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INTRO-1 (1)
THEQUALITY IMPROVEMENT
ASSOCIATE PRIMER
Second Edition - June, 2006
by Quality Council of Indiana - All Rights Reserved
Bill WortmanQuality Council of Indiana602 West Paris AvenueWest Terre Haute, IN 47885
TEL: (812) 533-4215FAX: (812) [email protected]://www.qualitycouncil.com
008
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CQIA Primer Contents
I. CERTIFICATION OVERVIEW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-1CQIA EXAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-3CQIA BODY OF KNOWLEDGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I-7
II. QUALITY CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-1QUALITY DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-2
QUALITY DEFINED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-3ORGANIZATIONAL QUALITY STEPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-4QUALITY TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-7
QUALITY PLANNING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-12QUALITY PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-14QUALITY POLICIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-15STRATEGIC QUALITY GOALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-16TACTICAL QUALITY GOALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-17QUALITY MATURITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-18
IMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-20INDIVIDUAL INVOLVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-20
EMPLOYEE EMPOWERMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-21QUALITY OF WORK LIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-23
SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-25VARIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-31
SYSTEM VARIATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-31SPECIAL VS COMMON CAUSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-33
SOURCES OF VARIABILITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-35REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . II-37
III. QUALITY BENEFITS & PHILOSOPHIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-1BENEFITS OF QUALITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-2
STAKEHOLDER GROUPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-2STAKEHOLDER QUALITY BENEFITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-4
MBNQA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-7QUALITY PHILOSOPHIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-9
PHILIP CROSBY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-9W. EDWARDS DEMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-16JOSEPH M. JURAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-28COMPARISONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-36
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . III-40
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IV. TEAM ROLES & RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-1TEAM PURPOSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-2TEAM BENEFITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-3
TYPES OF TEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-4SYNOPSIS OF TEAM APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-7
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-8
SPONSOR/CHAMPION ROLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-9LEADER ROLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-9FACILITATOR ROLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-10TEAM MEMBER ROLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-12
MEASUREMENT OF PERFORMANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-13REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IV-16
V. TEAM FORMATION & DYNAMICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-1INITIATING TEAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-2
TEAM BUILDING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-3TEAM ACTIVITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-4TEAM CHARTER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-6TEAM GUIDELINES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-7
TEAM MEETING STRUCTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-8REWARD & RECOGNITION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-10
SELECTING TEAM MEMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-12TEAM SIZE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-12TEAM DIVERSITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-13
TEAM STAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-14TEAM BARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-17
COMMON TEAM PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-18GROUPTHINK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-19CONFLICT RESOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-21
DECISION MAKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-24REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V-26
VI. CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-1INCREMENTAL & BREAKTHROUGH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-2
INCREMENTAL IMPROVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-3BREAKTHROUGH IMPROVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-4REENGINEERING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-5SIX SIGMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-6KAIZEN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-8
NON-VALUED-ADDED ACTIVITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-9
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MISTAKE PROOFING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-11CYCLE TIME REDUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-12CONCURRENT ACTIVITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-14
IMPROVEMENT CYCLES (PDCA/(PDSA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-15PROBLEM SOLVING PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-17
CLASSICAL STEPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-18
DMAIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-20ROOT CAUSE ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-23
IMPROVEMENT BARRIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-25REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI-25
VII. BASIC QUALITY TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-1
CAUSE-AND-EFFECT DIAGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-2FLOW CHARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-4DATA TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-7CHECK SHEETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-8HISTOGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-11PARETO DIAGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-16SCATTER DIAGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-20
CONTROL CHARTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-24VARIABLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-27ATTRIBUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-35INTERPRETATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-43
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII-50
VIII. QUALITY MANAGEMENT TOOLS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-1
BRAINSTORMING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-2AFFINITY DIAGRAMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-3BENCHMARKING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-5QUALITY COSTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-8
COST CATEGORIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-10
COST IMPROVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-15COST BASES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-16
QUALITY AUDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-21TYPES OF AUDITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-22AUDIT RESPONSIBILITIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-27AUDIT PREPARATION/EXECUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-29AUDIT REPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-30AUDIT TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-31
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII-34
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IX. CUSTOMER-SUPPLIER RELATIONSHIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-1INTERNAL CUSTOMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-2INTERNAL CUSTOMER FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-6
EXTERNAL CUSTOMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-7CUSTOMER EXPECTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-11CUSTOMER NEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-12
CUSTOMER SATISFACTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-14CUSTOMER SERVICE PRINCIPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-15QUALITY FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-20
EXTERNAL CUSTOMER FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-25INTERNAL SUPPLIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-31INTERNAL SUPPLIER FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-32
EXTERNAL SUPPLIERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-33SUPPLIER RATINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-35SUPPLIER COMMUNICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-36SUPPLIER CERTIFICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-42
EXTERNAL SUPPLIER FEEDBACK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-44REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX-48
X. APPENDIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X-1INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X-3ANSWERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X-17
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INTRO-6 (6)
CQIA Primer Question Contents
Primer SectionQuestions
% Exam Primer CD
I. Certification Overview
II. Quality Concepts 13% 13 52 130
III. Quality Benefits &Philosophies
12% 12 48 120
IV. Team Roles &Responsibilities
9% 9 36 90
V. Team Formation &Dynamics
16% 16 64 160
VI. Continuous Improvement 12% 12 48 120
VII. Basic Quality Tools 13% 13 52 130
VIII. Quality Management Tools 13% 13 52 130
IX. Customer-SupplierRelationships
12% 12 48 120
Total 100% 100 400 1000
Comparison B/T the CQIA Primer & ASQs BOK
Primer II III IV V VI VII VIII IX
ASQBOK
I.A
I.B & C
II.A & B
II.C
III.A, B & C
III.D
III.D
III.E
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I-1 (7)
I KNOW OF NO MORE ENCOURAGINGFACT THAN THE UNQUESTIONABLEABILITY OF MAN TO ELEVATE HISLIFE BY A CONSCIOUS ENDEAVOR.
HENRY DAVID THOREAU
Professionalizing Quality Education
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I-2 (8)
Preface
This text is designed to provide quality professionalswith a review of fundamental knowledge and skills. It isalso intended to be a Primer for those interested intaking the certification examination offered twice a yearby the American Society for Quality.
Test questions are provided at the end of each Section.The majority of these questions were created by theauthor and QCI associates. Some questions are derivedfrom ASQ certification brochures and modifiedpublished examinations. These test questions andanswers must be removed if this text is to be used as areference during a certification examination. They areprinted on blue paper for easy distinction.
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I-3 (9)
Certified Quality ImprovementAssociate Exam
Objective
To provide recognized fundamental quality trainingand to prepare persons interested in taking the CQIA
examination. ASQ believes that this knowledge willhelp advance the use of quality tools throughoutorganizations.
Certification
Certification is the independently verified prescribed
level of knowledge as defined through a combinationof experience, education and examination.
The Certified Quality Improvement Associate
The CQIA examination is designed to assess basicknowledge of quality tools and their uses byindividuals who are involved in quality improvement
projects, but do not necessarily come from traditionalquality areas. This program is in response to therapid spread of quality principles and practicesthroughout organizations, and covers the basics ofquality at a fundamental level in a way that is notexclusively addressed in any of the existingcertification exams.
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I-3 (10)
CQIA Exam (Continued)
Eligibility
CQIA participants must register with ASQheadquarters. Eligibility is two years of general workexperience or at least an Associates Degree from a
post-secondary school.
Cost
The national test fee is determined by ASQ and isdetailed in the CQIA brochure.
Location
Proctors are provided by local ASQ Sections.
Duration
The test lasts three hours and will begin at an advisedtime (typically 8:00 or 9:00 A.M.)
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I-4 (11)
CQIA Exam (Continued)
Other Details
Additional information can be obtained from ASQ at1-800-248-1946 or downloaded from the ASQ web site.
Bibliography Sources
The reference sources cited in the CQIA brochure areexcellent. The authors recommend the followingreferences in approximately the order presented:
(1) Quality Dictionary
(2) The Team Handbook, 2nd ed.
(3) The Quality Improvement Handbook
(4) The CQIA Handbook
(5) The Management and Control of Quality, 4th ed.
(6) Total Quality Management, 2nd ed.
(7) Quality Management, Introduction to Total QualityManagement for Production, Processing, andServices, 3rd ed.
(8) Jurans Quality Handbook, 5th ed.
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I-5 (12)
CQIA Exam (Continued)
Study
The authors recommend that this Primer be taught bya qualified CQE, CQA, CMQ/OE or CQIA usingclassroom lecture, study assignments and a review oftest questions. Training may vary from 20 hours to 40hours. Additionally, the student should spend about50 hours of individual study on the Primer, testquestions, and other bibliography sources. If thestudent studies unaided, a minimum of 80 hours ofpreparation is suggested.
Exam Hints
The CQIA applicant should take into the exam:
C Several #2 pencilsC A calculatorC The CQIA Primer (without test questions)C Any other selected bibliography sourcesC
Scratch paper
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I-5 (13)
CQIA Exam (Continued)
Exam Hints (Continued)
Arrive early, get a good seat, and organize materials.
Answer all questions. There's no penalty for wrong
answers.
Save difficult questions until the end.
Use good time management. If there are 100questions, and the exam lasts 3 hours, a student mustaverage 1.8 minutes/question.
Some tests begin with difficult questions, avoid panic.
Keep test question numbers and the answer sheetaligned.
Bring any exam errata to the proctor's attention.
Mentally note weakness categories in case you haveto take the exam again. ASQ will report only flagrantareas.
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I-7 (14)
CQIA Body of Knowledge
I. Quality Basics (25 Questions)
A. Terms, Concepts, and Principles
1. Quality (Apply)
Define and know how to use this term correctly.
2. Quality planning (Understand)
Understand a quality plan and its purpose for theorganization as a whole and who in theorganization contributes to its development.
3. The importance of employees (Understand)
Understand employee involvement and employeeempowerment, and understand the benefits ofboth concepts; distinguish between involvementand empowerment.
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I-7 (15)
CQIA BOK (Continued)
4. Systems and processes (Analyze)
Define a system and a process; distinguishbetween a system and a process; understand theinterrelationship between process and system;
and know how the components of a system(supplier, input, process, output, customer, andfeedback) impact the system as a whole.
5. Variation (Understand)
Understand the concept of variation and commonand special cause variation.
B. Benefits of Quality (Understand)
Understand how improved process, product and/orservice quality will benefit any function, area of anorganization, or industry. Understand how eachstakeholder (e.g., employees, organization,
customers, suppliers, community) benefits fromquality and how the benefits may differ for eachtype of stakeholder.
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I. CERTIFICATION OVERVIEW
I-8 (16)
CQIA BOK (Continued)
C. Quality Philosophies (Remember)
Understand each of these philosophies and howthey differ from one another.
1. Deming (14 points)
2. Juran (Trilogy)
3. Crosby (Zero defects)
II. Teams (25 Questions)
A. Understanding Teams
1. Purpose (Apply)
Understand the definition of a team, when to usea team and for how long.
2. Characteristics and types (Apply)
Recognize characteristics and types of teams andhow they are structured; know how teams differand how they are similar; know which type ofteam to use in a given situation.
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I. CERTIFICATION OVERVIEW
I-8 (17)
CQIA BOK (Continued)
3. Value (Understand)
Understand how a teams work relates to theorganizations key strategies and the value ofusing different types of teams.
B. Roles and Responsibilities (Understand)
Identify major team roles and the attributes of goodrole performance for champions, sponsors, leaders,facilitators, timekeepers, and members.
C. Team Formation and Group Dynamics
1. Initiating teams (Apply)
Apply the elements of launching a team: clearpurpose, goals, commitment, ground rules,schedules, support from management, and teamempowerment.
2. Selecting team members (Apply)
Know how to select team members who haveappropriate skill sets and knowledge (e.g.,number of members, expertise, andrepresentation).
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I. CERTIFICATION OVERVIEW
I-9 (18)
CQIA BOK (Continued)
3. Team stages (Understand)
Describe the classic stages of team evolution(forming, storming, norming, and performing).
4. Team barriers (Analyze)
Understand the value of conflict, know how toresolve team conflict, define and recognizegroupthink and how to overcome it, understandhow poor logistics and agendas as well as lack oftraining become barriers to a team.
5. Decision making (Apply)
Understand and apply different decision models(voting, consensus, etc.).
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I. CERTIFICATION OVERVIEW
I-9 (19)
CQIA BOK (Continued)
III. Continuous Improvement (50 Questions)
A. Incremental and Breakthrough Improvement(Understand)
Understand how process improvement can identifywaste and non-value-added activities. Understandhow both incremental and breakthroughimprovement processes achieve results. Know thesteps required for both types of improvement.Recognize which type of improvement approach isbeing used in specific situations. Know thesimilarities and differences between the twoapproaches.
B. Improvement Cycles (Analyze)
Define various improvement cycle phases (e.g.,PDCA, PDSA) and use them appropriately.
C. Problem Solving Process (Apply)
Apply the basic problem solving steps: understandthe problem, determine the root cause,develop/implement solutions and verifyeffectiveness.
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I. CERTIFICATION OVERVIEW
I-10 (20)
CQIA BOK (Continued)
D. Improvement Tools (Apply)
Use, interpret, and explain flowcharts, histograms,Pareto charts, scatter diagrams, run charts, causeand effect diagrams, checklists (check sheets),
affinity diagrams, cost of quality, benchmarking,brainstorming, and audits as improvement tools.Understand control chart concepts (e.g.,centerlines, control limits, out-of-controlconditions), and recognize when control chartsshould be used.
E. Customer-Supplier Relationships
1. Internal and external customers (Understand)
Know how customers are defined. Understand theimportance of working with customers to improveprocesses and services, and how customersinfluence organizational processes. Know how to
distinguish between different external customertypes (consumers and end-users).
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I. CERTIFICATION OVERVIEW
I-10 (21)
CQIA BOK (Continued)
2. Customer feedback (Understand)
Know the different types of customer feedback(e.g., surveys, complaints) and understand thevalue in using the data to drive continuous
improvement activities.
3. Internal and external suppliers (Understand)
Understand the value in communicatingexpectations and the impact of supplierperformance. Understand the value of workingwith suppliers to improve products, processes, orservices.
4. Supplier feedback (Understand)
Know the different types of supplier feedback(e.g., surveys, complaints, ratings) andunderstand the value in using the data to drive
continuous improvement activities.
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I. CERTIFICATION OVERVIEW
I-12 (22)
Levels of CognitionBased on Blooms Taxonomy
In addition to content specifics, the subtext for eachtopic in this BOK also indicates the intended complexitylevelof the test questions for that topic. These levelsare based on Levels of Cognition (from Blooms
Taxonomy - Revised, 2001) and are presented below inrank order, from least complex to most complex.
Remember (Knowledge Level)
Recall or recognize terms, definitions, facts, ideas,materials, patterns, sequences, methods, principles,
etc.
Understand (Comprehension Level)
Read and understand descriptions, communications,reports, tables, diagrams, directions, regulations, etc.
Apply (Application Level)
Know when and how to use ideas, procedures,methods, formulas, principles, theories, etc.
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I. CERTIFICATION OVERVIEW
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Levels of Cognition (Continued)
Analyze (Analysis Level)
Break down information into its constituent parts andrecognize their relationship to one another and howthey are organized; identify sublevel factors or salient
data from a complex scenario.
Evaluate (Evaluation Level)
Make judgments about the value of proposed ideas,solutions, etc., by comparing the proposal to specificcriteria or standards.
Create (Synthesis Level)
Put parts or elements together in such a way as toreveal a pattern or structure not clearly there before;identify which data or information from a complex setis appropriate to examine further or from whichsupported conclusions can be drawn.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTS
II-1 (24)
QUALITY IS ABOUT PASSIONAND PRIDE
T. J. PETERS/N. AUSTIN (1986)
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-2 (25)
Quality Concepts
Quality Concepts (Basics) are presented in the followingtopic areas:
C Quality definitions
C Quality planningC Importance of employees
C Systems and processes
C Variation
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-2 (26)
Quality Defined
Some definitions of quality include:
C Dr. W. Edwards Deming (1986) said that Qualitycontrol does not mean achieving perfection. It
means the efficient production of quality that themarket expects.
C Dr. Joseph M. Juran (1992) defines quality asFitness for use.
C Philip Crosby (1979) defines quality asConformance to requirements.
C The American Society for Quality defines quality asThe totality of features and characteristics of aproduct that bear on its ability to satisfy a givenneed.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-3 (27)
Determinants of Quality
Listed below are some of the attributes and descriptorsthat consumers associate with quality:
Products Services
Performance ReliabilityFeatures ResponsivenessReliability CompetenceConformance Access/CourtesyDurability CommunicationServiceability CredibilityAesthetics Security/Safety
Perceived quality Knowing the customer
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-4 (28)
Organizational Quality Steps
For Total Quality to succeed in an organization, astructured process should be used. According to Juran(1992), the process should include:
C
A Quality CouncilC Quality PoliciesC Strategic Quality GoalsC Deployment of Quality GoalsC Resources for ControlC Measurement of PerformanceC Quality Audits
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-7 (29)
Quality Terms
The following terms and definitions are pertinent tounderstanding and communicating quality.
Attribute A characteristic or property that is
appraised in terms of whether itdoes or does not exist, with respectto a given requirement.
Audit Standard An authentic description of essentialcharacteristics of audits whichreflects current thought andpractice.
Capability The ability to perform designatedactivities and to achieve resultswhich fulfill specified requirements.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-7 (30)
Quality Terms (Continued)
Corrective Action An action taken to eliminate thecauses of an existing nonconformity,defect or other undesirable situation,to prevent recurrence.
Defect The nonfulfillment of intended usagerequirements. The departure orabsence of one or more qualitycharacteristics from intended usagerequirements.
Documentation The use of documentary evidence;
the documents used.
Inspection The p ro ce ss o f me asu r in g,examining, testing, gaging orotherwise comparing a unit withrequirements.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-8 (31)
Quality Terms (Continued)
Instructions Detailed, written, or spokendirections given in regard to what isto be done.
Lot A definite quantity of a product ormaterial accumulated underconditions that are considereduniform for sampling purposes.
Nonconformity A d e p a r t u r e o f a q u a l i t ycharacteristic from its intended levelor state that occurs with a severity
sufficient to cause an associatedproduct or service not to meet aspecification requirement.
Objective Information which can be verified,Evidence based on facts and obtained through
observation, measurement, or test.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-9 (32)
Quality Terms (Continued)
Preventive Action An action taken to eliminate thecauses of a potential nonconformity,defect or other undesirable situation,to prevent occurrence.
Procedure A specified written way to performan activity.
Process A set of interrelated resources andactivities which transform inputsinto outputs with the aim of addingvalue.
Product The result of activities or processes.A product can be tangible orintangible, or a combination of both.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-10 (33)
Quality Terms (Continued)
Quality The totali ty of features andcharacteristics of a product orservice that bear on its ability tosatisfy given needs.
Quality All those planned or systematicAssurance actions necessary to provide
adequate confidence that a productor service will satisfy given needs.
Quality Audit A systematic and independentexamination to determine whether
quality activities and related resultscomply with planned arrangementsand whether these arrangements areimplemented effectively and aresuitable to achieve objectives.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-10 (34)
Quality Terms (Continued)
Quality Control The operational techniques andactivities which sustain a quality ofproduct or service that will satisfygiven needs; also the use of such
techniques and activities.
Quality The actions taken to increase theImprovement value to the customer by improving
the effectiveness and efficiency ofprocesses and activities throughoutthe organizational structure.
Quality The totality of functions involved inManagement the determination and achievement
of quality.
Quality Manual A document stating the qualitypolicy and describing the qualitysystem of an organization.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-11 (35)
Quality Terms (Continued)
Quality Planning Establishing and developing theobjectives and requirements forquality and the requirements for thequality system application.
Quality Policy The overall quality intentions anddirection of an organizationregarding quality, as formallyexpressed by top management.
Record A document which furnishesobjective evidence of activities
performed or of results achieved.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY DEFINITIONS
II-11 (36)
Quality Terms (Continued)
Reliability The probability that an item willperform its intended function for aspecified interval under statedconditions.
Rework T h e a c t io n t a ke n o n anonconforming item so that it willfulfill the originally specifiedrequirements.
Sample A group of units or observationstaken from a larger collection of
units or observations that serves toprovide an information basis formaking a decision concerning thelarger quantity.
System Several components (or processes)integrated together to perform a
function.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-12 (37)
Strategic Planning
A short outline of the strategic planning process shouldinclude the following:
Develop a company vision and purpose statement
Review previously gathered environmental data
Consider corporate strengths and weakness
Make assumptions about outside factors
Establish appropriate goals
Develop strategic and tacticalimplementation steps
Evaluate performance to goals
Reevaluate the above steps for perpetual use
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-12 (38)
DEVELOP THE SPECIFIC TACTICS
DEVELOP BROAD STRATEGIC OBJECTIVES
DEVELOP THE GUIDING PRINCIPLES
DEVELOP THE MISSION
DEVELOP THE VISION
Strategic Planning (Continued)
The traditional specific strategic planning steps(adapted from Goetsch, 2000) include:
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-13 (39)
The Quality Plan
Quality planning, at the highest level of the organization,will provide more recognition and commitment to thequality effort. Quality planning at the strategic level canbe described as strategic quality planning.
Quality Planning is:
A systematic process for defining the methodsneeded to meet the requirements for a particularproduct, process, or standard.
Quality can be addressed by a organization in their
vision or mission statements. In most cases, one ormore quality elements will be included as guidingprinciples. Often these principles are formalized intoone or more quality policies.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-14 (40)
Quality Principles
The term principles means a basic foundation ofbeliefs, truths, etc., upon which others are based. Onemethod for the leaders of an organization to gain thetruth, would be to study the literature of the quality
gurus.
Information and materials on the Malcolm BaldrigeNational Quality Award and ISO 9001 will also be ofbenefit.
The integration of study with Quality Council(Management steering committee) involvement will
result in a collective philosophy about quality.
Some commonly quality principle statements include:
Total dedication to the customer (Ciampa, 1992)
Quality must be built into each design and each
process. It cannot be created through inspection.
(Ishikawa, 1985)
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-14 (41)
Quality Principles (Continued)
An organizations principles may stress some of thefollowing points:
Customer satisfaction is a key
Defects must be prevented
Manufacturing assumes responsibility for quality
The process must be controlled
Everyone participates in quality
Quality is designed into the product
Total quality is a group activity
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-15 (42)
Quality Policies
A quality policy represents the overall quality intentionsand direction of an organization regarding quality, asformally expressed by top management.
Quality policies often include several of the followingthoughts:
The only acceptable level of defects is zero
We will meet or exceed customer expectations
Defective products will not be shipped
We will build a relationship with our suppliers toensure a quality product
We will engage in a revolutionary rate of qualityimprovement
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-15 (43)
Quality Policies (Continued)
Quality policies are often developed by top managementin order to link together policies among all departments.
A quality policy set by the top management will ensure
that a systems approach will be undertaken.
To carry the quality policy down the organization, eachindividual department can also develop its own qualitypolicy. The quality policy should support the overallcorporate policy. The department quality policy willallow each department to personalize the message.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-16 (44)
Strategic Quality Goals
Quality goals of a strategic nature, become a part of thestrategic business plan.
The quality goals are specific, quantified, and
scheduled. We will achieve 99% ratings from all of ourdesignated customers by August, 2006 would fit astrategic quality goal definition.
Quality goals may be linked to product performance,service performance, customer satisfaction, qualityimprovement, or quality costs.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-16 (45)
Strategic Quality Goals (Continued)
Strategic quality goals cut across many departmentsand address issues that are applicable organizationwide. The following are examples:
Company vision, mission statement, quality policy
Shared Total Quality philosophy
Effects of quality systems...ISO, MBNQA
Emergence of new competitors
Highlights of new quality techniques and tools
Field intelligence on the competition
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-16 (46)
Strategic Planning Elements and Timing
Purpose Output Time Frames
Direction
Vision(s)
Mission
Strategic Focus Critical Success Factors
10 - 20 Years
Open ended
5 Years 3 - Years
Expectations(Measurables)
Business Objectives
Performance Goals
5 - 10 Years
1 - 5 Years
Action
Strategies
Tactics
Budgets
Performance Plans
1 - 5 Years
1 - 3 Years
1 - 3 Years
3 - 12 Months
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-17 (47)
Tactical Quality Goals
Tactical quality goals are the many detailed subgoalsthat are derived from strategic quality goals.
Status of customer complaints, returns, warranty
claims
Results of customer surveys, mailings
In-house scrap, rework, defective rates
Supplier ratings, deliveries
Examples of some departmental quality tactical goalscould be:
We will reduce the response time of ourdepartmental laboratory testing from 5 days to 1day.
We will reduce total quality costs by 7 percentduring the next financial period.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUALITY PLANNING
II-18 (48)
Quality Maturity Development
Strategic or long term quality plans and objectives maybe grouped into stages of developmental maturity of thequality system.
Listed below are some steps in order of advancingmaturity:
Inspection, appraisal and detection stage
Process control and prevention stage
A solid quality system in place
Conformance with external quality systemrequirements
Voluntary product compliance goals
Total quality management
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award
World class quality
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
II-20 (49)
Introduction
Management has the responsibility of setting the tonefor organizational empowerment. The purpose of thisaction is to engage the entire workforce in the activity ofmaking things better. The need for continuous
improvement includes: productivity, cost containment,product and service quality, customer treatment, andrespect for all employees of the company.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
II-20 (50)
Individual Involvement
A successful organization motivates its employees atevery level and gets the most out of their investment.Although there are many motivational theories, no oneapproach is applicable for all situations.
People have different levels of needs. All people can'tbe motivated by the same set formula. Often, anorganization and its employees have different goals. Acompany which treats its employees as individuals andshows a sincere desire in individual development,stands the best chance of benefitting the most fromemployee involvement.
A recognition system, both monetary as well as non-monetary, is essential.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
II-20 (51)
Individual Involvement (Continued)
Involvement is the act of engaging a participant. Itimplies some professional, personal or emotionalattachment.
Involving the employees in the operations of thecompany and allowing them to contribute more thantheir muscle to the success of the company, is veryimportant. There is a need to tap the creativity andknowledge of all of the employees for the mutual benefitof the company.
A level of trust and honesty must be evident so that
employees work to help satisfy the customer. Oneapproach includes treating all employees as partners inthe business.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
II-21 (52)
Employee Empowerment
Organizations find that with empowerment, solutions arebetter, decisions have better acceptance, andperformance is increased. French (1999) provides thefollowing definition of empowerment:
To empower is to give someone power, which isdone by giving individuals the authority to makedecisions, to contribute their ideas, to exert influence,and to be responsible.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
II-21 (53)
Employee Empowerment (Continued)
Goetsch (2000) points out that empowerment isemployee involvement that matters. The employeeshave authority and responsibility to make thingshappen. Some of the methods to increase participation
and involvement include:
Quality circles Team building Survey feedback
Culture audit
Autonomous work groups
Quality of work life programs Search conferences
Open-book management
(French, 1999)
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
II-21 (54)
Barriers To Empowerment
The resistance to a change to empowerment comesfrom several sources:
Employees (another management program that will
go away)
Unions (long distrust and suspicion of managementmotives)
Management (lack of commitment, training, values,or insecurity)
Middle management (first and middle levelmanagers are not involved)
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
II-22 (55)
Erasing Barriers To Empowerment
Senior management has to do a better job in erasing thebarriers to empowerment through:
Providing more support
Providing training
Being facilitators
Being role models
Managing by walking around
Responding quickly to recommendations
Recognizing employee accomplishments
(Goetsch, 2000)
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
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0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
INFORMATIONSHARING
OPINIONSURVEYS
EMPLOYEETRAINING
SUGGESTIONSYSTEMS
TASK FORCECOMMITTEES
PROBLEMSOLVINGTEAMS
KAIZENCI TEAMS
SELF MANAGEDPLANT DESIGN
AWARENESS
UNDERSTANDING
SUPPORT
COMMITMENT
OWNERSHIP
EMPOWERMENTIMPACT
PROGRESSIVE APPROACHES
SELFREGULATINGWORK TEAMS
Organizational Empowerment
Organizational empowerment generally consists ofsteps or stages. Very few companies would attempt toadvance from employee awareness directly to employeeownership.
Organizational Empowerment Steps
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
II-23 (57)
Quality of Work Life Initiatives
It is through providing a better work environment viaempowerment that the quality of work life can beimproved. Empowerment activities at some companiescan be comprised of job redesign to reduce or enhance
the work experience. The various job designapproaches include:
Job Simplification
Job Rotation
Job Enlargement
Job Enrichment(Schermerhorn, 1993)
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
II-23 (58)
Job Simplification
Job simplification employs standardized workprocedures with narrow job scopes and highlyspecialized tasks. The jobs are easier to learn andrequire less employee skills. The responsibilities and
opportunities for individual decision making areminimized. Employees can be bored with their work,become unhappy, have higher turnover, and performpoorly.
Job Rotation
Job rotation consists of moving employees among jobsinvolving different functions or skills. The content ofeach task can vary from each other, helping to broadenemployees understanding of other jobs and linkages tothe company. Employees can be included in thescheduling effort for involvement.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
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Job Enlargement
The concept of job enlargement is to combine relatedjobs and assign them to one employee. The employeewill have a larger job by having more varied taskelements.
Job Enrichment
In this job design, jobs that are boring or lack contentare given elements that will satisfy and enrich theemployee. That is, more responsibilities are added tothe job. Perhaps this could include elements of
planning, evaluating options, making decisions, or teambuilding.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
II-24 (60)
Job Enrichment (Continued)
Methods to recognize if a job is in need of enrichmentopportunities:
Skill variety: a variety of tasks, types of skills,
number of skills needed
Task identify: ability to do the complete job or justportions of it
Task significance: the impact of the job on the firm
Autonomy: freedom from supervision, ability to
schedule ones own work
Job feedback: can a person see the direct results oftheir work?
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSIMPORTANCE OF EMPLOYEES
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Job Enrichment (Continued)
A manager can enhance his/her ability to useempowerment concepts in normal work activities.Among the various concepts the manager can use are:
Involving people in making their own workassignments
Encouraging others to obtain the results of workassignments
Providing an environment of cooperation andinformation sharing
Sharing the ownership of results
Encouraging others to take initiative in theworkplace
Allowing others to make decisions and solve their
own problems
Letting others implement their ideas
Recognizing successes and contributors(Schermerhorn, 1993)
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSSYSTEMS AND PROCESSES
II-25 (62)
Systems
From an organizational standpoint, a system is definedas a series of actions, activities, elements, components,departments, or processes that work together for adefinite purpose.
System effectiveness is a measure of the degree towhich a system can be expected to achieve a set ofspecific (mission) requirements, that may be expressedas a function of performance (availability, dependabilityand capability).
SubsystemsSubsystems are major divisions of a system that are stilllarge enough to consist of more than one process.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSSYSTEMS AND PROCESSES
II-25 (63)
Processes
Processes are definable portions of a system orsubsystem that consists of a number of individualelements, actions, or steps. Omdahl (1997) defines aprocess as a set of interrelated resources and activities
which transform inputs into outputs with the objectiveof adding value.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSSYSTEMS AND PROCESSES
II-25 (64)
PROCESS 1
PROCESS 2
PROCESS 3
PROCESS 4
PROCESS 5
INPUTS
DATA
IDEAS
ORDERS
SPECS
MONEY
NEEDS
OTHERS
OUTPUTS
PRODUCTS
SERVICES
REMEDIES
DESIGNS
SOLUTIONS
TRAINING
OTHERS
FEEDBACK
CUSTOMERSSUPPLIERS
FEEDBACK
A Hypothetical System Schematic
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSSYSTEMS AND PROCESSES
II-26 (65)
OBTA IN CQIA
BODY OF KNOWLEDGE
DIVIDE B OK
INTO THREE
SEGMENTS
AUTHOR A AUTHOR B AUTHOR C
REWRITE
OK
DESIGNADVERTISEMENT
& FLYER
IDENTIFYTA B
NAMES
OK
PLACEORDER
OK
PLACE
TA B
ORDER
OK
TYPIST
MATERIAL
OK
COMPLETED
TEXT
COMPLETED
PRIMER
SELL PRIMER
DESIGN
BINDER
OK
PLACE
BINDER
ORDER
OK
NO
YES
YES
YES YES
NO
NO
NO
NO
YES
EDITOR
YESNO
NO
System Flow Chart
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSSYSTEMS AND PROCESSES
II-27 (66)
Process Documentation
The activities relative to any process of importance,should be documented and controlled.
When required by customers, by ISO registrars, or by
good manufacturing practices, procedures and simplework instructions are used to detail repetitive activities.A procedure includes details such as who and whereand a work instruction expands the procedure to includehow and when.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSSYSTEMS AND PROCESSES
II-27 (67)
Written Procedures
A procedure is a document that specifies the way toperform an activity. For most operations, a procedurecan be created in advance by the appropriateindividual(s). Consider the situation where a process
exists, but has not been documented. The procedureshould be developed by those responsible for theprocess. Some procedures may be developed by thequality department for use by other operatingdepartments. Generally, these departments provideinput. A procedure for the control of nonconformingmaterial is presented in the Primer.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSSYSTEMS AND PROCESSES
II-29 (68)
Work Instructions
Procedures describe the process at a general level,while work instructions provide details and a step-by-step sequence of activities. Flow charts may be usedwith work instructions to show relationships of process
steps. Controlled copies of work instructions are keptin the area where the activities are performed.
Some discretion is required in writing work instructions,so that the level of detail included is appropriate for thebackground, experience, and skills of the personnel thatwould typically be using them. Typically, the people thatperform the activities described in the work instruction
should be involved in its creation. The wording andterminology used should also match that used by thepersonnel performing the tasks.
A work instruction example and flow chart are presentedin the Primer.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSVARIATION
II-31 (69)
Key Variation Considerations
When investigating variation, there are situations wherespecial or assignable causes must be addressed. Inmany of these cases, workers and floor levelsupervisors can make corrections.
There are situations where common or chance causescan be improved by a variety of activities. These systemchanges are the responsibility of management.
There are situations where people (both managementand workers) make the situation worse by tweaking itand, thus, widen the natural variation in a process.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSVARIATION
II-31 (70)
System Variation
Variation is seldom considered a vital or strategicmanagement issue but it should be.
In understanding variation, the difference between
common and special causes must be resolved.
Common causes occur in most processes and mayproduce a system that is stable and predicable inoutcome.
Deming felt that 94% of all process problems are due tocommon cause variation. Usually a decrease in
common cause variation will require correctivemanagement action.
Fundamental changes in the process are necessary toreduce or remove the common causes. This meanschanging equipment, machinery, methods, materials, orother factors related to the process.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSVARIATION
II-32 (71)
CASE 1NO ADJUSTMENT
CASE 2ADJUST TO TARGET
CASE 3OVER ADJUSTFOR WINDAGE
CASE 4
JUST LIKE THE LAST
THE SYSTEM IS STABLE ABOUT 40% MORE VARIATIONTHAN CASE 1
DEMING CALLEDTHIS CASE THEMILKY WAY
System Variation (Continued)
One of the best ways to illustrate what happens when astable system is inappropriately adjusted is the Nelsonfunnel.
LIFEEXAMPLES
WORKERS TWEAKING THE MACHINE
MANAGERS TAMPERING WITH WORKER PERFORMANCE
LIFE LIFEEXAMPLES EXAMPLES
US TAX WORKER TRAINING POLICY WORKER
SOME USING PAINT CORPORATE MATCHES FROM RIGHT SIZING PRIOR RUN
SOME CORPORATE CULTURES
Nelson Funnel Illustrations
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSVARIATION
II-33 (72)
SCRAPRATE
TIME
SCRAP
RATE
TIME
Special Versus Common Cause
An important consideration, on the road to processimprovement, is the differentiation between special andcommon causes.
Special Cause Example
Common Cause Example
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSVARIATION
II-34 (73)
Process Centering
In some situations savings can be realized by simplycentering the process. Equally as important, if theprocess spread can be tightly controlled, a company cansometimes save a considerable amount of money by
purposely skewing the centering of the process.
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSVARIATION
II-34 (74)
Specification
Rejected
Material
Rejected
Material
Specification
Rejected
Material
Rejected
Material
Process Centering (Continued)
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSVARIATION
II-35 (75)
Sources of Variability
Absolutely everything on earth varies if one measures itclosely enough. The data can be either quantitative(numbers) or qualitative (counts). All data will vary!
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSVARIATION
II-36 (76)
Within Lot Variation Lot-to-Lot Variation
Within Stream Variation Stream-to-Stream Variation
Minus
Minus
Within Time Variation Time-to-Time Variation
Within Piece Variation Piece-to-Piece Variation
Inherent Process VariationError of Measurement
Equipment Human
Process Spread
Minus
Minus
Minus
Sources of Variability (Continued)
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUESTIONS
II-39 (77)
2.2. Without prior approval, an employee spent $500 of company moneyto purchase a device that simplifies work flow in his area. This is anexample of:
a. Management lack of controlb. Worker wastec. Employee empowermentd. Employee involvement
2. 7. The "quality function" of a company is best described as:
a. The degree to which the company product conforms to a design orspecification
b. That collection of activities through which "fitness for use" isachieved
c. The degree to which a class or category of product possessessatisfaction for people generally
d. Where the quality department fits in the organizational chart
2. 9. The purpose of a quality manual is to:
a. Provide a basis for every quality decisionb. Standardize the methods and decisions of a departmentc. Optimize company performance and the effectiveness of the quality
departmentd. Make it possible to handle every situation in exactly the same manner
Answers: 2.2. c, 2.7. b, 2.9. c
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUESTIONS
II-40 (78)
2.13. In planning for quality, an important consideration at the start is:
a. The relation of the total cost of quality to the net salesb. The establishment of a company quality policy or objectivec. Deciding precisely how much money is to be spentd. The selling of the quality program to top management
2.14. The company has a good SPC program in manufacturing, however,a customer has a product failure in his hands. The cause was a
result of changing vendors. This would be a/an:
a. Vendor cause problemb. Common causec. Assignable caused. Bad inspection procedure
2.19. Any process of importance or complexity should have:
a. A written documented procedureb. An established measurement of nonconforming productc. A method of achieving corrective actiond. A connection to the organization's mission statement
Answers: 2.13. b, 2.14. c, 2.19. a
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUESTIONS
II-41 (79)
2.23. A work instruction does NOT give information about which one of thefollowing?
a. The steps necessary to perform certain workb. Which specifications are applicablec. The identity of the person who does the workd. Normal set-up information
2.28. Which of the following descriptors is LEAST likely to apply to service
quality?
a. Reliabilityb. Attractivenessc. Responsivenessd. Competency
2.30. Consider the following statements about processes and systems.Which statement would be most correct?
a. Processes are generally smaller in scope than subsystemsb. Input is required for processes but not for systemsc. A product or service can be the input data for a processd. Only the end customer can provide effective process feedback
Answers: 2.23. c, 2.28. b, 2.30. a
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUESTIONS
II-42 (80)
2.35. Which of the following quality planning process elements would beLEAST likely to be measured?
a. Strategic quality goalsb. Tactical quality plansc. Quality mission statementsd. Short-term quality goals
2.36. A twenty year veteran of the paint dip line explained to a rookie that
the only way to get consistent thickness is to adjust the speed basedon the last piece checked. This technique will have what effect onprocess variation?
a. Minimize itb. Reduce itc. No effectd. Increase it
2.40. Assigning an individual to assume the combined duties of what wereformerly several different, but related, jobs is an example of:
a. Job enrichmentb. Job rotationc. Job enlargementd. Job simplification
Answers: 2.35. c, 2.36. d, 2.40. c
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUESTIONS
II-43 (81)
2.43. The authoritative act of documenting compliance with agreedrequirements is known as:
a. Objective evidenceb. Certificationc. Sampling pland. Quality control
2.44. A "failure to meet the specified requirement, supported by evidence"
is best described as a:
a. Discrepancyb. Reworkc. Characteristicd. Deviation
2.45. Which of the following statements regarding systems is NOT true?
a. Flow charts are required for all proceduresb. A work instruction expands upon a procedure to include "how" and
"when"c. A process transforms inputs into outputs with the objective of adding
valued. A procedure includes details such as "who" and "where"
Answers: 2.43. b, 2.44. a, 2.45. a
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II. QUALITY CONCEPTSQUESTIONS
II-44 (82)
2.49. Which document details specific quality practices, resources, andsequences of activities to ensure that customer requirements, needs,and expectations are met?
a. Tactical planb. Control planc. Quality pland. Strategic plan
2.51. A key to management understanding the system variation is theirability to distinguish the difference between:
a. Material and non-material errorsb. Common and special causesc. Environmental and procedural influencesd. Routine and special processes
2.52. In many situations, the easiest means to achieve savings byminimizing rejected material is:
a. Process centeringb. Control chartingc. Kaizend. Seiri
Answers: 2.49. c, 2.51. b, 2.52. a
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIES
III-1 (83)
OUR PLANS MISCARRYBECAUSE THEY HAVE NO AIM.
WHEN A MAN DOES NOTKNOW WHAT HARBOR HE ISMAKING FOR, NO WIND IS THERIGHT WIND.
SENECA (4BC - AD65)
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-2 (84)
Quality Benefits and Philosophies
Quality Benefits and Philosophies is presented in thefollowing topic areas:
C Benefits of quality
C Quality philosophies
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-2 (85)
Stakeholder Groups
Many organizational activities require stakeholdersupport. This includes allocation of people, resources,money, and time to assure success.
The relevant stakeholders are those parties or groupsthat have an interest in the welfare and operation of thecompany. These stakeholders include: stockholders,customers, suppliers, company management,employees and their families, the community andsociety.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-2 (86)
SUPPLIERS
CUS
TOMERS
Company Stakeholder Interactivity
SOCIETY
STOCKHOLDERS OR OWNERS
INTERNAL COMPANY
PROCESSES
MANAGEMENTAND EMPLOYEES
Communication within the entire stakeholder communityis channeled through internal company processes.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-3 (87)
Aligning Goals With Stakeholder Needs
Stockholders benefit from successful ventures becauseof the increased revenue and profits generated.
Management and employees have a vested interest in
continuing their source of income, recognition, andenrichment through such activities as new products,processes, construction or services.
Suppliers gain through the increased sales andrelationships with the company.
The benefits to the customer include the use of the new
product, facility, or service, and the assumption that thecompletion of the activity will further progress towardtheir own corporate or personal objectives.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-4 (88)
Supplier Quality Benefits
A greater opportunity to build long termrelationships
Potential training in areas that are mutually
beneficial
A greater likelihood of shared beneficial information
Synergy with the customer in technical areas
Association with an end product with a goodreputation
A customer that can more clearly staterequirements
More predictability and certainty of future orders
More predictability in scheduling and shipping
Financially viable customers for services orproducts
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-4 (89)
Community Quality Benefits
Organizations that are able to expand and providejobs
Organizations which pay property taxes
Safe products for the user or consumer
Organizations that enhance neighborhood propertyvalues
Organizations that engender community pride
Organizations that practice good business ethics
Organizations and products that protect publichealth
Products that make more efficient use of allresources
Products that are more energy efficient
Organizations that utilize environmentally friendlymethods
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-5 (90)
Employees Quality Benefits
Job security
Better likelihood of pay increases
Enhancement of knowledge and skills
More prestige
Improved products or services
Predictability in work assignments
Reduced cycle times which improves workflows
More respect from company management and peers
Fewer departmental confrontations anddisagreements
Better communications and information flow
More valuable company information
Potentially a more environmentally friendly place to
work
Greater pride of workmanship
Individual self-fulfillment
Satisfaction, development and well-being
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-5 (91)
External Customer Quality Benefits
Higher quality products
Products that are more convenient to use
Products that are easier to maintain
Products that are more reliable
Products that offer greater value
A supplier that can more quickly respond to needs
A product or service that has perceived value
Products or services with enhanced features
A supplier that has better service
Better individual treatment in a variety of ways
A supplier better trained to handle complaints
Wider availability of products and services
Warranties that are honored
Quicker corrective action responses
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-6 (92)
Organizational Quality Benefits
A better reputation in the business community
Increased market share by attracting newcustomers
Greater profitability without raising prices
An ability to charge premium prices
A greater ability to pay and train all employees
Greater capacity and flexibility to handle change
An ability to attract top notch employees
More pride at all organization levels
More loyalty among customers
An ability to weather tough economic times
Faster response to technological change
Better competitive position
A greater probability of raising capital
A higher stock price
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-6 (93)
Stockholder Quality Benefits
Increased stock value
Better returns on an investment
A more widely respected business investment
More investment stability
More timely, accurate, and thorough annual reports
An organization which is technologically advanced
A company with greater capacity to handle change
Visionary leadership among company managers
An organization with a strong focus on the future
A company that analyzes critical processes
Investment performance in key areas
An organization with an ability to improve
An investment that is cost effective
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-7 (94)
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award
The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award wasmodeled after the Deming Prize in Japan and focuses onorganizational excellence. The systems model is nowcalled the Baldrige National Quality Program (BNQP) but
the presented award is still called the MBNQA. Corevalues and concepts are based on:
C Visionary Leadership: Senior leaders set directions,create a customer focus, create methods forachieving excellence, and build knowledge andcapabilities.
C Customer Driven Focus: Understanding todayscustomer desires and anticipating future customerdesires and marketplace offerings.
C Organizational and Personal Learning: Adopting awell-executed approach to learning includingcontinuous improvement and adaptation to change.
C Valuing Employees and Partners: Committing toemployee satisfaction, development, and well-being.Building internal and external partnerships to betterachieve overall goals.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-7 (95)
MBNQA (Continued)
C Agility: Creating a capacity for rapid change andflexibility.
C Focus on the Future: A strong future orientation and
willingness to make long-term commitments to keystakeholders. Seeking opportunities for innovation.
C Managing for Innovation: Making meaningfulchanges to improve products, services, andprocesses. Creating new value for stakeholders.
C Management by Fact: Measurement and analysis of
performance, critical data, key processes, outputs,and results.
C Public Responsibility and Citizenship: Adopting apractice of good citizenship, business ethics andprotection of health, safety, and the environment.
C Focus on Results and Creating Value: Developingperformance measurements that focus on keyresults and create value for all stakeholders.
C Systems Perspective: Managing the wholeenterprise, to achieve performance improvement.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESBENEFITS OF QUALITY
III-8 (96)
MBNQA (Continued)
The Malcolm Baldrige 2006 categories, items, and pointvalues. are shown in the table below.
2006 Categories/ Items Point Values
1 Leadership 120
1.11.2
Senior LeadershipGovernance and Social Responsibil ity
7050
2 Strategic Planning 85
2.12.2
Strategy DevelopmentStrategy Deployment
4045
3 Customer and Market Focus 85
3.13.2
Customer and Market Know ledgeCustomer Relationsh ips and Satisfaction
4045
4 Measurement, Analysis, and Knowledge Management 90
4.1
4.2
Measurement, Analysis, and Review of Organizational
PerformanceInformation and Know ledge Management
45
45
5 Human Resource Focus 85
5.15.25.3
Work SystemsEmployee Learning and MotivationEmployee Well-Being and Satisfaction
352525
6 Process Management 85
6.16.2
Value Creation ProcessesSupport Processes and Operational Planning
4540
7 Results 450
7.17.27.37.47.57.6
Product and Service OutcomesCustomer-Focused OutcomesFinancial and Market OutcomesHuman Resource OutcomesOrganizational Effectiveness OutcomesLeadership and Social Responsib ility Outcomes
100 70 70 70 70 70
Total Points 1000
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESQUALITY PHILOSOPHIES
III-9 (97)
Philip B. Crosby
(1928 - 2001)
Philip B. Crosby was corporate vice president of ITT for14 years. He consulted, spoke, and wrote aboutstrategic quality issues.
Awards: Fellow, ASQPast president of ASQ
Books: Quality Is FreeQuality Without TearsRunning ThingsThe Eternally Successful OrganizationThe Art of Getting Your Own Sweet WayQuality is Still Free
Statement on quality:
Quality is conformance to requirements.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESQUALITY PHILOSOPHIES
III-9 (98)
Philip B. Crosby (Continued)
Crosby believed that quality is a part of the companyand senior managers must take charge of it.
He believed the quality professional must become more
knowledgeable and communicative about the business.
Crosby stated that corporate management must makethe cost of quality a part of the financial system of theircompany.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESQUALITY PHILOSOPHIES
III-10 (99)
Crosbys Message
Crosby's name is best known in relationship to theconcepts of Do It Right First Time and Zero Defects.
He considered traditional quality control, acceptable
quality limits and waivers of sub-standard products torepresent failure rather than assurance of success.
Crosby, therefore, defined quality as conformance to therequirements which the company itself has establishedfor its products based directly on its customers' needs.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESQUALITY PHILOSOPHIES
III-10 (100)
Crosbys Message (Continued)
Crosby does not believe that workers should take primeresponsibility for poor quality; the reality, he says, isthat responsibility resides with management.
In the Crosby approach, the Quality Improvementmessage is spread by creating a core of qualityspecialists within the company. There is strongemphasis on the top-down approach, since he believesthat senior management is entirely responsible forquality.
The ultimate goal is to train all the staff and give them
the tools for quality improvement and to apply the basicprecept of Prevention Management in every area.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESQUALITY PHILOSOPHIES
III-11 (101)
Crosby's Four Absolutes
1. Quality means conformance to requirements.
2. Quality comes from prevention.
3. Quality performance standard is Zero Defects (ordefect-free).
4. Quality measurement is the price ofnonconformance.
Crosby divided the cost of quality into two areas -the price of nonconformance (PONC) and the
price of conformance (POC).
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESQUALITY PHILOSOPHIES
III-12 (102)
Crosbys 14 Steps to Quality Improvement
Step 1. Management commitment
Step 2. The quality Improvement team
Step 3. Measurement
Step 4. The cost of quality
Step 5. Quality awareness
Step 6. Corrective action
Step 7. Zero defects (ZD) planning
Step 8. Employee education
Step 9. ZD day
Step 10. Goal setting
Step 11. Error cause removal
Step 12. Recognition of good quality work
Step 13. Quality councils
Step 14. Repetition
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESQUALITY PHILOSOPHIES
III-15 (103)
Crosby's Comments
The key things to remember are:
People will take quality just as seriously as themanagement takes it, no more.
Integrity is unrelenting; it can't be done in short burstsof enthusiasm stemming from regret.
The tools of quality control are not designed to causeprevention throughout the organization.
Think about quality improvement in terms of earnings
per share. A well-established process will double it.
Every individual in the company needs continualeducation concerning his or her role in getting thingsdone right the first time.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESQUALITY PHILOSOPHIES
III-16 (104)
Dr. W. Edwards Deming
(1900 - 1993)
Education: BS, University of Wyoming;MS, University of Colorado; PhD, Physics,
Yale
Awards: Shewhart Medal, ASQ, 1955Second Order Medal of the Sacred
Treasure, first American, 1960Honorary Member, ASQ, 1970Numerous other awards
Books: Over 200 papers, articles, and books werepublished, including:Quality, Productivity, and CompetitivePosition
Out of the Crisis
Statement on quality:
He was the founder of the third wave of theindustrial revolution.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESQUALITY PHILOSOPHIES
III-16 (105)
Dr. W. Edwards Deming (Continued)
W. Edwards Deming is the one individual whose namestands for quality and what it means.
He is a national folk hero in Japan and perhaps the
leading speaker for the quality revolution in the world.
He visited Japan several times between 1946 and 1948,for the purposes of census taking. He developed afondness for the Japanese people during that time.
JUSE (Japanese Union of Scientists and Engineers)invited Deming back in 1950 for executive courses in
statistical methods.
He refused royalties on his seminar materials andinsisted that the proceeds be used to help the Japanesepeople. JUSE named their ultimate quality prize afterhim.
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III. QUALITY BENEFITS AND PHILOSOPHIESQUALITY PHILOSOPHIES
III-17 (106)
The Fourteen Obligations of Top Management:
1. Create constancy of purpose toward improvementof product and service
To be competitive, a company must constantlyimprove the products or services offered.
2. Adopt the new philosophy
We are in a new economic age. Westernmanagement must awaken to the challenge, mustlearn their responsibilities, and take on changeleadership.
American companies and American people need toadopt a new philosophy considering cost reduction,team work, quality and leadership.
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The Fourteen Obligations (Continued)
3. Cease dependence on inspection to achieve quality
Eliminate the need for inspection on a mass basisby building quality into the product in the first place.
4. End the practice of awarding business on the basisof price tag
A company must minimize total cost.
5. Improve constantly and forever the system ofproduction and service
Continuous improvements in the system will helplower costs through increased productivity andefficiency.
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The Fourteen Obligations (Continued)
6. Institute training on the job
Continuous improvement of the work force willcontribute greatly to the success of theorganization.
7. Institute leadership
The aim of supervision should be to help people,machines and processes perform better.Leadership empowers everyone.
8. Drive out fear, so that everyone may workeffectively for the company
Fear is both a motivator and de-motivator. Theeconomic loss from fear is appalling. It isnecessary for better quality and productivity thatpeople feel secure.
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The Fourteen Obligations (Continued)
9. Break down barriers between departments
People in research, design, sales, and productionmust work as a team. One department's goals maycause trouble for another.
10. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets for thework force
Exhortations, like zero defects, only createadversarial relationships.
11. Eliminate work standards (quotas) on the factoryfloor
Substitute leadership for quotas. Quotas takeaccount only of numbers, not quality or methods.
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The Fourteen Obligations (Continued)
12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship
People are eager to do a good job and distressedwhen they can't. Too often, misguided supervisors,faulty equipment, and defective materials stand inthe way.
13. Institute a vigorous program of education and self-improvement
Increase the flexibility of an organization's workforce by training employees to perform a number of
different jobs.
14. Put everybody in the company to work toaccomplish the transformation
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