (24hr)80 (1 yr)
150 (24 hr)50 ( 1 yr)
40,000 ( 1 hr)10,000 ( 8 hr)
100 (1 yr) 1.5 ( quarterlyavg.)
References: 1. Clear Water, Blue Skies: China’s Environment in the New Century, The World Bank, Washington, D. C.(1977).
2. State of the Environment- China, United Nations Environment Program, New York, NY (1997) .3. Mage et al, Urban air pollution in megacities of the world, Atmospheric Environment, 30: 681-686 (1996).4. Air Pollution Aspects of Three Indian Cities, Vol. I. Delhi, National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute, Nagpur, India (1991).5. F Guzman: Air pollution in Mexico Cityu, The Mexico City Workshop, Integrated Program on Urban,
Regional and Global Air pollution, MIT, Massachusetts, September (1999).http://eaps.mit.edu/megacities/workshop_99/mexico.html.
6. Air Pollution: Mexico City. http://www.ess.co.at/GAIA/cases/mex. Environmental Software andServices, GmbH, Gumpoldskirchen, Austria.
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Health Effects: Outdoor Air PollutionHealth Effects: Outdoor Air Pollution
Kills 200,000 - 570,000 annually globally. Kills 20,000 people annually in US. Particulates and ozone are the biggest problem
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Health Effects:Health Effects: Indoor Air Pollution - Global Indoor Air Pollution - Global
Kills 2.8 million annual globally What is major source of indoor air pollution in
developing countries?
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SOURCES OF AIR TOXICSSOURCES OF AIR TOXICS
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Air Pollution – SourcesAir Pollution – Sources
Most air pollution is emitted from fixed and mobile sources at ground level.
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AIR POLLUTION SOURCES
Major Sources
AreaSources
MobileSources
Natural Sources
Miscellaneous
Chemical & fertlisers plants RefineriesPetrochemicalsPower plantsPaper millsCement plantMetallurgicalIndustriesMunicipal incineration
Dry cleanersPetrol stationSmall print shopsElectroplatingDomestic , commercial and industrialfuels
AutomobilesRailwaysAirwaysFarm EquipmentsRecreational vehicles
Natural Dust StormVolcanoesSea saltDispersionForest gasAgricultural burning
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SOURCES NATURAL SOURCE: pollen grain, fungus, smoke
etc.
ANTHROPOGENIC: stationary, movable. (associated with activity of human beings)
POINT SOURCE: Pollutant emission from industrial process stacks, and fuel combustion facility stacks
AREA SOURCE: Vehicular traffic and fugitive emissions
LINE SOURCES: heavily traveled highway facilities and leading edges of uncontrolled forest fires
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Primary Emission SourcesPrimary Emission Sources Area Sources
Paved and unpaved roads Construction activities Open or prescribed burning
Point Sources Metals processing (smelters,
iron & steel, etc.) Mineral products (cement
stone quarrying) Utility and industrial
combustion (soot, flyash) Waste disposal and recycling
Mobile Sources Highway vehicles (diesel) off-
road vehicles (lawn & garden equipment)
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Secondary Emission SourcesSecondary Emission Sources
SOx - Fuel combusion (utilities, industrial); industrial processes (smelters, iron & steel manufacture, oil refining, etc.)
NOx - Combustion sources (utilities, industrial); mobile sources (highway & off-road engines)
VOC - Mobile sources, biogenic sources, evaporation (solvent & fuel), residential wood combustion
Ammonia (NH3) - Waste from animal husbandary, fertilizer application
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CLASSIFICATION OF AIR POLLUTANTS
Natural contaminants : Natural fog, pollen grain, bacteria, volcanic eruption, wind blown dust lightning generated fires
Gaseous: oxidized S, N, CO, CO2, hydrocarbonsParticulate: dust smoke, fumes, mist, fog.
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Photochemical SmogPhotochemical Smog
Main harmful ingredient in smog is ozone.
Ozone is formed when UV radiation, high temperatures, Nitrogen oxides, and VOCs combine.
What are the primary sources of smog?
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Acid RainAcid Rain Acid rain is formed from SO2 and NO2
pollution. What are the sources of acid rain?
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Acid RainAcid Rain
Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and nitric acid (HNO3) are formed and precipitated on vegetation in lakes and streams.
CLIMATE AND AIR QUALITYCLIMATE AND AIR QUALITY
Influencing elements and their potential effectsInfluencing elements and their potential effectsWind: directions and speedWind: directions and speedWill the project modify the local wind behavior? Will the project modify the local wind behavior? Precipitation/humidityPrecipitation/humidityWill the project have an impact upon the local Will the project have an impact upon the local precipitation /humidity pattern? precipitation /humidity pattern? Will the project be sited in a “high risk” area? Will the project be sited in a “high risk” area? Temperature Temperature Will the project have an impact upon the local Will the project have an impact upon the local temperature pattern? temperature pattern? Air Quality Air Quality Will the project generate and disperse atmospheric Will the project generate and disperse atmospheric pollutants? pollutants? Will the project generate any intense odors? Will the project generate any intense odors?
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CLIMATE AND AIR CLIMATE AND AIR QUALITYQUALITYSub element Potential Impact(s) Required Information
Wind: directions and speed
Will the project modify the local wind behaviour
Wind speeds and directions, including unusual conditions.
Height of structures. Precipitation/humidity
Will the project have an impact upon the local precipitation/humidity pattern?
Precipitation/humidity data including unusual conditions-flash floods, etc.
Temperature Will the project have an impact upon the local temperature pattern?
Temperature data,
including the extremes.
Air Quality Will the project generate and disperse atmospheric pollutants? Will the project generate any intense odours?
Estimate of atmospheric emissions from point, area and line sources,
fugitive emissions
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Human Hair (70 µm diameter)
Hair cross section (70 µm)
PM2.5
(2.5 µm)PM10
(10µm)
Particulate matter is a complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets
Particulate Matter: What is It?Particulate Matter: What is It?
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Particulate Matter (PM): The Major Particulate Matter (PM): The Major
KillerKiller PM is a complex mixture variable in Size (0.01- 100 μm) Composition (Metals, nitrates , sulfate, PAH,
VOC etc.) Concentration Toxicity and penetration depends on the
composition and six of the particles.In reality we breathe a complex mixture of pollutants in varying proportions. Hence the health effects are the impact of this complex mixture rather than a particular pollutant per se.
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Figure : Size Difference Between Particulate Matter (PM 10 and PM 2.5), Human Hair and Finest Beach Sand
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PM-2.5 OverviewPM-2.5 Overview
PM-2.5 Characteristics, sources, health and
environmental effects
1997 PM-2.5 Standards Monitoring Data Regulatory Schedule Key Issues
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Fine Particles in the AirFine Particles in the Air
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Fine Particles: Why You Should CareFine Particles: Why You Should Care
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Respiratory system effects Chronic bronchitis Asthma attacks Respiratory symptoms (cough,
wheezing, etc.) Decreased lung function Airway inflammation
Particles Affect the Lungs …Particles Affect the Lungs …
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Cardiovascular system effects Heart attacks Cardiac arrhythmias Changes in heart rate and heart
rate variability Blood component changes
… … and the Heartand the Heart
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Public Health Risks Are SignificantPublic Health Risks Are Significant
Particles are linked to: Premature death from heart and lung disease Aggravation of heart and lung diseases
Hospital admissions Doctor and ER visits Medication use School and work absences
And possibly to Lung cancer deaths Infant mortality Developmental problems, such as low birth weight
in children
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Some Groups Are More at RiskSome Groups Are More at Risk
People with heart or lung disease Conditions make them
vulnerable
Older adults Greater prevalence of
heart and lung disease
Children More likely to be active Breathe more air per lb. Bodies still developing
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Example: Chicago in the summer of 2000 Left – a clear day: PM 2.5 < 5 µg/m3
Right – a hazy day: PM 2.5 ~ 35 µg/m3
Fine Particles Reduce VisibilityFine Particles Reduce Visibility
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Environmental EffectsEnvironmental Effects
Reduced visibility Across country National parks
React w/ moisture Acid rain Other acidic pollution
Damage to paint/building materialsDamage to vegetation/crops
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replace
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Air Pollutants MonitoringAir Pollutants Monitoring
Collect and reviewinformation
Select monitoringlevel
Conductmonitoring
DevelopMonitoring plan
Summarize/Evaluate results
• Source data• Receptor data• Modeling data
• Routine operation• Quality control• Field documentation
• Screening• Refined screening• Refined
• Select monitoring constituents• Specify meteorological monitoring• Design network• Select monitoring methods/equipment• Develop sampling and analysis QA/QC
• Data review and validation• Data summaries• Consider monitoring uncertainties• Dispersion modeling applications
Monitoring Air Pathway Analysis
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Overview
Why measure ?
What do we measure ?
How do we make these measurements ?
What do we do with all this new data ?
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Pollutant Time Weighted Average
Concentration of Ambient Air
Industrial Area
Residential, Rural and Other Area
Sensitive Area
Method of Measurement
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
Annual Average *
24 hours**
80 μg/m3
120 μg/m3
60 μg/m3
80 μg/m3
15 μg/m3
30 μg/m3
- Improved West and Gaeke Method
- Ultraviolet fluorescence
Oxized of Nitrogen as NO2
Annual Average *
24 hours**
80 μg/m3
120 μg/m3
60 μg/m3
80 μg/m3
15 μg/m3
30 μg/m3
-Jacob Hochheister modified (Na-Arsenite)
-Gas Phase Chemilumine scence
Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
Annual Average *
24 hours**
360 μg/m3
590 μg/m3
140 μg/m3
200 μg/m3
70 μg/m3
100 μg/m3
-High Volume Sampling (Average flow rate net less than 1.1 m3/minute)
CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARDCENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARDNational Ambient Air Quality StandardsNational Ambient Air Quality Standards
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Respirable Particulate Matter (Size less than 10μm) (RPM)
Annual Average *24 hours**
12 μg/m3
150 μg/m3
60 μg/m3
100 μg/m3
50 μg/m3
75 μg/m3
- Respirable Particulate Matter sampler
Lead (Pb) Annual Average *24 hours**
1.0 μg/m3
1.5 μg/m3
0.75 μg/m3
1.00 μg/m3
0.5 μg/m3
0.75 μg/m3
- AAS Method after sampling using EPM 2000 or equivalent filter paper
Carbon Monoxide
8 hours **1 hour
5.0mg/m3
10 mg/m3
2.0mg/m3
4.0 mg/m3
1.0mg/m3
2.0 mg/m3
- NDIRS
Ammonia 24 hours Annual
0.4 mg/m3
0.1 mg/m3
-
Annual Arithmetic mean of minimum 104 measurements in a year taken twice a week 24 hourly at uniform interval.
24 hourly/8 hourly values should be met 98% of the time in a year. However, 2% of the time , it may exceed but not on two consecutive days.
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MEASUREMENT OF AIR QUALITYMEASUREMENT OF AIR QUALITY
Ambient Air Quality Measurement of Emission Meteorological Measurement
Pollution Parameter EquipmentDust fall Dust Fall JarSuspended High Volume Sampler,Particulates Inertial collectors,
Respirable Dust Sampler
Total Sulfur Lead CandleCompoundsSulphur Dioxide Air Sampling KitHydrogen Sulphide Air Sampling KitOxides of Nitrogen Air Sampling KitWind Direction Recording VaneWind Velocity Wind Velocity MeterTemperature and Humidity Whirling Psychrometer
S.No Instrumental Techniques Parameter covered
1 Conductometry SO2
2 Colorimetry SO2, NOx
3 Coulometry-Amperometry SO2, NOx, Oxidants (O3), CO
4 Paper Tape (H2S Conversion) SO2
5 Electochemical Cells (EMF Generation) SO2, NOx, CO
6 Catalytic Oxidation CO
7 Chemeical Sensing-Specific Ion Electrodes SO2, NOx
8 Chemiluminescence O3, NOx
9 Flame photometry detector couples with GC SO2
10 Flame ionisation detector couples with GC CO, CH4, Hydrocarbons
11 Non dispersive infrared absorption (NDIR) CO
12 Fluorescence NDIR Pulsed Fluorescence
HydrcarbonsSO2, H2S
13 Non-dispersive-UV-Visible Absorption Oxidants
Various instrumental techniques used for air pollution parameters
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S.No Instrumental Techniques Parameter covered
14 Mercury Substitution UV Absorption CO
15 Ultra Violet Fluorescence SO2
16 Bioluminescence SO2, NOx, CO
17 Correletion Spectroscopy SO2, NOx
18 Second Derivative Spectroscopy UV, NOx, Oxidants
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19 Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometers All metals
20 Atomic Fluorescence Metals- Zn, Cd, Cu, Hg
21 X-Ray Fluorescence Mostly all metals
22 GC-GC Mass Spectrometer Aromatic & Chlorinated Hydrocarbons, Pesticides, Oxidants
23 Neutron Activation Heavy metals- Vanadium, Hg
24 Anodic Metals- Cu, Cd, Pb
Techniques used for semi-automatic or laboratory instruments for particulate matter
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Objective of a sampling programObjective of a sampling program
To establish and evaluate control measures
To evaluate atmospheric-diffusion model parameters.
To determine areas and time periods when hazardous levels of pollution exists in the atmosphere.
For emergency warning systems.
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AIR QUALITY SURVEILLANCE PROGRAMMES
Representative selection of something----primarily guided by topography and micro meteorology of the region
Adequate sampling frequency
Inclusion of all the major pollution parameters
Characterization of the existing ambient air quality
Prediction from different emission scenario through pollution modeling for existing micrometeorological and topographical feature.
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Monitoring SystemsMonitoring Systems
Ambient air quality data may be obtained through the use of mobile or fixed sampling networks and the use of integrated samplers or continuous monitors.
Decisions regarding monitoring techniques constitute the first important steps in design of monitoring network.
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Fixed vs. Mobile SamplingFixed vs. Mobile Sampling
Fixed-point sampling - A network of monitoring stations at selected sites, operated simultaneously throughout the study. Stations are permanent or, at least, long term installations.
Mobile sampling network – the monitoring/sampling instruments are rotated on schedule among selected locations. Equipment is generally housed in trailers, automobiles, or other mobile units.
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Continuous vs. Integrated SamplingContinuous vs. Integrated Sampling
Continuous monitoring – Conducted with devices that operate as both sampler and analyzer. Pollutant concentrations are instantaneously displayed on a meter, continuously recorded on a chart, magnetic tape, or disk.
Integrated sampling – Done with devices that collect a sample over some specified time interval after which the sample is sent to a laboratory for analysis.
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Selection of Instrumentation and MethodsSelection of Instrumentation and Methods
Type of pollutantsAverage time specified by air quality
criteria or standardsExpected pollutant levelsAvailable resourcesAvailability of trained personalPresence in the air of interfering materials
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Duration of sampling periodDuration of sampling period
Two types of sampling are used in the studies of air pollution.
Short period or Spot sampling Continuous sampling
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Location of sampling sitesLocation of sampling sites
The necessary number of sampling stations and their location depend on several factors including the objective of the programme, the size of the study area, the proximity of the sources of the sources of pollution, topographical features and the weather.
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AMBIENT AIR SAMPLINGAMBIENT AIR SAMPLING
The typical air sampling system contains a sample collector, a flow meter and a pump to draw air sample through the system
Ambient air is sampled for the collection of
gaseous pollutantsparticulate matter
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COLLECTION OF GASEOUS AIR COLLECTION OF GASEOUS AIR POLUTANTSPOLUTANTS
The common methods used for the collection of gaseous pollutants are
1. Grab sampling
2. Absorption in liquids
3. Adsorption on solid materials
4. Freeze out sampling
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1. Grab sampling1. Grab sampling
In grab sampling the sample is collected by filling an evacuated flask or an inflatable bag or any rigid wall container.
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2. Absorption in liquids2. Absorption in liquids
Absorption separates the desired pollutant from air either through direct solubility in the absorbing medium or by chemical reaction. Devices like fritted gas absorber and impengers are widely used for this purpose as the provide large contact surface area.
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GASEOUS POLLUTANTS
SUITABLE SOLVENTS
Sulphur dioxide
Sodium hydroxide,sodium sulphite,magnesium oxide,calcium carbonate,calcium oxide and calcium hydroxide solutions
Nitrogen oxides
Ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium bisulphite, calcium hydroxide,magnesium hydroxide and sodium hydroxide solutions
Hydrogen sulphide
Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide solutions
Hydrogen chloride
Water, ammonia, calcium and magnesium hydroxide solution
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Chlorine Solutions of sodium hydroxide, sodium sulphite, sodium thiosulphite and water
Phosgene Sodium hydroxide and water
Ammonia Sulphuric acid, nitric acid
Mercaptans Sodium hypochlorite solution
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3. Adsorption on solids3. Adsorption on solids
This method is based on the tendency of gases to be adsorbed on the surface of solid materials. The sample air is passed through a packed column containing a finely divided solid adsorbents, on whose surface the pollutants are retained and concentrated.
The most widely used solid adsorbents are activated charcoal and silica gel.
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4. Freeze out sampling4. Freeze out sampling
In this method a series of cold traps, which are maintained at progressively lower temperatures are used to draw the air samples, where by the pollutants are condensed. These pollutants are later analyzed by mass spectrometry.
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ANALYSIS OF PARTICULAR AIR POLLUTANTS
POLLUTANTS ANALYSER PRINCIPLE
Sulphur Dioxide Flame Photometer Emission spectrometry
Nitrogen Oxides Chemiluminescentanalyser
Emission spectrometry
Carbon Monoxide Nondispersive Infrared analyser
Energy absorptionFrom IR radiations
Hydrocarbons Flame ionisation detector
Ionisation
Particulate Matter Beta attenuation monitor
Beta attenuation
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FLAME PHOTOMETER( for analysis of Sulphur Dioxide )
When an air stream containing sulphur is ignited in a hydrogen-rich flame,a characteristic flame emission spectrum is produced with a band centered at 394m and amount of light emitted proportional to the concentration of Sulphur.
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CHEMILUMINESCENT ANALYSER( for analysis of Nitrogen Oxides )
Reaction with ozone produce Nitrogen dioxide in excited state that emits radiant energy The intensity of radiationemitted is proportional to the amount of nitric oxide.
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NONDISPERSIVE INFRARED ANALYSER( for analysis of Carbon Monoxide )
Carbon Monoxide absorbs infrared radiations and passes varying amount of infrared energy,inversely proportional to CO concentration to detector causing mechanical movement in the diaphragm .
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FLAME IONISATION DETECTOR( for analysis of hydrocarbons )
Hydrocarbons on burning produce complex ionization forminglarge number of ions .An electric field setup establises an ionisation current proportional to theconcentration of hydrocarbons in sample .
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Organic Vapour SamplerOrganic Vapour Sampler
A known amount of air is passed through Activated Charcoal tube at a constant flow rate (100 to 200 ml/min) with minimum pressure drop (10-15 mm Hg). Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are adsorbed on Activated Charcoal which is later desorbed/extracted using a suitable organic solvent. Extracted/desorbed solvent is used for quantifying the organic compounds (VOCs) with the help of Gas Chromatograph.
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COLLECTION OF PARTICULATE COLLECTION OF PARTICULATE MATTERMATTER
Particulate matter are generally sampled using
1. Sedimentation (dust fall jar)
2. High volume sampler
3. Tape sampler
4. Thermal precipitation
5. Electrostatic precipitator
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1. Dust fall jar1. Dust fall jar
This is the simplest device used for sampling particles larger than 10 micro meters.
Dust fall jar is simply a plastic jar with slightly tappered inwards.
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2. High volume sampler2. High volume sampler
In this method, a known volume of air is sucked by a high speed blower through a fine filter and the increase in weight due to trapped particles is measured.
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High Volume Sampler Envirotech APM 430 High Volume Sampler Envirotech APM 430
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Schematic Diagram of Respirable Dust Schematic Diagram of Respirable Dust Sampler (APM 451 & 411Sampler (APM 451 & 411). ).
It first separates the coarser particles (larger than 10 microns) from It first separates the coarser particles (larger than 10 microns) from the air stream before filtering it on 0.5 micron pore-size filter allowing the air stream before filtering it on 0.5 micron pore-size filter allowing a measure ment of both the TSP and the respirable fraction of the the a measure ment of both the TSP and the respirable fraction of the the TSP and the respirable fraction of the suspended particulate matter TSP and the respirable fraction of the suspended particulate matter (SPM).(SPM).
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3. Tape sampler3. Tape sampler In this method a known volume of air is passed
through a paper tape, on which the particulates get collected forming a dark spot.
COH/1000 ft = log [(T0 A x 105)/(T V)]
T0 = the transmittance of clean tape (100%)
T = the percentage of light transmitted through the spot A = area of the spot in square feet V = Volume of the sample in cubic feet.
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4. Thermal precipitation4. Thermal precipitation
This is based on the principle that small particles, under the influence of a strong temperature gradient between two surfaces, have a tendency to move towards the lower temperature and get deposited on the colder of these two surfaces
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5. Electrostatic Precipitator5. Electrostatic Precipitator
Here a negative charge is imparted to a wire placed axially inside a cylinder which is positively charged. When a particle laden stream is passes through the cylinder, the particles acquire a negative charge from a corona discharge occurring on the central wire .The particles migrate towards the inner surface of the cylinder, loose their charge and are collected for subsequent analysis.
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FINE FINE PARTICULATE PARTICULATE
SAMPLERSAMPLER
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Types of PM CEMsTypes of PM CEMs
Light scatter Forward, side, backward
Beta AttenuationProbe Electrification (charge transfer)Light Extinction (opacity)Optical Scintillation
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Opacity meterOpacity meter
PM emissions can be continuously detected through opacity measurements.
Opacity is a function of light transmission through the plume and is defined by the formula:
OP = [1-(I/I0)] x 100OP = percent opacityI = light flux leaving the plumeI0 = incident light flux
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Opacity Adv./Disadv.Opacity Adv./Disadv.
10,000+ already installed
Measures attenuation of light
Adversely affected by Particle size, shape,
density changes
Measures liquid drops as PM
Not sensitive to low PM concentration
Cost more than a light scatter PM CEM
Correlation to mass conc. not linear
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Optical Scintillation Adv./Disadv.Optical Scintillation Adv./Disadv.
Low price $10,000 Easy to install Low maintenance
Not sensitive to low PM concentration
Doesn’t detect particles < ~ 2μm
Adversely affected by particle density change
Measures liquid drops as PM
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Smoke measurementSmoke measurement Smoke particles are
mainly unburnt carbon resulting from incomplete combustion.
Ringelmann Chart – A scheme where graduated shades of gray vary by five equal steps between white and black.
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Continuous monitoring Instruments and Their Working Continuous monitoring Instruments and Their Working PrinciplesPrinciples
System Operating principle Sensitivity CO Monitor (Catalytic)
CO gets converted to CO2 in presence of Hopcalite catalyst (mixtures of CuO, MnO2, Co2O2, Ag2O).
Specific for CO sensitivity – 2 ppm
NO.NOx, NH3 Monitor
The method is based on chemiluminescent between NO and O3. The light intensity is monitored as a function of NO concentration.
Very specific for NO. Sensitivity – 0.005 ppm
Ozone Chemiluminescence (CL) Monitor
The chemiluminescence reaction between O3 and ethylene is used in this method
Very specific for ozone. Sensitivity – 0.005 ppm
Coulometric SO2 Monitor
Electrochemically liberated iodine or bromine reacts with SO2.
Sensitivity – 0.002 ppm
UV fluorescence SO2 monitor
SO2 molecules are excited by absorption of UV light (214 nm) from a zinc discharge lamp and fluorescence emission measured in UV region.
Sensitivity – 0.002 ppm
NDIR Analuser for CO2, CO, CH4, SO2
Principle- Absorption of IR by gases at their characteristic wavelength.
Sensitivity CO – 10 ppm CO2 – 5 ppm CH4 – 5 ppm SO2 – 20 ppm
SPM monitor Beta absorption of 14C beats through filter containing SPM.
Sensitivity – 50 μg/m3.
H2S Chemiluminescence Monitor
H2S reacts with ozone and excited SO2 emits chemiluminescence in the UV region while retrning to ground state.
Sensitivity – 0.01 ppm
9393
Air Pollution Meteorology – Instruments and their Air Pollution Meteorology – Instruments and their Specifications Specifications
9494
9595
Unstable AirUnstable Air
If the ambient air temperature drops rapidly with altitude, hot polluted air will rise and disperse.
What would happen, if this temperature profile were inverted?
9696
9797
9898
Temperature InversionTemperature Inversion
If the there is a temperature inversion the air will not rise.
This may lead to a severe pollution episode.
What produces a temperature inversion?
9999
Subsidence InversionSubsidence Inversion Descending air compresses and warms, creating an
inversion layer.
Is there another mechanism?
100100
STACK MONITORING To determine the quantity and quality of the pollutant emitted
by the source
To measure the efficiency of the control equipment by conducting a survey before and after installation
To determine the effect of the emission due to changes in raw materials and processes.
To compare the efficiency of different control equipments for a given condition
To acquire data from an innocuous individual source so as to determine the cumulative effect of many such sources.
To compare with the emission standards in order to assess the need for local control.
101101
STACK EMISSION MONITORING
In stack Emission Monitoring MANUAL STACK SURVEYS : short duration
tests, usually consisting of three one-hour tests. Stack sampling equipment is used to collect effluent samples from the stack.
CONTINUOUS EMISSION MONITORING: This
is done with instruments permanently installed on the stack. Measurements of the concentration and flow rate allow the mass emission rate to be determined on an ongoing, year round basis.
102102
The following figure shows how stack sampling is done industrially.
The sampling is done by diverting a part of the gas stream through a sampling train as shown in the following figure
103103
REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE
•Accurate measurement of pressure, moisture, humidity and gas composition
•The selection of suitable locations for sampling
•Determination of the traverse points required for a velocity and temperature profile across the cross section of the stack and sampling for particulate matter.
•The measurement of the rate of flow of gas or air through the stack
•Selection of a suitable sampling train
•Accurate isokinetic sampling rate especially for particulate sampling
•Accurate measurement of weight and volume of samples collected.
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OVERALL OBJECTIVE
The main tasks involved are to determine the pollutant concentration, stack gas flow rate and pollutant mass emission rate. These terms are related as
sss QCPMR ×=
The average volumetric stack gas flow rate, sQ is determined by measuring the average gas velocity, Vs and the
area of the stack As.
sQ = Vs × sCThe basic equation to determine the velocity of flow inside the stack is
Vs = KP × CP 2/1
ss
s
MP
PT
×∆×
105105
SELECTION OF SAMPLING LOCATION
The sampling point should be as far as possible from any disturbing influence, such as elbows, bends, transition pieces, baffles or other obstructions. The sampling point, wherever possible should be at a distance 5-10 diameters down-stream from any obstructions and 3-5 diameters up-stream from similar disturbance.
SIZE OF SAMPLING POINT
The size of sampling point may be made in the range of 7-10 cm, in diameter.
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PROCEDURE FOR PARTICULATE PROCEDURE FOR PARTICULATE MATTER SAMPLINGMATTER SAMPLING
1. Determine the gas composition and correct to moisture content.
2. Determine the temperature and velocity at each point using pitot tube at each traverse point
3. Determine the empty weight of the thimble
4. Mark out the traverse points on the probe.
5. Check all points leakages
107107
6. Determine the flow rate to be sampled under isokinetic conditions
7. Insert the probe at the traverse point 1, very close to the stack. Start the pump and adjust the flow so that the rotameter reads the predetermined value.
8. Switch off the pump at the end of sampling time.9. Read the vacuum at the dry gas meter (DGM) and
also the temperature.10. Move the probe to the subsequent traverse points
by repeating the steps five to eight.11. After completion of collection of samples, remove
the probe and allow it to cool.
PROCEDURE FOR PARTICULATE PROCEDURE FOR PARTICULATE MATTER SAMPLINGMATTER SAMPLING
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12. Remove the thimble carefully. Some of the dust would have adhered to the nozzle. This should be removed by tapping and transferred to the thimble.
13. Weigh the thimble with the sample. The difference in weight gives the dust collected.
14. The volume of sample collected is either given by the dry gas meter (cu m) or by the sampling rate given by rotameter multiplied by the sampling time.
15. Hence from (13) and (14), the emission rate can be calculated. This will be at DGM conditions. This is to be corrected for temperature and pressure so as to obtain values for standard conditions.
PROCEDURE FOR PARTICULATE PROCEDURE FOR PARTICULATE MATTER SAMPLINGMATTER SAMPLING
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Typical air sampling trainTypical air sampling train
Gravimetric Volumetric Microscopy Instrumental
Spectrophotometric – Ultraviolet, Visible (Colorimetry), Infra-red.
Electrical – Conductometric, Coulometric, Titrimetric. Emission Spectroscopy Mass Spectroscopy Chromatography
110110
SAMPLING SYSTEM:
111111
TRAVERSE POINTS
For the sample to become representative, it should be collected at various points across the stack. This is essential as there will be changes in velocity and temperature (hence the pollutant concentration) across the cross-section of the stack. Traverse points have to be located to achieve this.
Cross-section area of stack (sq-m)
No. of points
0.20.2 to 2.5
2.5 and above
41220
112112
113113
ISOKINETIC CONDITIONS
Representative samples can be achieved by isokinetic sampling. Isokinetic conditions exist when the velocity in the stack Vs equals the velocity at the top of the probe nozzle Vn at the sample point.
114114
Reason for Isokinetic SamplingReason for Isokinetic Sampling
115115
DETERMINATION OF GAS COMPOSITION
The first step in the field work of stack sampling is to determine the gas composition. This can be determined by using Orsat apparatus /
DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE CONTENT
Wet bulb and dry bulb temperature techniqueCondenser techniqueSilica gel tube
DETERMINATION OF TEMPERATURE
DETERMINATION OF VELOCITY: Pitote Tube
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Twelve percent Carbon DioxideTwelve percent Carbon Dioxide The method for concentration correction to 12 % CO2 is:
C0 = Measured concentration of constituent at standard conditions.
C12 = Measured concentration of constituent at standard conditions when corrected to 12% CO2 by volume on a dry basis.
FCO2 = Correction factor for constituent concentration when adjusting to 12% CO2 by volume on a dry basis.
%CO2 = Percent carbon dioxide by volume on a dry basis.
117117
RECENT TRENDS IN SAMPLING RECENT TRENDS IN SAMPLING OF STACK EFFLUENTSOF STACK EFFLUENTS
The recent technology is useful to manufacturers of equipment for online sampling of stack effluents. Two main monitors useful for determining particulate concentration in stacks are
Piezoelectric MonitorBeta attenuation Monitor
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1. Piezoelectric Monitor1. Piezoelectric Monitor
In this device, particles in a sample stream are electrostatically deposited on to a piezoelectric sensor. The added weight of particulates changes the osillation frequency of the sensor in a charectristic way. The out put signal can be conditioned so that it becomes directly proportional to particulate mass concentration, which is recorded either by digital or analog recorder.
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120120
2. Beta Attenuation Monitor2. Beta Attenuation Monitor
For the analysis of particulate matter. Here the particulate sample is filtered using a
continuous filter tape and the mass concentration of the filtered out is determined by measuring its attenuation of beta radiation, whose characteristics do not vary widely for different particulate compositions hence a direct mass measurement is possible.
Carbon -14 with a half life of 5,568 years is a typical beta radiation source.
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Beta Attenuation PM CEMsBeta Attenuation PM CEMs
MSI BetaGuard PM Durag F904K Environment S.A. 5M
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Handy Stack Sampler Envirotech Handy Stack Sampler Envirotech APM 620APM 620
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Stack velocity monitor Stack velocity monitor Envirotech APM 602Envirotech APM 602
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Gas analysis from Combustion Gas analysis from Combustion Process Process
Monitoring NO, NO2 & SO2 analysis from Combustion Process
in stack analysis of up to six gas phase stack emission components
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FUGITIVE EMISSION MONITORING
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can be emitted from leaking valves, flanges, sampling connections, pumps, pipes and compressors. Emissions of these types are commonly called fugitive emissions.
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Fugitive EmissionsFugitive Emissions
Unintentional releases, such as those due to leaking equipment, are known as fugitive emissions
Can originate at any place where equipment leaks may occur
Can also arise from evaporation of hazardous compounds from open topped tanks
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Sources of Fugitive EmissionsSources of Fugitive Emissions
Relief valves18%
Flanges3%
Pumps27%
Drains1%
Compressors8%
Valves43%
A g i t a t o r s e a l s L o a d i n g a r m s
C o m p r e s s o r s e a l s M e t e r s
C o n n e c t o r s O p e n - e n d e d l i n e s
D i a p h r a m s P o l i s h e d r o d s
D r a i n s P r e s s u r e r e l i e f d e v i c e s
D u m p l e v e r a r m s P u m p s e a l s
F l a n g e s S t u f f i n g b o x e s
H a t c h e s V a l v e s
I n s t r u m e n t s V e n t s
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Measuring Fugitive EmissionsMeasuring Fugitive Emissions
Portable gas detectorCatalytic beadNon-dispersive infraredPhoto-ionization detectorsCombustion analyzersStandard GC with flame ionization
detector is most commonly used
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Measuring Fugitive EmissionsMeasuring Fugitive Emissions
Average emission factor approachScreening ranges approachEPA correlation approachUnit-specific correlation approach
131131
Average Emission Factor ApproachAverage Emission Factor Approach
E F W FT O C A T O C= ⋅ETOC = TOC emission rate from a component (kg/hr)FA = applicable average emission factor for the component (kg/hr)WFTOC = average mass fraction of TOC in the stream serviced by the component
T a b l e 1 0 . 9A v e r a g e e m i s s i o n f a c t o r s f o r e s t i m a t i n g f u g i t i v e e m i s s i o n s
E q u i p m e n t t y p e S e r v i c e
T O C e m i s s i o n f a c t o r( k g / h r / s o u r c e )
S O C M I R e f i n e r yM a r k e t i n gT e r m i n a l
V a l v e s G a sL i g h t l i q u i dH e a v y l i q u i d
0 . 0 0 5 9 70 . 0 0 4 0 30 . 0 0 0 2 3
0 . 0 2 6 80 . 0 1 0 9
0 . 0 0 0 2 3
1 . 3 x 1 0 - 5
4 . 3 x 1 0 - 5
-
P u m p s e a l s G a sL i g h t l i q u i dH e a v y l i q u i d
-0 . 0 1 9 9
0 . 0 0 8 6 2
-0 . 1 4 40 . 0 2 1
6 . 5 x 1 0 - 5
5 . 4 x 1 0 - 4
-
132132
Screening Ranges ApproachScreening Ranges Approach
Leak/ No-leak approachmore exact than the average emissions
approach relies on screening data from the facility,
rather than on industry wide averages
E F N F NT O C G G L L= ⋅ + ⋅( ) ( )T O C e m i s s i o n r a t e f o r a n e q u i p m e n t t y p e
F G = a p p l i c a b l e e m i s s i o n f a c t o r f o r s o u r c e s w i t h s c r e e n i n g v a l u e s g r e a t e r t h a no r e q u a l t o 1 0 , 0 0 0 p p m v ( k g / h r / s o u r c e )
N G = e q u i p m e n t c o u n t f o r s o u r c e s w i t h s c r e e n i n g v a l u e s g r e a t e r t h a n o r e q u a l t o1 0 , 0 0 0 p p m v
F L = a p p l i c a b l e e m i s s i o n f a c t o r f o r s o u r c e s w i t h s c r e e n i n g v a l u e s l e s s t h a n1 0 , 0 0 0 p p m v ( k g / h r / s o u r c e )
N L = e q u i p m e n t c o u n t f o r s o u r c e s w i t h s c r e e n i n g v a l u e s l e s s t h a n 1 0 , 0 0 0 p p m v
133133
EPA Correlation ApproachEPA Correlation Approach
Predicts mass emission rates as a function of screening values for a particular equipment type
Total fugitive emissions = sum of the emissions associated with each of the screening values
Default-zero leak rate is the mass emission rate associated with a screening value of zero
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EPA Correlation ApproachEPA Correlation ApproachT a b l e 1 0 . 1 1
E P A c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r e s t i m a t i n g f u g i t i v e e m i s s i o n s
E q u i p m e n t t y p e T O C l e a k r a t e f r o m c o r r e l a t i o n *( k g / h r / u n i t )
D e f a u l t - z e r oe m i s s i o n r a t e
( k g / h r / u n i t )S O C M I R e f i n e r y
G a s v a l v e s 1 . 8 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 . 8 7 3 - 6 . 6 x 1 0 - 7
L i q u i d l i q u i d v a l v e s 6 . 4 1 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 . 7 9 7 - 4 . 9 x 1 0 - 7
V a l v e s ( a l l ) - 2 . 2 9 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 . 7 4 6 7 . 8 x 1 0 - 6
L i g h t l i q u i d p u m p s 1 . 9 0 x 1 0 - 5 S V 0 . 8 2 4 - 7 . 5 x 1 0 - 6
P u m p s e a l s ( a l l ) - 5 . 0 3 x 1 0 - 5 S V 0 . 6 1 0 2 . 4 x 1 0 - 5
C o n n e c t o r s 3 . 0 5 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 . 8 8 5 - 6 . 1 x 1 0 - 7
C o n n e c t o r s - 1 . 5 3 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 . 7 3 5 7 . 5 x 1 0 - 6
F l a n g e s - 4 . 6 1 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 . 7 0 3 3 . 1 x 1 0 - 7
O p e n - e n d e d l i n e s - 2 . 2 0 x 1 0 - 6 S V 0 . 7 0 4 2 . 0 x 1 0 - 6
135135
Unit-Specific Correlation ApproachUnit-Specific Correlation ApproachMost exact, but most expensive methodScreening values and corresponding
mass emissions data are collected for a statistically significant number of units
A minimum number of leak rate measurements and screening value pairs must be obtained to develop the correlations
136136
Controlling Fugitive EmissionsControlling Fugitive Emissions
Modifying or replacing existing equipmentImplementing a leak detection and repair
(LDAR) program
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Equipment ModificationEquipment Modification
E q u i p m e n t t y p e M o d i f i c a t i o n
A p p r o x i m a t ec o n t r o le f f i c i e n c y( % )
P u m p s S e a l l e s s d e s i g n 1 0 0
C l o s e d - v e n t s y s t e m 9 0
D u a l m e c h a n i c a l s e a l w i t h b a r r i e r f l u i d m a i n t a i n e da t a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e t h a n t h e p u m p e d f l u i d
1 0 0
C o m p r e s s o r s C l o s e d - v e n t s y s t e m 9 0
D u a l m e c h a n i c a l s e a l w i t h b a r r i e r f l u i d m a i n t a i n e da t a h i g h e r p r e s s u r e t h a n t h e p u m p e d f l u i d
1 0 0
P r e s s u r e - r e l i e fd e v i c e s
C l o s e d - v e n t s y s t e m v a r i e s
R u p t u r e d i s k a s s e m b l y 1 0 0
V a l v e s S e a l l e s s d e s i g n 1 0 0
C o n n e c t o r s W e l d t o g e t h e r 1 0 0
O p e n - e n d e d l i n e s B l i n d , c a p , p l u g o r s e c o n d v a l v e 1 0 0
S a m p l i n gc o n n e c t i o n s
C l o s e d - l o o p s a m p l i n g 1 0 0
138138
Valves Used in IndustryValves Used in Industry
139139
Valves Used in Industry (cont.)Valves Used in Industry (cont.)
140140
LDAR ProgramsLDAR Programs
Designed to identify pieces of equipment that are emitting sufficient amounts of material to warrant reduction of emissions through repair
Best applied to equipment types that can be repaired on-line or to equipment for which equipment modification is not suitable
141141
Fugitive Emissions from Storage Fugitive Emissions from Storage TanksTanks
There are six basic tank designsFixed roof
vertical or horizontal least expensive least acceptable for storing liquids emission are caused by changes in
• temperature• pressure• liquid level
( a ) T y p i c a l f i x e d - r o o f t a n k .
142142
Fugitive Emissions from Storage TanksFugitive Emissions from Storage Tanks
External floating roof– open-topped cylindrical steel shell– steel plate roof that floats on the surface of the liquid– emission limited to evaporation losses from
• an imperfect rim seal system• fittings in the floating deck• any exposed liquid on the tank wall when liquid is
withdrawn and the roof lowers
Domed external floating roof– similar to internal floating roof tank– existing floated roof tank retrofitted with a fixed roof to
block winds and minimize evaporative loses
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External Floating Roof TanksExternal Floating Roof Tanks
( b ) E x t e r n a l f l o a t i n g r o o f t a n k ( p o n t o o n t y p e ) .
( d ) D o m e d e x t e r n a l f l o a t i n g r o o f t a n k .
144144
( c ) I n t e r n a l f l o a t i n g r o o f t a n k . ( c ) I n t e r n a l f l o a t i n g r o o f t a n k .
Fugitive Emissions from Storage TanksFugitive Emissions from Storage Tanks
Internal floating roof– permanent fixed roof with
a floating roof inside– evaporative losses from
• deck fittings• non-welded deck
seams• annular space
between floating deck and the wall
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Fugitive Emissions from Storage TanksFugitive Emissions from Storage Tanks
Variable vapor space– expandable vapor reservoirs to accommodate
volume fluctuations due to:• temperature• barometric pressure changes
– uses a flexible diaphragm membrane to provide expandable volume
– losses are limited to:• tank filling times when vapor displaced by
liquid exceeds tank’s storage capacity
146146
Fugitive Emissions from Storage TanksFugitive Emissions from Storage Tanks
Pressure tanks low or high pressure
– used for storing organic liquids and gases with high vapor pressures
– equipped with pressure/vacuum vent to prevent venting loss from
• boiling• breathing loss from temperature and pressure
changes
147147
Emissions Estimation from Storage Emissions Estimation from Storage TanksTanks
L L LT S W= +LT = total losses, kg/yrLS = standing storage losses, kg/yrLW = working losses, kg/yrThe standing storage losses are due to breathing of the vapors above the liquid in the storage tank
L V W K KS V V E S= 3 6 5
VV = vapor space volume, m3
WV = vapor density, kg/m3
KE = vapor space expansion factor, dimensionlessKS = vented space saturation factor, dimensionless365 = days/year
WM P
R TVV V A
L A
=
MV = vapor molecular weightR = universal gas constant, mm Hg-L/K-molPVA = vapor pressure at daily average liquid surface temperature, TLA = daily average liquid surface temperature, K
KT
T
P P
P PEV
L A
V B
A V A
= +−−
∆ ∆ ∆
TV = daily temperature range, KPV = daily pressure range, PB = breather vent pressure setting range,
PA = atmospheric pressure,
148148
Emissions Estimation from Storage Emissions Estimation from Storage TanksTanks
KP HS
V A V O
=+
1
1 0 0 5 3.
HVO = vapor space outage, ft = height of a cylinder of tank diameter, D, whose volume is equivalent to the vapor space volume of the tank
L M P Q K KW V V A N P= 0 0 0 1 0.Q = annual net throughput (tank capacity (bbl) times annual turnover rate), bbl/yrKN = turnover factor, dimensionless
for turnovers > 36/year, KN = (180 + N)/6Nfor turnovers 36, KN = 1
where N = number of tank volume turnovers per yearKP = working loss product factor, dimensionless
for crude oils = 0.75for all other liquids = 1.0
149149
Fugitive Emissions from Waste, Fugitive Emissions from Waste, Treatment and DisposalTreatment and Disposal
I = important S = secondary N = negligible or not applicable
Surface Wastewater treatment plants LandPathway impoundments Aerated Non-aerated treatment Landfill
Volatilization I I I I I
Biodegradation I I I I S
Photodecomp. S N N N N
Hydrolysis S S S N N
Oxidation/red’n N N N N N
Adsorption N S S N N
Hydroxyl radical N N N N N
150150
AUTOMOBILE EMISSIONAUTOMOBILE EMISSION
Automobiles are ‘necessary evils’, while they have made living easy and convenient, they have also made human life more complicated and vulnerable to both toxic emissions and an increased risk of accidents.
151151
AUTOMOBILE EMISSION AUTOMOBILE EMISSION -ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES-ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
Delhi – total pollution load declines from 412,000t – 328,000 t (1998-2020)
By 2020, two wheelers and cars contribute 80% HC emissions in Delhi
Two wheelers alone contribute 70% of CO2 emissions
Annual Pollution load in Mumbai declines by 40%
Particulates, SOx and NOx declines due to the decline in
diesel usage
CO2 emissions by 2020 under BAU in Delhi would be 2.57
times the present value
In Mumbai it would be 2.7 times
CO2 emissions in Delhi are 2.4 times higher than Mumbai at
any given time
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153153
AUTOMOBILE EMISSIONAUTOMOBILE EMISSION
Following factors make pollution from the vehicles more serious in developing countries
Poor quality of vehicles creating more particulates and burning fuels inefficiently.
Lower quality of fuel being used leads to far greater quantities of pollutants.
Concentration of motor vehicles in a few large cities
Exposure of a larger percentage of population that lives and moves in the open.
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155155
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POLLUTANTS PRODUCED BY POLLUTANTS PRODUCED BY AUTOMOBILE EMISSIONAUTOMOBILE EMISSION
HC-Unburned fuel molecules or partialburning
NOx-under high pressure and temperature
conditions in an engine CO-Due to incomplete combustion
CO2-Due to perfect combustion
AUTOMOBILE EMISSION AUTOMOBILE EMISSION MONITORINGMONITORING
158158
Mobile Air Pollution VanMobile Air Pollution Van
Mobile system to monitor Air, Water, Noise & meteorological parameters
Design to meet customers needs
Self contained with Air conditioner and power gensets
Designed to suit Indian road conditions
159159
Extractive multigas analyzer Extractive multigas analyzer system system
For continuous emission monitoring.
Used to measure the concentration of oxides of nitrogen (NOX), sulphur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO, CO2), oxygen (O2), hydrocarbons (HCs) and water vapour (H2O) in the flue gas of large combustion processes, incinerators and other processes when it is required by legislation.
160160
Auto exhaust Analyser for PetrolAuto exhaust Analyser for Petrol
161161
Diesel Smoke MeterDiesel Smoke Meter
162162
Diesel Particulate MonitoringDiesel Particulate Monitoring
163163
Volatile Organic Vapour MonitorVolatile Organic Vapour Monitor
Based on a portable photo ionization detector (PID).
It detects a wide range of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and various other gases.
164164
Based on a portable photo ionization detector (PID) with a barcode scanner.
It is a practical way to log and detect a wide range of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and various other gases.
Bar code scanner simplifies tracking fugitive emissions
165165
Non Methane HydroCarbon Non Methane HydroCarbon AnalyzerAnalyzer
Hydrocarbon detection from sub-ppm to 1,000 ppm levels
166166
Oil in Water AnalyzerOil in Water Analyzer
CONTINUOUS MONITORING SYSTEM FOR OIL IN WATER
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Neem in Indian culture has been ranked higher than 'Kalpavriksha', the mythological wish-fulfilling tree.
In 'Sharh-e-Mufridat Al-Qanoon, neem has been named as 'Shajar-e-Mubarak', 'the blessed tree', because of its highly beneficial properties.
Although scientific studies are wanting, neem is reputed to purify air and the environment of noxious elements. Its shade not only cools but prevents the occurrence of many diseases.
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