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T
SANSKRIT GRAMMAR
FOR BEGINNERS,
IN
DEVANAGARl AND ROMAN LETTERS THROUGHOUT,
BY
F. MAX MtiLLER, M.A.,
FOREIGN MEMBER OF THE FRENCH INSTITTTTB,
ETC.
SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND ACCENTUATED.
LONDON:
LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.
1870.
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T. COMBE, M.A., E B GARDNER,-A E PICKARD HALL,
P T T U
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PREFACE
TO THE FIRST EDITION.
J. HE present grammar, which is chiefly ntended for beginners, s
believed to contain all the information that a student of Sanskrit
is likely o want during the first two or three years of his reading.Rules referring o the language of the Vedas have been entirely
excluded, for it is not desirable that the difficulties of that ancient
dialect should be approached by any one who has not fully masteredthe grammar of the ordinary Sanskrit such as it was fixed by Panini
and his successors. All allusions to cognate forms in Greek, Latin,
or Gothic, have likewise been suppressed, because, however inter-sting
and useful to the advanced student, they are apt to deprive
the beginner of that clear and firm grasp of the grammatical system
peculiar o the language of ancient India, which alone can form asolid foundation for the study both of Sanskrit and of Comparative
Philology.The two principalbjects hich I have kept in view while com-osing
this grammar, have been clearness and correctness. With
regard to clearness, my chief model has been the grammar of Bopp ;with regard to correctness, the
grammarof Colebrooke. If I may
hope, without presumption, to have simplified few of the intricacies
of Sanskrit grammar which were but partially leared up by Bopp,
Benfey, Flecchia, and others, I can hardly flatter myself to have
reached, with regard to correctness, the high standard of Colebrooke's
great, though unfinished work. I can only say in self-defence, that it
is far more difficult to be correct on every minute point, f one endea-ours
to re-arrange, as I have done, the materials collected by Panini,
and to adapt them to the grammatical system current in Europe,
than if one follows so closely s Colebrooke, the system of native
grammarians, and adopts nearly the whole of their technical termi-ology.
The grammatical system elaborated by native grammarians
is, in itself, ost perfect; and those who have tested P ninTs work,
will readily admit that there is no grammar in any language that
a 2
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iv PEEFACE TO THE
could vie with the wonderful mechanism of his eight books of
grammatical rules. But unrivalled as that system is, it is not
suited to the wants of English students, least of all to the wants
ofbeginners.
Whileavailing myself
therefore of the materials
collected in the grammar of P nini and in later works, such as the
Prakriy -Kaumudi, the Siddh nta-Kaumudi, the Sarasvati Prakriya,and the Madhaviya-dhatu-vritti, have abstained, as much as pos-ible,
from introducing ny more of the peculiar system and of
the terminology f Indian grammarians* than has already found
admittance into our Sanskrit grammars ; nay, I have frequentlyrejected the grammatical observations supplied ready to hand
in their works, in order not to overwhelm the memory of the
student with too many rules and too many exceptions. Whether
I have always been successful in drawing a line between what
is essential in Sanskrit grammar and what is not, I must leave
to the judgment of those who enjoy the good fortune of being
engaged in the practicalteaching of a language the studentsof which may be counted no longer by tens, but by hundreds f.I only wish it to be understood that where I have left out rules
* The few alterations that I have made in the usual terminology have been made
solely with a view of facilitating he work of the learner. Thus instead of numberingthe ten classes of verbs, I have called each by its first verb. This relieves the memory
of much unnecessary trouble, s the very name indicates the character of each class ;and though the names may at firstsound somewhat uncouth, they are after all the onlynames recognized by native grammarians. Knowing from my experience s an examiner,how difficult t is to remember the merely numerical distinction between the first, econd,or third preterites, r the first and second futures, I have kept as much as possible o the
terminology ith which classical scholars are familiar, alling he tense corresponding othe Greek Imperfect, mperfect; that corresponding o the Perfect,eduplicated Perfect;that corresponding o the Aorist, Aorist; and the mood corresponding o the Optative,
Optative. The names of Periphrastic erfect and Periphrastic uture tell their own
story; and if I have retained the merely numerical distinction between the First and
Second Aorists, t was because this distinction seemed to be more intelligible o aclassical scholar than the six or seven forms of the so-called multiform Preterite. If it
were possible o make a change in the established grammaticalnomenclature, should
much prefer to call the First the Second, and the Second the First Aorist; the former
being a secondary and compound, the latter a primary and simple tense. But First
and Second Aorists have become almost proper names, and will not easilyyield their
place to mere argument.t In the University f Leipzig alone, as many as fiftypupils attend every year
the classes of Professor Brockhaus in order to acquire a knowledge of the elements of
Sanskrit, previous to the study of Comparative Philology under Professor Curtius.
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FIRST EDITION. v
or exceptions, ontained in other grammars, whether native or
European, I have done so after mature consideration, deliberatelypreferring he less complete o the more complete, ut, at the same
time, more bewilderingtatement of the anomalies of the
Sanskritlanguage. Thus, to mention one or two cases, when giving therules on the employment of the suffixes vat and mat ( 187), I haveleft out the rule that bases ending in m, though the m be preceded
by other vowels than a, always take vat instead of mat. I did so
partly ecause there are very few bases ending in m, partly ecause,if a word like kim-vdn should occur, it would be easy to discover
the reason why here too v was preferred o m, viz. in order to avoidthe clashing f two m's. Again, when giving the rules on theformation of denominatives ( 495), I passed over, for very muchthe same reason, the prohibition iven in Pan. m. i, 8, 3, viz. thatbases ending in m are not allowed to form denominatives. It is
true, no doubt, that the omission of such rules or exceptions maybe said to involve an actual misrepresentation, nd that a pupilmight be misled to form such words as kim-mdn and kim-yati.But this cannot be avoided in an elementary grammar ; and
the student who is likely to come in contact with such recon-ite
forms, will no doubt be sufficiently dvanced to be able toconsult for himself the rules of Panini and the explanations f his
commentators.
My own fear is that, in writing an elementary grammar, I have
erred rather in giving too much than in giving too little. I havetherefore in the table of contents marked with an asterisk all
such rules as may be safely left out in a first course of Sanskrit
grammar*, and I have in different places informed the reader
whether certain portionsmight be passed over quickly, r shouldbe carefully ommitted to memory. Here and there, as for instance
in 103, a few extracts are introduced from Panini, simply in
order to give the student a foretaste of what he may expect in
the elaborate works of native grammarians, while lists of verbslike those contained in $ 332 or 462 are given, as everybodywill see, for the sake of reference only. The somewhat elaborate
treatment of the nominal bases in i and #, from 220 to 226,
* In the second edition all these paragraphs re printed in smaller type.
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vi PEEFACE TO THE
became necessary, partly because in no grammar had the different
paradigms of this class been correctly iven, partly because it
was impossible to bring out clearly he principle n which the
peculiaritiesnd
apparent irregularitiesf these nouns are based
without entering fully into the systematic arrangement of native
grammarians. Of portions ike this I will not say indeed,
TIS n$,\\ov $ fiiftrjo-eTai, ut I feel that I may say, *t% ^rasfts^ ^ta: ; and I know that those who will take the trouble to
examine the same mass of evidence which I have weighed and
examined, will be the most lenient in their judgment, if hereafter
they should succeed better than I have done, in unravelling heintricate argumentations of native scholars *.
But while acknowledging my obligations o the great gram-ariansof India, it would be ungrateful were I not to
acknowledge as fully the assistance which I have derived from
the works of European scholars. My first acquaintance with the
elements of Sanskrit was gained from Bopp's grammar. Thoseonly who know the works of his predecessors, f Colebrooke,
Carey, Wilkins, and Forster, can appreciate the advance made
by Bopp in explaining he difficulties, nd in lighting p, if I
may say so, the dark lanes and alleys f the Sanskrit language.I doubt whether Sanskrit scholarship ould have flourished asit
has,if students had been
obligedo learn their
grammarfrom
Forster or Colebrooke, and I believe that to Bopp's little grammaris due a great portion of that success which has attended the studyof Sanskrit literature in Germany . Colebrooke, Carey, Wilkins,and Forster worked independently f each other. Each derived
his information from native teachers and from native grammars.
Among these four scholars, Wilkins seems to have been the first
to compose a Sanskrit grammar, for he informs us that the first
printed sheet of his work w^as destroyed by fire in 1795. The
* To those who have the same faith in the accurate and never swerving argumen-ationsof Sanskrit commentators, it may be a saving of time to be informed that in
the new and very useful edition of the Siddhanta-Kaumudi by S'ri Taranatha-tarkava-
chaspati here are two misprints which hopelessly isturb the order of the rules on theproper declension of nouns in i and tt. On page 136, 1. 7, read ^JNr^ nstead of ^sffcl^this is corrected in the Corrigenda, nd the rightreading is found in the old edition.On the same page, 1. 13, insert f after fa^IT, r join fanitrfl^tasnrK
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FIRST EDITION. vii
whole grammar, however, was not published till 1808. In the
mean time Forster had finished his grammar, and had actuallydelivered his MS. to the Council of the College of Fort Williamin
1804.But it was not
publishedtill 1810. The first
part ofColebrooke's grammar was published n 1805, and therefore standsfirst in point of time of publication. nfortunately t was not
finished, ecause the grammars of Forster and Carey were thenin course of publication, nd would, as Colebrooke imagined, upplythe deficient part of his own. Carey's grammar was published in
1806. Among these four publications, hich as first attempts at
making the ancient language of India accessible to Europeanscholars, deserve the highest credit, Colebrooke's grammar is
facile princeps. It is derived at first hand from the best native
grammars, and evinces a familiarity ith the most intricate pro-lemsof Hindu grammarians such as few scholars have acquired
after him. No one can understand and appreciate he merits of this
grammar who has not previously cquired knowledge of the gram-aticalsystem of P nmi, and it is a great loss to Sanskrit scholar-hip
that so valuable a work should have remained unfinished.
I owe most, indeed, to Colebrooke and Bopp, but I have derived
many useful hints from other grammars also. There are some por-ions
of Wilson's grammar which show that he consulted native
grammarians, and the fact that he possessed the remaining portionof Colebrooke's * MS., gives to his list of verbs, with the exceptionof the Baft class, which was publishedby Colebrooke, a peculiarinterest. Professor Benfey in his large grammar performed a most
useful task in working up independently the materials supplied byPanini and Bhattojidlkshita and his smaller grammars too, pub-ished
both in German and in English, ave rendered good service
to the cause of sound scholarship. here are besides, the grammarsof Boiler in German, of Oppert in French, of Westergaard in Danish,of Flecchia in Italian, each supplying something that could not be
found elsewhere, and containing suggestions, any of which have
proved useful to the writer of the present grammar.But while thus rendering full justice o the honest labours of
my predecessors, am bound to say, at the same time, that with
* See Wilson's Sanscrit and English Dictionary, irst edition, preface, . xlv.
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viii PEEFACE TO THE
regard to doubtful or difficult forms, of which there are many in
the grammar of the Sanskrit language, not one of them can be
appealed to as an ultimate authority.Every grammar contains,
as is well known, a number of forms which occur but rarely, f ever,in the literary anguage. It is necessary, however, for the sake of
systematic completeness, o give these forms ; and if they are to be
given at all, they must be given on competent authority. Now it
might be supposed that a mere reference to any of the numerous
grammars already published ould be sufficient for this purpose,and that the lists of irregular r unusual forms might safely be
copied from their pages. But this is by no means the case. Even
with regard to regular orms, whoever should trust implicitly n the
correctness of any of the grammars, hitherto published, ould never
be certain of having the right form. I do not say this lightly, rwithout being able to produceproofs. When I began to revise mymanuscript grammar which I had composed for my own use many
years ago, and when on points on which I felt doubtful, I con-ulted
other grammars, I soon discovered either that, with a strangekind of sequacity,hey all repeated the same mistake, or that they
varied widely from each other, without assigning ny reason or
authority. I need not say that the grammars which we possessdiffer very much in the degree of their trustworthiness ; but with
theexception
of the first volume of Colebrooke and of Professor
Benfey's larger anskrit grammar, it would be impossible o appealto any of my predecessors s an authority on doubtful points.Forster and Carey, who evidently depend almost entirely on
materials supplied o them by native assistants, give frequentlythe most difficultforms with perfect ccuracy, while they go wildly
wrong immediately after, without, it would seem, any power of
controlling heir authorities. The frequent inaccuracies in the
grammars of Wilkins and Wilson have been pointed out byothers ; and however useful these works may have been for
practical urposes, they were never intended as authorities on
contested points of Sanskrit grammar.
Nothing remained in fact, in order to arrive at any satisfactory
result, but to collate the whole of my grammar, with regard not
only to the irregular ut likewise to the regular orms, with Pftnini
and other native grammarians, nd to supply for each doubtful case,
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FIRST EDITION. U
and for rules that might seem to differ from those of any of mypredecessors, reference to P nirii or to other native authorities.This I have done, and in so doing I had to re -write nearly thewhole of
my grammar ;but
thoughthe time and trouble
expendedon this work have been considerable, believe that they have notbeen bestowed in vain. I only regret that I did not give theseauthoritative references throughout he whole of my work*, because,even where there cannot be any difference of opinion, ome of myreaders might thus have been saved the time and trouble of
looking through Panini to find the Sutras that bear on everyform of the Sanskrit language.
By this process which I have adopted, I believe that on manypoints more settled and authoritative character has been impartedto the grammar of Sanskrit than it possessed before ; but I do byno means pretend to have arrived on all points at a clear and
definite view of the meaning of Panini and his successors. The
grammatical system of Hindu grammarians is so peculiar, hat ruleswhich we should group together, re scattered about in different
parts of their manuals. We may have the general ule in the last,and the exceptions n the first book, and even then we are by nomeans certain that exceptions o these exceptions may not occursomewhere else. I shall give but one instance. There is a root
*wijdgri, hich forms its Aorist by adding ^q isham, f: th, fi^ t.Here the simplest rule would be that final ^ ri before ^ isham
becomes ^ r (Pan. vi. i, 77). This,however, is preventedy anotherrule which requires hat final ^ ri should take Guna before ^t isham
(Pan. vii. 3, 84). This would give us 'smmfts ajdgar-isham. But
now comes another general rule (Pan. vii. 2, i) which prescribesVriddhi of final vowels before ^ isham, i.e. v uii(XM ajdgdrisham.
Against this change, owever, a new rule is cited (Pan. vn. 3, 85),and this secures for *W[jdgri special xception from Vriddhi, and
leaves its base again as Wf^jdgar. As soon as the base has been
changed to IJPTJ jdgar, it falls under a new rule (Pan. vn. 2, 3), and
is forced to take Vriddhi, until this rule is again nullified by Pan. vn.
2, 4, which does not allow Vriddhi in an Aorist that takes interme-iate
5 i, like ^MinfiH ajdgarisham. There is an exception, owever,
* They have been given in the second edition.
b
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x PEEFACE TO THE
to, this rule also, for bases with short ^r a, beginning and endingwith a consonant, may optionally ake Vriddhi (Pan. vn. 2, 7). This
option is afterwards restricted, nd roots with short ^r a, beginningwith a consonant and
endingin
^r,like
vtm^jagar,ave no
optionleft, but are restricted afresh to Vriddhi (Pan. vn. 2, 2). However,
even this is not yet the final result. Our base vtin^jdgar s after
all not to take Vriddhi, and hence a new special ule (P n. vn. 2, 5)settles the point by granting to *rnr jdgri a specialexception from
Vriddhi, and thereby establishing ts Guna. No wonder that these
manifold changes and chances in the formation of the First Aorist of
in7 jdgri should have inspired grammarian, ho celebrates them
in the following ouplet :
r r u
Guna, Vriddhi, Guna, Vriddhi, prohibition, ption, again Vriddhi
and then exception, hese, with the change of ri into a semivowelin the first instance, re the nine results.
Another difficulty onsists in the want of critical accuracy inthe editions which we possess of Panini, the Siddhanta-Kaumudi,the Laghu-Kaumudi, the Sarasvati, and Vopadeva. Far be it from
me to wish to detract from the merits of native editors, like
Dharanldhara, Kasinatha, Taranatha,still less from those of
Professor Boehtlingk, ho published his text and notes nearlythirty ears ago, when few of us were able to read a single ine of
Panini. But during those thirty years considerable progress hasbeen made in unravelling he mysteries of the grammatical iteratureof India. The commentary of Sayana to the Rig-veda has shown ushow practically o apply the rules of Panini ; and the translation ofthe Laghu-Kaumudi by the late Dr. Ballantyne has enabled even
beginners o find their way through the labyrinth f native grammar.The time has come, I believe, for new and critical editions of Panini
and his commentators. A few instances may suffice to show the
insecurity f our ordinary ditions. The commentary to Pan. vn. 2,42,as well as the Sarasvati n. 25, i, gives the Benedictive Atmanepada^Mte varishishta and ^rtfrrte starisMshta ; yet a reference to Pan. vil.
2, 39 and 40, shows that these forms are impossible. Again, ifPanini (vm.3,92) is right and how could the Infallible be wrong?
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FIKST EDITION. xi
in using ^ii'iifrfa gragdmini with a dental n in the last syllable,it is clear that he extends the prohibition given in vm. 4, 34,with regard to Upasargas, o other compounds. It is useless to
inquirehether in
doingso he was
rightr
wrong,for it is an article
of faith with every Hindu grammarian that whatever word is used
by Panini in his Sutras, is eo ipso correct. Otherwise, the rules
affecting ompounds with Upasargas re by no means identical with
those that affect ordinary compounds ; and though it may be right o
argue a fortiori rom HJiifaPn pragdmini to tujinrnfn agragdmini, it
would not be right o argue from mij^M agraydna to inrR praydna,this being necessarily RTCT praydna. But assuming ^UMifHfH agra-dmini
to be correct, it is quite clear that the compounds ^A
svargakdminau, ymtfmtft rishagdminau, gfXchmiflu arikdmdni, and
^(X H*) ii arikdmena, given in the commentary to vm. 4, 13, are all
wrong, though most of them occur not only in the printed editions
of Panini and the Siddh nta-Kaumudi, but may be traced back to
theMSS. of the
Prakriy4-Kaumudi,he
source, though by no meansthe model, of the Siddhanta-Kaumudi. I was glad to learn from
my friend Professor Goldstticker, ho is preparing n edition of the
KMk4 -Vritti, and whom I consulted on these forms, that the MSS.
of Vamana which he possesses, carefully void these faultyxamplesto Pan. vm. 4, 13.
After these explanations need hardly add that I am not so san-uineas to suppose that I could have escaped scot free where so many
men of superior knowledge and talent have failed to do so. All I can
say is, that I shall be truly thankful to any scholar who will takethe trouble to point out any mistakes into which I may have fallen ;and I hope that I shall never so far forget he regard due to truth
as to attempt to represent simple corrections, ouching he declension
of nouns or the conjugation f verbs, as matters of opinion, r so farlower the character of true scholarship s to appeal, n such matters,from the verdict of the few to the opinion of the many.
Hearing from my friend Professor Btihler that he had finished
a Sanskrit Syntax, based on the works of Patnini and other native
grammarians, which will soon be published, gladly omitted that
portion of my grammar. The rules on the derivation of nouns, by
means of Krit,Unadi, and Taddhita suffixes, o not properly elongto the sphere of an elementary rammar. If time and health permit,
b2
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xii PEEFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION.
I hope to publish hereafter, as a separate treatise, the chapter of
the Prakriya-Kaumudi bearing on this subject.
In the list of verbs which I havegiven as an Appendix,
pp. 244-285, I have chiefly followed the Prakriya-Kaumudi and
the Sarasvati. These grammars do not conjugate every verb that
occurs in the Dhatupatha, but those only that serve to illustrate
certain grammatical rules. Nor do they adopt, like the Siddhanta-
Kaumudi, the order of the verbs as given in Panini's Dhatupatha,
but they group the verbs of each class according to their voices,
treating together those that take the terminations of the Parasmai-
pada, those that take the terminations of the Atmanepada, and,
lastly, those that admit of both voices. In each of these subdi-isions,
again, the single verbs are so arranged as best to illustrate
certain grammatical rules. In making a new selection amongthe verbs selected by Eamachandra and Anubhutisvarupacharya,I have given a preference to those which occur more frequentlyin Sanskrit literature, and to those which illustrate some points
of grammar of peculiar interest to the student. In this manner
I hope that the Appendix will serve two purposes : it will not
only help the student, when doubtful as to the exact forms
of certain verbs, but it will likewise serve as a useful practical
exercise to those who, taking each verb in turn, will try to
account for the exact forms of its persons, moods, and tenses by a
reference to the rules of this grammar. In some cases references
have been added to guide the student, in others he has to find by
himself the proper warranty for each particular form.
My kind friends Professor Cowell and Professor Kielhorn have
revised some of the proof-sheets of my grammar, for which I beg to
express to them my sincere thanks.
F. MAX MULLEE.
PARIS,
5th April, 1866.
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| : - PREFACE
TO THE SECOND EDITION.
JL HE principal lterations in the new edition of my Sanskrit grammarconsist in a number of additional references to Panini, in all cases
where an appeal to his authority seemed likely o be useful, and in
the introduction of the marks of the accent. I have also been able
to remove a number of mistakes and misprints which, in spite of all
the care I had taken, had been overlooked in the first edition. Most
of these I had corrected in the German translation of my grammar,
published at Leipzig in 1868; some more have now been corrected.
I feel most grateful to several of my reviewers for having pointedout these oversights, and most of all to Pandit Rajaramasastri,
whose list of notes and queries to my grammar has been of the
greatest value to me. It seems almost hopeless for a Europeanscholar to acquire that familiarity ith the intricate system of
Panini which the Pandits of the old school in India still possess ;
and although some of their refinements in the interpretation f
Panini's rules may seem too subtle, yet there can be no doubt that
these living guides are invaluable to us in exploring the gigantic
labyrinthof ancient Sanskrit
grammar.There is,however, one difficulty hich we have to contend with,
and which does not exist for them. They keep true throughout to
one system, the system of Panini ; we have to transfer the facts of
that system into our own system of grammar. What accidents are
likely to happen during this process I shall try to illustrate by
one instance. E^j^r4mas4strl objects to the form Tpxpunsu as the
locative plural of gm^ pumdn. From his point of view, he is perfectly
right in his objection, or according to P nini the locative plural has
Anusvara, TJ*J umsu. But in our own Sanskrit grammars we first
have a general rule that ^ s is changed to ^ sh after any vowel
except *r and ^r #, in spite of intervening Anusvara (see 100);
and it has even been maintained that there is some kind of
physiological eason for such a change. If then, after having laid
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xiv PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
down this rule, we yet write ^g pumsu, we simply commit a gram-aticalblunder ; and I believe there is no Sanskrit grammar, except
Colebrooke's, in which that blunder has not been committed. In
order to avoid it, I wrote ^ punsu, thus, by the retention of the
dental ^ n, making it grammatically and physically possible for
the ^5 to remain unchanged. It may be objected that on the same
ground I ought to have written Instr. iprr punsd, Gen. ipr: punsah, c. ; but in these cases the ^s is radical, and would therefore not be
liable to be changed into * sh after a vowel and Anusvara (Pan. vin.
3, 59). Professor Weber had evidently overlooked these simplerules, or he would have been less forward in blaming Dr. Keller
for having followed my example in writing ^ punsu, instead of
33 pumsu. In Panini's grammar (as may be seen from my note
appended to TOO) the rule on the change of ^s into ^ sh is so care-ullyworded that it just excludes the case of g*j pumsu, although the
*j su of the loc. plur. is preceded by an Anusvara. I have now, bymaking in my second edition the same reservation in the generalrule, been able to conform to P nini's authority, nd have written
TJ*J pumsu, instead of ip punsu, though even thus the fact remains
that if the dot is really eant for Anusv ra, and if the g su is the
termination of the locative plural, the ^ s would be sounded as
^sh,
accordingto the
general tendencyof the ancient Sanskrit
pronunciation.I have mentioned this one instance in order to show the peculiar
difficulties which the writer of a Sanskrit grammar has to contend
with in trying to combine the technical rules of P nini with the
more rational principles f European grammar ; and I hope it mayconvince my readers, and perhaps even Professor Weber, that where
I have deviated from the ordinary ules of our European grammars,or where I seem to have placedmyself at variance with some of the
native authorities, I have not done so without having carefullyweighed the advantages of the one against those of the other
system.
F. MAX MULLER.
PARKS END, OXFORD,
August, 1870.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I. THE ALPHABET.
The Devanagari letters
i. The Devandgari alphabet.
2. Direction of Sanskri t alphabet.
3. How to write the letters . .
4. Sounds represented by the De-
vandgari alphabet. .
5. Number of letters.
6. The letter It.
7. Jihvamuliya and Upadhma niya
8. Signs of nasals and their substi- ute
9. The three nasal semivowels
10. Consonants without correspond-ng
nasals....
1 1. Auusvara before /, sh, s, h
% 1 2. Names of letters. . .
1 3. Vowel signs, initial,medial, and
final.....
14. Consonants followed by vowels
15. Virama .....
1 6. Combination of consonants
17. The sign for r
1 8. The Virama used as a stop-gap
19^ The signs for a pause
20. The Avagraha. List of com-ound
consonants
21. Numerical figures.
22. Rules of pronunciation
CHAPTER II. RULES OF SANDHI.
23. Object and use of Sandhi.
24.Distinction between External
and Internal Sandhi
25. Classification of vowels, long,
short, protracted. . .
PAGE
Monophthongs and diphthongs.
12
Nasalized vowels. .
.12
Light and heavy vowels.
.13
Acute, grave, and circumflexed
vowels. . .
.13
Guna and Vriddhi. .
.13
Gunaof d, d. . .
.13
Combination of vowels at the
end and beginning of words.
No hiatus. . .
.13
Vowels meeting the same vowels 13
Vowels d and d, followed by
different vowels. .
.14
Vowels d and d, followed by
diphthongs. . .
.14
Vowels I, #, A, followed by dis-imilar
vowels. .
.15
Vowels e and o, followed by any
vowel except d. .
.15
Vowels ai and au, followed by
any vowels . . . .16
Treatment of final y and v .16
The hiatus occasioned by Sandhi 17
Vowels e and o before d.
.17
Unchangeable or Pragrihyavowels
. . ..17
Irregular Sandhi ; prepositions
ending in d or d, followed by
e or o. . . .
.18
Prepositions ending in d or A,
followed by ri. .
.18
The o of osJithah and otah.
18
Irregular compounds ..19
The final of indeclinable words 19
Monosyllabic indeclinable words 19
Sandhi of the particle d . .19
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XVI TABLE OF CONTENTS.
* 50. Particles unaffected by Sandhi
% 51. Protracted vowels unaffected by
Sandhi
52. Table showing the combination
of final with initial vowels.
53. Combination of final and initial
consonants
54. The eleven final consonants .
55. No word ends in two consonants
5 6 . Classification of consonants, ac-ording
to their place
5 7. Classification of consonants, ac-ording
to their quality, . e.
contact, approach, opening
58. Surd and sonant consonants .
59. Aspirated and unaspirated on-onants
.
60. Changes of place, and changesof quality ....
6 1.
Changesof place affect Dentals,
Anusvara, and Visarga
62. Final t before Palatals ch, chh,
j, jh, n, s .
63. Final n before jt jh, n, s .
64. Final t before t, th, d, dh, n
(not sh)
65. Final n before d, dh, n (not sh)66. Changes of quality . .
67. Final k, t,t, p before nasals .
% 68. Final k, t,t, j before may a or
mdtra
r 69. Initial h after final k, t, t, p .
70. Final t before I
71. Final n before I
72. Final n, n, n after a short vowel
73. Final n before the firsts and
seconds ....
74. Final n and n before s, sh, s .
75. Final n before s or s (not sh) .
76. Final t before s
77. Anusvara and final m
78. Mm pausd, and before conso-ants
.
79. Final m before hn, hm, hy,hi, hv
50. Sam beforekri,
samskri.
51. Sam before rdj,samrdj .
8.2. Visarga and final s or r .
The only final sibilant inpausd,
Visarga, and itsmodifications
Visarga before a sonant letter
changed to r, and exceptionsFinal radical r
Final r before initial r.
Pronouns sah and eshah, syahJShoh
. . . . .
Exceptions in compound words
Nouns ending in radical r
Initial chh and medial chh.
Initial s changeable to chh Final h, gh, dh, dh, bh, throw-ng
their aspiration ack on
initial g, d, d, b.
Table showing the combina-ion
of final with initial con-onants
.
f
Nati, or change of n into n,and s into sh
.
Change of n into n
Tripnoti and kshubhndti
Table.. . ,./. .
Change of n into n in a com-ound
....
Optional changes of n into n in
the preposition i
Change of s into sh
Change of s into sh in the re-uplicative
syllable .
Change of s into sh after pre-ositions
....
Extracts from Panini on cer-ain
changes of s into sh .
Change of s into sh in com-ounds
....
Change of dh into dh .RULES OF INTERNAL SANDHI
Final vowels. No hiatus
Final d and d, followed byvowels
....
Verbal bases in d
Final i, i, u, d, ri changed to
y, v, r; final *, i, u, d, ri, ri
changedto
iy, uvtri, ir
Final ri, before consonants,
changed to ir or fir .
PAGE
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* i68.
* 169.
* 172-
* 173-
% 174-
* 175-
* I76-
*I77-
* 178.
179-
1 80.
181.
182.
% 184-
* 185.
186.
187.
% 188.
* 189-
* 190.
191.
192.* 193-
Anehas,purudamsas . .Usanas
....
Bases in s ; B. bases ending in
radical s ; pindagras,supis,
sutusf
Pipathis . . .
Asis, sajus ; listof bases in s .
DJivas, sras .
Bases ending in s, sh, chh, ksh, h
1. Dis, dris, spris2. Nas
. . .
3. Vis
4. Dhrish .
5. Dvish .
6. Prdchh.
7. Taksh .
8. X/ihf guli
g. Duh, ushnih .
10. Druh, muh, snih, snuh
11. Nah . . . . .
Turdsdh
Ukthasds.
Prasdm. .
I. 2. Nouns with changeable
bases ; A. nouns with two
bases, adat
Prdch.
B. Nouns with three bases,
pratyach . . .Bases in at and ant; adat
The nasal in the nom. and ace.
dual of neuters, and in the
feminine base
The nasal in participles f re-uplicated
verbs.
-
.
Brihat, prishat . .Mahat
.
Bases in mat and vat.
Bhavat, Your Honour .Arvat and arvan .
Kiyat . . . . .Bases in an, man, van; rdjan,
ndman. . .
Brahman,divan
.
Feminines of bases of nouns in
an, van, man
PAGE
Optional feminine compounds 88
Pathin, ribhukshin, maihin .
Ahan. . . .
Ahan at the end of compoundsAhan at the end of compounds
Svan, yuvan
Maghavan ....
Pdshan, aryamanHan
.....
Bases in in, dhanin
Participles n vas .
Participles n ivasBases in tyas, gariyas .Miscellaneous nouns with
changeable bases, pddVdh
.
fevetavdh....
Anaduh. . . \
Ap'
. . . ,
'
,
Pums.....
Div, dyu ....Asan and other Metaplasta .II. Bases ending in vowels,
subdivided. . .
II. i.
Bases ending in any vowel
except d . . . .
Bases in ai and au. .
Bases in o. . . .
Dyo .. .. .Bases in i and ft
. . .
1. Monosyllabic bases in i and
$, being both masc. and fern.
A. By themselves ; dhi, krt, M
B. At the end of compounds .
2. Polysyllabic ases in t and d,
being both masc. and fern. .
The five fuller feminine termi-ations
. . . .
1. Monosyllabic bases in I and
d, being feminine only, dhi,
IM
2. Polysyllabic ases in i and
$, being feminine only, nadi,
vadhd....
Compounds endingin mono-yllabic
feminine bases in i
and d, subhrii . ..; .
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# 227.
228.
* 229.
230.
* 231.
232.
233.
* 234.
235.
^ 236.
* 237.
238.
* 239.
* 240.
Compounds ending in poly
syllabic feminine bases in i
and d, bahuJreyast .Strt
. . . .
Atistrl. . .
Bases in i and M, masc. fern. neut. 109
Kati. . . . .
Sakhi.....
Pad.....
Akshi, asthi,dadhi, sakthi .Bases in ri, masc. fern, neut.,
naptri,pitri . . .
Kroshfu. . . .
Nri.....
II. 2. Bases ending in a and d,
kdntah, td, tarn . .Bases in d, masc. and fern.,
visvapd . . . .Ifdhd
.....
CHAPTER IV. ADJECTIVES.
241. Declension of adjectives .
242. Formation of feminine base.
243. Priyah, fern, priyd . .
244. Pdchakah, pdchikd . .
245. Feminines formed by t . .246. Exceptional eminines in t
.
.247. Irregular feminines . .
248. Formation of feminine sub-tantives
. . . .
249. Degrees of comparison . .250. Tara and tama, how added .
251. lyas and ishtha, how added.
252. Exceptional comparatives and
superlatives . . .
CHAPTER V. NUMERALS.
253. Cardinals and declension of
cardinals, ka . . .
254. Dvi .....
255. Tri, tisri . . . .
256. Chatur, chatasri . . .
257. Panchan, shash, ashtan .
258. Construction of cardinals.
259. Ordinals ....
260. Numerical adverbs and other
derivatives.
PAGI
CHAPTER VI. PRONOUNS.
Personal pronouns . . 127
Sah, sd,tat.. . .128
Syah, syd, tyat . . .128
Possessive pronouns . .128
Reflexive pronouns, svayam . 129
Atman....
129
Svah, svd, warn. . .
129
Demonstrative pronouns,e*AaA,
eshd, etat . . . . 129
Ayam, iyam, idam . .129
Enam, endm, enat . .130
Asau, asau, adah . . . 130
Yah, yd, yat ... 131
Kah, kd, kim . . . 131
Pronouns modified by ak . 131
Compound pronouns, tddris c. 132
Tdvat c.....
132
Ka^chit LC.....
132
Pronominal adjectives, arva,visva, c.
. . ..133
Any ah, anyd, any at . .134
Ubhau, ubJie, ubke . .134
Ubhayah, yi, yam . .134
Pilrva and its optional forms . 134
Pratharva and its optional
nominative plural . .134
Dvitiyaand its
optionalforms 135
Adverbial declension.
.135
CHAPTER Vn. CONJUGATION.
286. Active and passive . . 137
287. Parasmaipada and Atmanepada 137
288. Parasmaipada and Atmanepadain derivative verbs
. .
Passive. . . .
The thirteen tenses and moods
Signification of tenses and
moods. . . .
Numbers and persons . .
138
138
138
139
140
CHAPTER VIII. THE TEK CLASSES.
293. Special and general tenses, in
the ten classes. .
.140
Special or modified,general or
unmodified tenses.
.140
295. Division of verbal bases . . 141
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PAGE
296. I. First division; Bhu, Tud,
Div, Chur classes . .141
297. II. Second division, and sub-ivisions
. . ..142
298. II a. Su, Tan, Kri classes . 143
299. 116. Ad, Hu, Rudh classes . 143
CHAPTEK IX. AUGMENT, REDUPLICA-ION,
AND TERMINATIONS.
300. Augment and reduplication 145
301. Augment a . . . . 145
302. Keduplication n the perfect,and in the Hu verbs
..145
303. General rules of reduplication 46304. Aspirated initials . . .146
305. Guttural initials . . .146
306. Double initials . . .146
307. Initial sibilant followed by a
tenuis. . .
.146
308.The vowel of the
reduplicativesyllable s short . . .146
309. Medial e and ai are redupli-ated
by i, o and au by u . 146
310. Final e, ai, o are reduplicated
by a 146
311. Irregular reduplication by
Samprasarana . . .147
312. Short initial a . . . 147
313. Initial a followed by two con-onants
. . .
.148
314. Initial ri . . . .148
315. Short initial i and u . .148
316. Special rules of reduplication 148
* 317. Nij,vij, vish . . .148
% 318. Mdjhd .... 148
% 319. Han, hi,ji, chi . . . 148
320. Terminations . . .149
321. Terminations of first and se-ond
divisions. .
.149
322. Regular conjugation . .150
CHAPTER X. GENERAL TENSES.
323. General or unmodified tenses . 159
324. Reduplicatedperfect . .159
325. Verbs which may form the re-uplicated
perfect . .159
326. The periphrastic erfect . 159
PAGE
327. Strong and weak termina-ions
160
328. Weakening of base . . 160
329. Bases ending in d and diph-hongs,how changed . .161
330. Bases ending in i, i,ri, u, d, ri,
how changed . . .161
CHAPTER XI. INTERMEDIATE i.
331. When it must be omitted,
when it may be omitted,
when it must be inserted . 162
#332. List of verbs in which the inter- ediate
i must be omitted.
163
^ 333. Verbs in which the interme-iate
i must be omitted in
certain tenses. . .
.165
* 334- Special rules for the redupli-ated
perfect . . .167
^ 335. Specialrules for the 2nd
pers.
sing. Par. of the red. perf. 167
#336. Table showing when interme-iate
i must be omitted.
168
#337. Optional insertion of i . .168
#338. Necessary insertion of i . 170
339. The intermediate i never liable
to Guna....
171
340. Insertion of long t . .171
3t 341. Optional insertion of long i . 171
342. Periphrastic perfect . .172
#343. Periphrasticperfect of inten-
sives and desideratives.
172
Paradigms of the reduplicated
perfect . . . .172
CHAPTER XII. STRENGTHENING AND
WEAKENING.
344. Two classes of terminations,
strengthening or weakening
a verbal base. .
.175
#345- Special forms of strengthening
and weakening certain bases 177
CHAPTER XIII. AORIST.
346. First and second aorist . . 179
347. Four forms of the first aorist . 179
348. Rules for the first form . .180
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* 349-
350-
352.
* 353-
* 354-
* 355-
*35 5.
357-
*358.* 359-
360.
* 361.
* 362.
363-
364-
365-366.
*3 7-
* 369-
370.
* 37i-
372.
373-
374-
375-
* 376.
*377-
378.
*379-
380.
Rules for desideratives, nten-
sives, fec.
Rules for the second form
Terminations beginning with
at or ath
Roots in d and diphthongs .
Mi, mi, di, li
Han
Gam.....
Yam.....
Rules for the third form
Mi, mi, li .
Yam, ram, nam .
Rules for the fourth form
Stish
Duh, dih, lih,guh
Paradigms ....Second aorist
Roots ending in d, e, i, ri; dris 187
Roots withpenultimate
nasal.
187
Irregular forms
Verbs which take the second
aorist....
Verbs which take the second
aorist in the Par. onlyThe Tan verbs
Reduplicated second aorist .
Sri,dru, sru, kam; 6vi, dhe .
Shortening of bases ending in
ay ....
Bases that cannot be shortened
Compensation between base
and reduplicative yllable .Vowels of reduplicative yllable 190
Verbs beginning and endingwith double consonants
Verbs with penultimate ri, ri .Verbs beginning ith vowels .
Irregularreduplicated aorist .
Paradigm ....When the different forms of
the aorists are used.
CHAPTER XIV. FUTURE, CONDITIONAL,PERIPHRASTIC
FUTURE,AND BENEDICTIVE.
381. Future
382. Changes of the base
PAGE
Conditional. . .
.193
Periphrastic uture . .194
Benedictive. . .
.195
Bases ending in ay . .195
Weakening in benedictive Pa-
rasmaipada, strengthening n
benedictive Atmanepada . 195
Intermediate i. .
.195
Weakening of base before y . 196Verbs ending in t, u, ri, rt .196
Verbs ending in n . .196
Verbs ending in d . . .196Verbs which take SampraszU
rana 197
Other verbs which take Sam-
prasarana .... 197
Sds changed to fish . .197
Benedictive Atmanepada . 198
CHAPTER XV. PASSIVE.
Atmanepada terminations . 198
Special tenses of passive . 198
Causative, denominative, in-ensive
bases. .
.198
Weakening of base. Paradigm 199
General tenses of passive . 199
The aorist passive . .200
The 3rd pers. sing, orist passive 200
Aorist of verbs ending in d .200
Aorist of verbs ending in ay . 200
Aorist of intensive and desi-
derative bases. . .
200
Irregular forms . . .201
Verbs ending in am . .201
Paradigm . . . .201
Future, conditional, nd bene-ictive
passive . . .201
Their optional forms . .201
Aorist passive of intransitive
verbs....
203
Optional forms . . . 203
CHAPTER XVI. PARTICIPLES, GERUNDS,
AND INFINITIVE.
. Participle present Parasmai-pada. . . . 203
415. Participle uture Parasmaipada 204
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PAGE
Participle f reduplicated er-ectParasmaipada . .204
Participle f reduplicated er-ectwith i
. . . .205
Participle f reduplicated er-ect
Atmanepada . .205
Participle resent Atmanepada 205
Participle uture Atmanepada 206
Participle present and future
passive .... 206
Past participle passive and
gerund .... 206Gerund in tvd
. .
.206
I. The terminations tah and
tvd, with intermediate i .207
Penultimate u with optional
Guna. . .
.207
Tvd with intermediate i and
Guna. . .
.207
Tvd with intermediate i and
without Guna. .
.207
Nasal lost before th, ph; vanch,lunch
....207
II. The terminations tah and
tvd, without intermediate i. 207
Final nasal dropt before tah
and tvd.
207
Final n dropt and vowel length-ned
; final chh, v, rchh, and rv 208
Roots changing v to u . . 208
Final ai changed to d or i . 208
Do, so, md, sthd, dhd, hd changetheir final into i
..208
/So and chho take i or d. .
208
Exceptional forms
416.
#417.
418.
419.
420.
421.
422.
423.
#424.
^425.
#426.
^427.
^428.
^429.
^430.
^431.
^432.
#433.
^434.
* 435-
# 436.
:fc 437.
rana.....
#438. Verbs which lose penultimatenasal
....
439. Causal verbs
440. Desiderative verbs
441. Intensive verbs
442. Participles n nah .
jfc 443. Adjectival participles
444.Vat added to
participles445. Gerund in ya
446. Gerund in tya
Verbs which take Samprasa-
208
208
209
209
209
209
209
210
210
210
210
^ 447. Gerund of causatives
# 448. Ghu verbs, md, sthd, gd, pd,hd, so, take final d
% 449. Verbs ending in nasals . *
% 450. Verbs ending in ri
* 451. Ve,jyd,vye . .
% 452. Mi, mi, di, li .'
.'
PAGE
211
211
211
211
211
211
CHAPTER XVII. VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
453- Verbal adjectives, ritya . 211
454. Adjectives n ta vya , , . 212
455. Adjectives n cmiya, . .212
456. Adjectives n ya . . . 212
^457. Exceptional verbal adjectives.
in ya and tya . . . 214
% 458. Verbs changing final ch andjinto k and g . . .214
459. Infinitive in turn . . .214
460. Verbal adverbs in am.
.214
CHAPTER XVIII. CAUSATIVE VERBS.
461. Causal bases, how formed .215
% 462. Guna or Vriddhi . , . 215
463. Exceptional causative bases, I.
*II.. . , .
217
464. Conjugation f causative verbs 219
465. Passive of causative verbs . 219
466. General tenses of the passive 219
CHAPTER XIX. DESIDERATIVE VERBS.
467. Desiderative bases, how formed 220
468. Desiderative bases, how con-ugated
. . . .220
469. Desiderative bases, with or
without intermediate i .220
% 470. Strengthening of base . . 220
^ 471. Exceptional strengthening r
weakening. . . . 220
#472. Desiderative bases, treated as
Bhu verbs.. .
.221
473. Reduplication of desiderative
bases....
222
^t 474. Bases in av and dv . . 222
* 475-$ru
srud ,
pru, plu, chyu.
222
476. Internal reduplication . .222
#477. Exceptional forms . .222
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XXIV TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PAGE
529. IV. Adverbial compounds.
242
% 530. Exceptional compounds.
243
#531. Modifications of the final letters
of adverbial compounds.
243
APPENDIX I.
PAGE
244-285
.
245
.
245
.
260
LIST OF VERBS...
Bhft Class (Bhvadi, I Class)
I. Parasmaipada Verbs
II. Atmanepada Verbs
III. Parasmaipada and Atmanepada
Verbs. . .
.263
Tud Class (Tudadi, VI Class). .
265
I. Parasmaipada and Atmanepada
Verbs. . .
.265
II. Parasmaipada Verbs. .
266
III. Itmanepada Verbs.
.267
Div Class (Divadi, IV Class) . . 267
I. Parasmaipada Verbs.
.267
II. Atmanepada Verbs.
.269
III. Parasmaipada and Atmanepada
Verbs....
269
Chur Class (Churadi, X Class). .
270
Parasmaipada Verbs only.
.270
Su Class (Svadi, V Class). .
270
I. Parasmaipada and Atmanepada
Verbs....
270
II. Parasmaipada Verbs.
.271
III. Itmanepada Verbs.
.271
PAGE
Tan Class (Tanvadi, VIII Class).
272
Parasmaipada and Atmanepada
Verbs. . .
272
Kri Class (Kryadi, IX Class).
.273
I. Parasmaipada and Atmanepada
Verbs.
^ . .
.273
II. Parasmaipada Verbs.
.274
III. Atmanepada Verbs.
.274
Ad Class (Adadi, II Class). .
275
I. Parasmaipada Verbs.
.275
II. Atmanepada Verbs.
.279
III. Parasmaipada and Atmanepada
Verbs. . .
.280
Hu Class (Juhotyadi, III Class).
281
I. Parasmaipada Verbs.
.281
II. Atmanepada Verbs
.282
III. Parasmaipada and Atmanepada
Verbs. . . .
283
Rudh Class (Rudhadi, VII Class).
284
I. Parasmaipada and AtmanepadaVerbs
. , .
.284
II. Parasmaipada Verbs.
.284
III. Atmanepada Verbs.
.285
APPENDIX II.
PAGE
ON THE ACCENT IN SANSKRIT.
286-292
INDEX OF NOUNS. . .
293-297
INDEX OF VERBS. .
297-300
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THE DEVANiGARI LETTEKS.
VOWELS.CONSONANTS.
Initial. Medial
W T
T f
nitial. Medial. Equivalent.
a
ri (or ri)
n(orri)
e
ai
o
au
TT
^
k
kh
g
n
ch (or k)
chh(orM)
j (or 9)
jh
t(or t)
th (or th)
d (or d)
dh (or dh)
7 (or n}
t
th
d
dh
n
vfil
P
ph
b
bh
m
s (or s)
sh
s
h
m (or m)
m (or m)
h (or h)
(Jihvamuliya), x
(Upadhmamya),
1 Sometimes represented in the Veda by
2 Sometimes represented in theVeda
by
} (or 0-
lh ( r
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CHAPTER I.
THE ALPHABET.
i. SANSKRIT is properly written with the Devanagari alphabet; but the
Bengali, Grantha, Telugu, and other modern Indian alphabets arecommonly
employed for writing Sanskrit in their respective provinces.
Note Devandgarf means the Ndgart of the gods, or, possibly, f the Brahmans. A more
current style of writing, used by Hindus in all common transactions where Hindi is the lan-uage
employed, is called simply Ndgarf. Why the alphabet should have been called Ndgarl,
is unknown. If derived from nagara, city, t might mean the art of writing as first practised
in cities. (Pan. iv. 2, 128.) No authority has yet been adduced from any ancient author for
the employment of the word Devandgari. In the Lalita-vistara (a life of Buddha, translated
from Sanskrit into Chinese 76 A. D.), where a list of alphabets is given, the Devandgart is
not mentioned, unless it be intended by the Deva alphabet. (See History of Ancient
Sanskrit Literature, p. 518.) Albiruni, in the nth century, speaks of the Nagara alphabet
as current in Malva. (Reinaud, Memoire sur 1'Inde, p. 298.)
Beghram (bhagdrdma, abode of the gods) is the native name of one or more of the most
important cities founded by the Greeks, such as Alexandria ad Caucasum or Nicaea. (See
Mason's Memoirs in Prinsep's Antiquities, ed. Thomas, vol. I. pp. 34^-350.) Could
Devanagari have been meant as an equivalent of Beghrami?
No inscriptions have been met with in India anterior* to the rise of Buddhism. The
earliest authentic specimens of writing are the inscriptions of king Priyadarsi or Asoka, about
250 B.C. These are written in two different alphabets. The alphabet which is found in the
inscription f Kapurdigiri, and which in the main is the same as that of the Arianian coins,
is written from right to left. It is clearly of Semitic origin, and most closely connected with
the Aramaic branch of the old Semitic or Phenician alphabet. The Aramaic letters, how-ver,
which we know from Egyptian and Palmyrenian inscriptions, have experienced further
changessince
theyserved as the model for the
alphabetof
Kapurdigiri,and we must have
recourse to the more primitive types of the ancient Hebrew coins and of the Phenician
inscriptions n order to explain some of the letters of the Kapurdigiri alphabet.
But while the transition of the Semitic types into this ancient Indian alphabet can be
proved with scientific precision, the second Indian alphabet, that which is found in the
inscription of Girnar, and which is the real source of all other Indian alphabets, s well as of
those of Tibet and Burmah, has not as yet been traced back in a satisfactory anner to any
Semitic prototype. (Prinsep's Indian Antiquitiesby Thomas, vol. n. p. 42.) To admit,
however, the independent invention of a native Indian alphabet is impossible. Alphabets_werenever invented, in the usual sense of that word. They were formed gradually, and purely
phonetic alphabetlfalways oint back to earlier, syllabic r ideographic, stages. There are no
such traces of the growth of an alphabet on Indian soil ; and it is to be hoped that new-
discoveries may still bring to light the intermediate links by which the alphabet of Girnar,
and through it the modern Devanagari, may be connected with one of the leading Semitic
alphabets.
B 2
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THE ALPHABET.
$ 3. Sanskrit is written from left to right.Note Samskrita (u**jjd) eans what is rendered fit or perfect. But Sanskrit is not called
so because the Brahmans, or still less, because the first Europeans who became acquainted
with it, considered it the most perfect of all languages. Samskrita meant what is rendered
fit for sacred purposes ; hence purified, acred. A vessel that is purified, sacrificial victim
that is properly dressed, man who has passed through all the initiatory ites or samskdras;
all these are called samskrita. Hence the language which alone was f it for sacred acts, the
ancient idiom of the Vedas, was called Samskrita, or the sacred language. The local spoken
dialects received the general name of prdkrita. This did not mean originally ulgar, but
derived, secondary, second-rate, literally hat has a source or type,' this source or type
(prakriti) eing the Samskrita or sacred language. (See Vararuchi's Prakrita-Prakasa, d.
Cowell, p. xvii.)The former explanation of prdkrita in the sense of 'the natural, original continuations of
the old language (bhdshd),' s untenable, because it interpolates he idea of continuation.
If prdkrita ad to be taken in the sense of'
original nd natural,' a language so called would
mean, as has been well shown by D'Alwis (An Introduction to Kachchayana's Grammar,
p. Ixxxix), he original language, and samskrita would then have to be taken in the sense of*
refined for literary urposes.' This view, however, of the meaning of these two names, is
opposed to the view of those who framed the names, and is rendered impossible by the
character of the Vediclang*1^ ;
3. In writing the Devanagari alphabet, he distinctive portion of eachletter is written first, hen the perpendicular, nd lastly he horizontal line.
Ex. k; ?, i\g; *, n, , c.
Beginners will find it useful to trace the letters on transparent paper, till
they know them well, and can write them fluently nd correctly.
j 4. The following re the sounds which are represented n the Devanagari
alphabet
Hard,(tenues.)
Hard and
aspirated,(tenues
aspiratae.)
Soft,(mediae.)
Soft and
aspirated,(media?
aspiratae.)
Nasals. Liquids. Sibilants.Vowels.
Short, Long. Diphthongs.
1. Gutturals,2. Palatals,
3.Linguals,
4. Dentals,
5. Labials,
Jft -Hth Mdh
H bh
H/ US
Unmodified Nasal or Anusvara,*
m or
Unmodified Sibilant or Visarga, t h.m.
1 In the Veda 5 d and ? dh, if between two vowels, are in certain schools written
35 I and 335 lh.
2 % h is not properly liquid, ut a soft breathing.3 ^ v is sometimes called Dento-labial.
4 The signs for the guttural and labial sibilants have become obsolete, nd are replaced
by the two dots : h.
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- 8. THE ALPHABET. 5
Students should be cautioned against using the Roman letters instead of
the Devanagari when beginning to learn Sanskrit. The paradigms should
be impressed on the memory in their real and native form, otherwise their
first impressions will become unsettled and indistinct. After someprogress
has been made in mastering the grammar and in reading Sanskrit, the Roman
alphabet may be used safely and with advantage.
f 5. There are fifty letters in the Devanagari alphabet, thirty- evenconsonants and thirteen vowels, representing very sound of the Sanskrit
language.
$ 6. One letter, he long 7 li, is merely a grammatical invention ; it
never occurs in the spoken language.f 7. Two sounds, the guttural and labial sibilants, re now without
distinctive representatives n the Devanagari alphabet. They are called
Jihvdmdliya, he tongue-root sibilant, ormed near the base of the tongue ;and Upadhmdniya, i. e. afflandus, the labial sibilant. They are said to have
been represented by the signs X (called Vajrdkriti,aving the shape of the
thunderbolt) and m (called Gajakumbhdkriti, having the shape of an
elephant's wo frontal bones). [See Vopadeva's Sanskrit Grammar, i. 185
History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, . 508.] Sometimes the sign X,called Ardha-visarga, half -Visarga, is used for both. But in common
writing these two signs are now replaced by the two dots, the Dvivindu, :,
(dvi, wo, vindu, dot,) properly the sign of the unmodified Visarga. The
old sign of the Visarga is described in the Katantra as like the figure 4 ;in the Tantrabhidhana as like two 3 th's. (See Prinsep, Indian Antiquities,
vol. i. p. 75.)
j 8. There are five distinct letters for the five nasals, ^ n, *r n, iff n, j n,*Tx , as there were originally ive distinct signs for the five sibilants. When,in the middle of words, these nasals are followed by consonants of their own
class, (n by k, kh, ff, gh ; n by ch, chh, j,jh ; n by /, th,d, dh ; n by t, th,
d, dh ; m by p, pht b, bh,) they are often, for the sake of more expeditious
writing,replacedby the dot,which is
properly the sign of the unmodifiednasal or Anusvara. Thus we find
instead of ^f^dl ankitd.
instead of ^ fWrt I1 anchitd. * N \ V * I
^
instead of ^fertl unditd.
H f j ii instead of H^dl nanditd.\
4fljrfT nstead of cfffujril ampitd.
The pronunciation remains unaffected by this style of writing. ^f *HI
must be pronounced as if it were written ^HfffrU nkitd, c.
The same applies to final IT m at the end of a sentence. This too,
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6 THE ALPHABET. 9-
though frequently ritten and printed with the dot above the line, is to
be pronounced as H m. 'snr, I, is to be pronounced ^r*w aham. (See Preface
to Hitopades'a, n M. M/s Handbooks for the Study of Sanskrit, p. viii.)Note According to the Kaumaras final *T m in pausd
maybe pronounced as Anusvara j
cf. Sarasvati-Prakriya, d. Bombay, 1829*, pp. 12 and 13.T I ^IWI% TOTWig^ntfr *RflT 33. I ^ I ^* II The Kaumaras are the
followers of Kumara, the reputed author of the Katantra or Kalapa grammar. (See
Colebrooke, Sanskrit Grammar, Preface; and page 315, note.) S'arvavarman is quoted bymistake as the author of this grammar, and a distinction is sometimes made between the
Kaumaras and the followers of the Kalapa grammar.
$ 9. Besides the five nasal letters, xpressing the nasal sound as modified
by guttural,alatal, ingual, ental, and labial pronunciation, here are still
three nasalized letters, he IT, r|, ^, or ^, 77, 4, y, I, v, which are used to
represent a final *T w, if followed by an initial T{y, 7^ /, ^v, and modified
by the pronunciation f these three semivowels. (Pan. vm. 4, 59-)Thus instead of if *rrfTT arn ydti we may write Tf^rifTf oy ydti;
instead of w cjvnr tarn labhate we may write TlWHff tal labhate ;
instead of if ^ffir tarn vahati we may write Tflhrfa av vahati.
Or in composition,
^TJlrf amydnam or ^CTR sayydnam;
^c53f \amlabdham or ^l%3tf allabdham;
^N^frT samvahati or ^^f? savvahati.
But never if the ^ m stands in the body of a word, such as cfiruj: kdmyah ;
nor if the semivowel represents an original owel, e. g. Rig-veda x. 132, 3.
*W T ^TR T sam u dran, changed to ^Tt'T sam varan. 10. The only consonants which have no corresponding nasals are T r,
Sl^ ^, ^ sh, ^ s, ^ h. A final 3^ m, therefore, efore any of these letters at
the beginning f words, can only be represented y the neutral or unmodi-ied
nasal, the Anusvara.
IT t^ fir arn rakshati. Or in composition, UjPrf samrakshati.
if SHlfrflT arn srinoti. ^nrftflT amsrinoti.
W ^RTT tarn shaMram. ^J/l^rrf amshthivati.
if ^tfrr tarn sarati. TOT^fir samsarati.
3 ^flT tarn harati. M$*Sfi samharati.
J 1 1 . In the body of a word the only letters which can be preceded by
* This edition, which has lately een reprinted, ontains the text ascribed either to Vani
herself, i.e. Sarasvati, the goddess of speech(MS. Bodl. 386), r to Anubhuti-svarupa-acharya,
whoeverthat
maybe and a
commentary.The
commentary printedn the
Bombayeditions is
called J^hrrt or in MS. Bodl. 382. tl^nft, .e. IT^Rft. In MS. Bodl. 382. Mahidhara orMahidasabhatta is said to have written the Sarasvata in order that his children might read it,
and to please Is'a, he Lord. The date given is 1634, the place Benares, (S'ivarajadhani.)
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-$ l6. THE ALPHABET. 7
Anusvara are 9^,^*A, ^s, ^A. Thus^r. amfah, vffi dhanumshi, ijjriftr atdmti,ftff simhafy. Before the semivowels ^ y, t r, ^ /, ^ v, the * m, in the body
of a word, is never changed into Anusvara. Thus ifJirb gamy ate , ro namrah,
*ry:amlah. In $nft: bamyoh (Rv. i.
43, 4, c.) the m stands
'padante/but
not in ^iHjfd dmyati. (See f 9.)
J J 2. With the exception of JihvdmiiUya X x (tongue-root etter), padh-
mdniya X (to be breathed upon), Anusvara*
m (after-sound), isarga :
(emission, ee Taitt.-Brahm. in. p. 23 a), and Repha r (burring), ll letters
are named in Sanskrit by adding kdra (making) to their sounds. Thus
^ a is called ^raRTC: akdrah ; 9R ka, **K: kakdrah, c.
13. The vowels, if initial, re written,
a, d, e, r, H, H, /i, (/Q, w, tf, e, az, o, aw;
if they follow a consonant, they are written with the following signs
T f ^ M^ * 1
' 'i ' e t Vcj/^ v* cv ' ''
a, a, t, ^, H, rt / , (^0 M ^ ai OM-
There is one exception. If the vowel ^ ri follows the consonant ^ r, it
retains its initial form, and the r is written over it. Ex. PH^fHl nirritify.
In certain words which tolerate an hiatus in the body of the word, the
second vowel is written in its initial form. Ex. Tft^jj oagra, adj.preceded
by cows, instead of ifts?I o 3gra or 'NliJ gavdgra ; ift^rt goa vam, cows and
horses ; in7 prauga, yoke ; fdri^J ^7 w, sieve.
J 14. Every consonant, if written by itself, s supposed to be followed bya short a. Thus
ORis not
pronounced k,but Ara
;^ not
y,but
ya.But | k
or any other consonant, if followed by any vowel except a, is pronounced
without the inherent a. Thus
^FT kdy far ki, ctf ki, ^ /5rn, kri, -9j kli, (w Ar/z), ku, ^ ATM, % ke, % Arai,
^t ^ro, ^ kau.
The only peculiarity s that short ft is apparently written before the con-onant
after which it is sounded. This arose from the fact that in the
earliest forms of the Indian alphabet the long and short t's were bothwritten over the consonant, the short i inclining o the left, the long t
inclining o the right. Afterwards these top-marks were, for the sake of
distinctness, rawn across the top-line, o as to become fti and sift, nstead
of % and ^. (See Prinsep's Indian Antiquities, d. Thomas, vol. n. p. 40.)
J 15. If a consonant is to be pronounced without any vowel after it, the
consonant is said to be followed by Virdma, i. e. stoppage, which is marked
byv
Thus ak must be written ^TC^ ; kar, w^ ; ik, ^.
J 1 6. If a consonant is followed immediatelyby another consonant, the
two or three or four or five or more consonants are written in one group
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8 THE ALPHABET. 17-
(samyoga). Thus atka is written ^Trfi ; alpa is written ^T3T ; kdrtsnya is
written *|f^. These groups or compound consonants must be learnt by
practice. It is easy, however, to discover some general laws in their forma-ion.
Thus theperpendicular
nd horizontal lines aregenerallydropt
in
one of the letters: ^r + ^R = ^M0; ft + ^ = ?%nda ; f + ^ = r* tva ; ^ + ^
= - skha; ^ + -Q = ^chya; ^+-n = Kpta; o^ + U = *R kta; c(T Tr + ^ =
^j ktva ; c(r + Wx+ T\ = ^ ktya.
$17. The T: r following a consonant is written by a short transversestroke at the foot of the letter; as ^ + ^= 35 or ^kra; J^+T = 3T$r#/
r^+^=^or * tra; ^ + ^ = ~$dra; T{+^ + T. = 'g shtra.
The ^r preceding a consonant is written by * placed at the top of theconsonant before which it is to be sounded. Thus ^+ -31; ^rifi rka ; ^+
^+?T = ^ varshma. This sign for ^r is placed to the right of any other
marks at the top of the same letter. Ex. ^nij arkam ; ^fer arkena ; ^FJarkendu.
c^ k followed by *t sh is written Sf or ^ ksha.
*^j followed by *T n is written ^jna.
T^jh is sometimes written v^jh.
^ r followed by T u and g tiis written ^ ru, ^ rd.
^ d followed by 7 u and gi it is written ^ duy * dd.
^^, particularly n combination with other letters, s frequently ritten *r.Ex. ^J M; i^tol; Vl6ra.
J 1 8. The sign of Virdma N (stoppage), hich if placed at the foot of a
consonant,shows that its inherent short a is stopped, is sometimes, when it
is difficult to write (or to print) wo or three consonants in one group, placedafter one of the consonants : thus Tp^fi nstead of ipjf yunkte.
$ 19. The proper use of the Virama, however, is at the end of a sentence,or portion of a sentence, the last word of which ends in a consonant.
At the end of a sentence, or of a half-verse, he sign I is used ; at the
end of a verse, or of a longer sentence, the sign n.
$ 20. The sign s (Avagraha or Arddhakdra) is used in most editions tomark the elision of an initial W a, after a final wfr o or ^ e. Ex. sftsfxr o 'pi
for Ft ^Tft so api, i. e. TO ^rfo sas api ; %sftr te 'pi for K ^fq te api.
List of Compound Consonants.\
^ k-ka, cRj k-kha, SRI k-cha, ^ k-ta, ^ k-t-ya, ^ k-t-ra, ^gf-k-t-r-ya,
k-t-va} R k-na, ^f k-n-ya} ^F T k-ma, SR k-ya, JR or ^ k-ra, ^f or ^=pj k-r-ya,
k-la, J k-va, %% k-v-ya, Sf k-sha, ^{ k-sh-ma, ^r k-sh-ya, ^ k-sh-va ;
r kh-ya, ^ kh-ra ; HT g-ya, TJ g-ra, v% g-r-ya ; H gh-na, gh-n-ya,
f gh-ma, oy gh-ya, TJ gh-ra ; ^ n-ka, ^ n-k-ta, j Jf -k-t-ya9 ^ J n-k-yat
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10 THE ALPHABET. 22-
Thus ^ stands for TJ e of f Rl eM, one.
^ stands for If cfo of T cfocm, two.
3 stands for ^ r of ^TJ trayah, three.
8 stands for ^T ch of ^r^THS chatvdrah, four.
M stands for ^p of Tfar pancha, five.
The similarity ecomes more evident by comparing the letters and numerals as used in
ancient inscriptions. ee Woepcke,'
Memoire sur la Propagation des Chiffres Indiens,*
in Journal Asiatique, i serie, tome i ; Prinsep's Indian Antiquities by Thomas, vol. n.
p. 705 Chips from a German Workshop, vol. n. p. 289.
Pronunciation.
$ 2,2,. The Sanskrit letters should be pronounced in accordance with the
transcription iven page 4. The following rules, however, are to be
observed :
i. The vowels should be pronounced like the vowels in Italian. The short ^ a,
however, has rather the sound of the English a in ' America/
2,. The aspiration f the consonants should be heard distinctly. hus H kh
is said, by English scholars who have learnt Sanskrit in India, to sound
almost like kh ine
inkhorn / ^ th like th ine
pothouse / ifi ph like phin ' topheavy / TI gh like gh in ' loghouse f V dh like dh in
' madhouse f H bh like bh in * Hobhouse/ This, no doubt, is a
somewhat exaggerateddescription, ut it is well in learning Sanskrit
to distinguish rom the first the aspirated rom the unaspirated letters
by pronouncing the former with an unmistakable emphasis.
3. The guttural n has the sound of ng in* king/
4. The palatal letters ^ ch and *fj have the sound of ch in 'church' and
of j in 'join/
5. The lingual letters are said to be pronounced by bringing the lower
surface of the tongue against the roof of the palate. As a matter of
fact the ordinarypronunciation of t, d, n in English is what Hindus
would call lingual, nd it is essential to distinguish he Sanskrit dentals
by bringing the tip of the tongue against the very edge of the upperfront-teeth. In transcribingEnglish words the natives naturally
represent the English dentals by their linguals, ot by their own
dentals ; e. g. fiX*^ Direktar, Jimi*U d avarnment, c. *
6. The Visarga, Jihvdmuliya and Upadhmdniya are not now articulated
audibly.
7. The dental ^r s sounds like s in ' sin/ the lingual ^ sh like sh in ' shun/the
palatal f like ss in ' session/
* Biihler, Madras Literary ournal, February, 1864. Rajendralal Mitra,'
On the Originof the Hindvi Language,' Journal of the Asiatic Society, engal, 1864, p. 509.
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-$ 24. RULES OP SANDHI. 11
The real Anusvara is sounded as a very slight nasal, like n in French ' bon.*
If the dot is used as a graphicsign in place of the other five nasals it
must, of course, be pronounced like the nasal which it represents *.
CHAPTER IT.
RULES OF SANDHI OR THE COMBINATION OP LETTERS.
$ 23. In Sanskrit every sentence is considered as one unbroken chain
of syllables. Except where there is a stop, which we should mark byinterpunction, he final letters of each word are made to coalesce with the
initial letters of the following ord. This coalescence of final and initial
letters, (of vowels with vowels, of consonants with consonants, and of
consonants with vowels,) s called Sandhi.
As certain letters in Sanskrit are incompatible with each other, i. e.
cannot be pronounced one immediately after the other, they have to be
modified or assimilated in order to facilitate their pronunciation. The rules,
according to which either one or both letters are thus modified, are called
the rules of Sandhi.
As according o a general rule the words in a sentence must thus be glued
together, he mere absence of Sandhi is in many cases sufficient to mark the
stops which in other languages have to be marked by stops. Ex. ^
TMi H^Ht astvagnimdhdtmyam, indrastu devdndm mahattamah, Let
there bte'the greatness of Agni; nevertheless Indra is the greatest of the
gods.
Distinction between External and Internal Sandhi.
24. It is essential, n order to avoid confusion, to distinguish etweenthe rules of Sandhi which determine the changes of final and initial letters
of words (pada), and between those other rules of Sandhi which apply to
the final letters of verbalroots (dhdtu) nd
nominal bases(prdtipadikd)
hen
followed by certain terminations or suffixes. Though both are based on the
same phoneticprinciples nd are sometimes identical, heir application s
different. For shortness3 sake it will be best to apply the name of External
* According to Sanskrit grammarians the real Anusvara is pronounced in the nose only,
the five nasals by their respective organs and the nose. Siddh.-Kaum. to Pan. i. i, 9.
The real Anusvara is therefore ndsikya, asal; the five nasals are anunasika, nasalized,
i.e. pronounced by their own organ of speech, and uttered through the nose.
C 2
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12 RULES OP EXTERNAL SANDHI. 25-
Sandhi or Pada Sandhi to the changes which take place at the meeting of
final and initial letters of words, and that of Internal Sandhi to the changes
produced by the meeting of radical and formative elements.
The rules which apply to final and initialletters of words (pada) apply, with
few exceptions, o the final and initial letters of the component parts of com-ounds,
and likewise to the final letters of nominal bases (prdtipadika) hen fol-owed
by the so-called Pacto-terminations ( ri hydm, fa: bhih, wr: bhyah, ?J su),
or by secondary (taddhita) uffixes beginning with any consonants except ^ y.
The changes produced by the contact of incompatible etters in the body
of a word should properly be treated under the heads of declension,
conjugation, nd derivation. In many cases it is far easier to remember
the words ready-made from the dictionary, r the grammatical paradigms
from the grammar, than to acquire the complicated rules with their
numerous exceptions which are generally detailed in Sanskrit grammarsunder the head of Sandhi. It is easier to learn that the participleassive
of fe^ lih, to lick, is cTte: lidhah, than to remember the rules according to
which ^ + J^h + 1 are changed into ^ + TT dh -f t, 3 + ^ d + dh, and T + %d + dh;
^ d is dropt and the vowel lengthened : while in j(V^ + IT: parivrih + tafy,the vowel, under the same circumstances, remains short ; parivrih + tah =
parivridh + tah, parivrid + dhah =parivrid + dhah = parivridhah. In Greek
and Latin no rules are given with regard to changes of this kind. If they
are to be given at all in Sanskrit grammars, they should, to avoid confusion,
be kept perfectly istinct from the rules affecting he final and initial letters
of words as brought together in one and the same sentence.
Classification f Vowels.
25. Vowels are divided into short (hrasva), ong (dirgha), nd protracted(pluta) owels. Short vowels have one measure (mdtrd), ong vowels two,
protracted owels three. (Pan. i. 2, 27.) A consonant is said to last half
the time of a short vowel.
1. Short vowels : ^ a, ^ iy T u, ^ ri, c li.
2. Long vowels : ^rr d, $t, d, ^ ri, u e, ^ ai, ^ft 0, ^ au.
3. Protracted vowels are indicated by the figure 3 3 ; ^r$ a 3, ^T 3 d 3, ^ 3 i 3,
^ 3 ^ 3) ^ 3 e 3 ^TC 3 ou 3. Sometimes we find ^r $ ^, a 3 i, instead of
^ 3, e 3 ; or ^n 3 ^, d 3 u, instead of ^ 3, au 3.
26. Vowels are likewise divided into1. Monophthongs (samdndkshara) * a, ^?T d, \it ^^u^H^ ri, ^ri, o li.
2. Diphthongs (sandhyakshara) ^ e, ^ ai, ^ o, *$h au.
27. All vowels are liable to be nasalized, r to become anundsika : ^fa,^f .
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J 28. Vowels are again divided into light (laghu) and heavy (guru). Thisdivision is important for metrical purposes only.
1. Light vowels are V a, ^ i, Tw,^ ri, 75 li, f not followed by a double consonant.
2.
Heavyvowels are *?
a, $i, T A,
^ r*,*
*,*
at,wt
o,w
at/,and
anyshort vowel, if followed by more than one consonant.
J 29. Vowels are, lastly, ivided according to accent, into acute (udatta),grave (anudatta), nd circumflexed (svarita). he acute vowels are pronouncedwith a raised tone, the grave vowels with a low, the circumflexed with an even
tone. (Pan. i. 2, 29-32.) Accents are marked inVedic literature only.
Guna and Vriddhi.
J 30. Guna is the strengthening f ^ i, ^ z, 3 M, g; u, ^ ri, ^ ri, $ It, bymeans of a preceding ^w a, which raises ^ i and ^ i to ^ e, ? u and n u to wt o,^ ri and ^ ri to ^ ar, li to ^ al. (Pan. i. i, 2.)
By a repetition f the same process the Vriddhi (increase) owels are
formed, viz. ^ ai instead of F et ^n au instead of ^ft o, ^TTT dr instead of ^T ar,and
^n?^dl instead of ^Tc5 al. (Pan. . i, i.)
Vowels are thus divided again into :
1. Simple vowels :
2. Guna vowels:
3. Vriddhi vowels : w d *di (a-f +i), ^aw (a+a+w),
J 31, ^T a and ^n a do not take Guna, or, as other grammarians say,remain unchanged after taking Guna. Thus in the first
person sing,of the
reduplicated perfect, hich requires Guna or Vriddhi, ^i? han forms with
Guna ^T^jaffhana, or with Vriddhi niT T jaghdna, I have killed.
Combination of Vowels at the end and beginning of words.
J 32. As a general rule, Sanskrit allows of no hiatus (vivritti) n asentence. If a word ends in a vowel, and the next word begins with a
vowel, certain modifications take place in order to remove this hiatus.
$ 33. For the purpose of explaining the combination of vowels, theymay be divided into two classes :
1. Those which are liable to be changed into semivowels, ^ i, ^ i, su, gi w,
^ ri ^ also the diphthongs, * e, ^ at, ^ o, ^rr au.
2. Those which are not, ^r a, ^T d.
Calling he former liquid *, the latter hard vowels, we may say : If the
* The Pratis'akhya alls them ndmin, for a different reason ; see Rig-veda-pratis'akhjed. M. M., p. xxiii.
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14 RULES OF EXTERNAL SANDHI. 34-
same vowel (long or short) ccurs at the end and beginning of words, the
result is the long vowel. (Pan. vi. i, 101.) Thus
^sr or ^rr + ^ or wr = ^n a + CL d.
^or
^+
3[or
^= ^?
-{- z.
c *
Ex. 3W ^Ttpraflf ^IM-M^rd uktvd + apagachchhati uktvdpagachchhati,
having spoken he goes away.
ft nadi + idrisi = nadidrisi, such a river.
= oJuNr kartri + riju kartriju, doing (neuter) ight.kintu + udeti = kintudeti, ut he rises.
Or in compounds, *T^t 4- ^t = *T^$ri mahi + Uah mahisah, lord of the earth.
$ 34. If hard vowels (long r short) occur at the end of a word, and the
next begins with a liquid vowel (except diphthongs), he result is Guna of
the liquid vowel. (Pan. vi. I, 87.) Thus . ^ ^ / w *\
^T or ^TT + T or gjm^ft a + u = o (du).^T or ^3TT + ^ or ^= m d + ri = ar. (Pan. . i, 5 )
Ex. cf^ ^5: = KT5;: tava + indrafy tavendrah, thine is Indra.
^TT ^W1^ ^ftw sd + uktvd = soktvdy she having spoken.
t *TT ^fe: = ^f%t sd + riddhih sarddhih, this wealth.
rf^ oSoRT^: = ri^^Kt ^ v + likdrah = tavalkdrah, thy letter /z.
Or in compounds, *1WJ + ^%J = *l*-Mfy: kdmya-[-ishtih kdmyeshtih, an
offering or a certain boon.
f^lT ^M^i: = f^7ftaRf5K ^a + upadesah = hitopadesah, good advice.
^ 35. If hard vowels (long or short) ccur at the end of a word, and thenext begins with a diphthong, the result is Vriddhi. (Pan. i. i, 88.) Thus
^T or ^rr H- ^ = ^ a + e = di.
^T or ^TT + 5j $ d-{- di = di.
Ex. if^ H3 = i^( tava + eva = tavaiva, of thee only.
m + aikshishta = saikshishta, he saw.
* The letter ~3l U is left out, because it is of no practical tility. t is treated like ^ ri, only
substituting c^ I for T r in Guna and Vriddhi. Thus ^-J- W*J 5Ni i -\-anubandhah becomes
cTfJ^K anubandhah, i. e. having U as indicatory etter.t Some grammarians consider the Sandhi of a with ri optional, ut they require the
shortening of the long d. Ex. WSTT-f^jfa brahmd-\- rishik==?mfa Irahmarshih or W5f
brahma rishih, Brahma, a Rishi.
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r: = mrro: tava + oshthah = tavaushthah, thy lip.
*TT TOT7W4 H fl *flrW*Hcf1 d -f autsuky avail = sautfukyavatt, he desirous.
Or in compounds, TJ*T -f ^R = tl^R rdma + aisvaryam ramaibvaryam,the
lordshipof Rama.
*rfafT WH J = *X\A\m*l8itd + aupamyam = sitaupamyam, similarity ith
Sita, the wife of Rama.
J 36. If a simple liquid vowel (long or short) occurs at the end of aword, and the next begins with any vowel or diphthong, the result is
change of the liquid vowel into a semivowel. (Pan. vi. i, 77.) Thus
or ^n = *T or