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University of MassachusettsLowellUMASS
PROJECTCOBWEB
PROJECT
A REPORT ON BRAZILIAN IMMIGRANT WORKERS IN MASSACHUSETTS
COBWEB
A REPORT ON BRAZILIAN IMMIGRANT WORKERS IN MASSACHUSETTS
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PARCERIA/COBWEBCollaboration for Better Work Environment for Brazilians in Massachusetts
www.cobwebproject.orgA project financed by the NIEHS-grant number 5R25ES012588
Imagem da capa: sxc.hu
Carlos Eduardo Siqueira
3 Solomont Way Suite 3Lowell, MA 01854-5127Telephone: 978-934-3147E-mail: [email protected]/college/she/CHS/faculty
INDEX
Overview of Project COBWEB/ Projeto Parceria
Introduction
Survey of Working Conditions of Brazilian Immigrant Workers
Worker Compensation Cases of Brazilian Immigrant Workers
Work-Related Fatal Injuries of Brazilian Immigrant Workers
Cases of High Blood Lead Levels in Brazilian Construction Workers
References
4
5
6-9
10-12
13
14
15
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Page
This report was produced by Dr. Carlos Eduardo Siqueira and Dr. Andrea Barbosa(doctoral student at UMass Lowell), with the help of staff from partner organizations.
We would particularly like to thank Dr. Letitia Davis and her staff from the OccupationalHealth Surveillance Program of the Massachusetts Department of Public Health.
Project COBWEB was approved by theInstitutional Review Board of the University of Massachusetts Lowell.
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Project COBWEB (Collaboration for a Better Work Environment for Brazilians) in Massachusetts,or Projeto Parceria in Portuguese, began in 2003 with the combined efforts of the University of Massachusetts Lowell (UMass Lowell), the Brazilian Immigrant Center (BIC) a non-governmentalorganization (NGO) founded in 1995 for Brazilian immigrant workers in Boston the MassachusettsCoalition for Occupational Safety and Health (MassCOSH)- a NGO that fights for the rights of
workers in the state- and two health care centers: the Lowell Community Health Center and theMassachusetts General Chelsea Health Center. This last partner withdrew from the project in 2005.
Between 2003 and 2007, Project COBWEB worked with the Brazilian working community inMassachusetts, particularly in the eastern part of the state, to promote better health and safety conditionsin the work environment. Project COBWEB was financed by the National Institute of EnvironmentalHealth Sciences (NIEHS) a U.S. government agency that has financed other similar projects with thegoal of seeking environmental justice for disadvantaged populations in the United States.
Project COBWEB was a research project with community participation that had the following aims:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Collect data on Brazilian immigrant workers, particularly demographic data, onoccupational hazards related to the Brazilian immigrant and on the experience of Brazilians as immigrants in the United States;
Identify the workplace hazards of Brazilians who work as housecleaners and janitors,and in the construction trades (painters, carpenters, roofers and day laborers);
Develop culturally, linguistically, and literacy appropriate curricula and educationalmaterials to disseminate information on work environment hazards to the Braziliancommunity;
Recruit and train a team of peer-trainers/advocates in teaching techniques and methodsto educate low-literacy Brazilian immigrant workers in health and safety awareness;
Design research and policy strategies to minimize occupational health risks associated with Brazilian immigrant worker exposures to hazards in cleaning jobs (e.g. replacing toxic chemical products) and in the construction trades.
Overview of Project COBWEB/ Projeto Parceria1 This second report focuses on Project COBWEB's occupational health and safety research
findings, based on primary and secondary data collected in Massachusetts. The sources of data used inour analysis include:
A survey of 626 Brazilian immigrant workers.
147 worker compensation cases of Work-Related injuries reported by Brazilianimmigrant workers to the Brazilian Immigrant Center, located in Allston, Massachusetts.
All 16 fatalities of Brazilian immigrant workers between 1999 and 2007. There is norecord of fatalities of Brazilian workers prior to 1999.
Blood samples of 61 Brazilian construction workers, collected at the BrazilianImmigrant Center in 2006 and 2007.
Introduction
We think that our successful efforts to reach out to hundreds of Brazilian immigrant workersallowed us to collect primary data in unusual locations and respond to worker needs as they arosethroughout the five years of the project. The partnership between the Brazilian Immigrant Center, theUniversity of Massachusetts Lowell, and MassCOSH was the centerpiece for that. For example, workercompensation cases were collected at the BIC because of the joint outreach work that informedBrazilian workers of their rights for worker compensation, even when those workers wereundocumented. Furthermore, collaborative work between the BIC, UMass Lowell, and theOccupational Health Surveillance Program of the Massachusetts Department of Public Health trackedall reported Work-Related fatalities of Brazilian immigrant workers, despite the lack of nationality information in death certificates. The cooperation between the Boston Public Health Commission andthe Brazilian Immigrant Center detected and documented a significant lead poisoning problem forBrazilian construction workers, especially painters.
The successful partnerships with public agencies and community organizations suggest thatBrazilian immigrant workers are not hard to reach if there are resources available to fund collaborative
work to identify and prevent workplace health and safety hazards. Since this is the first project conductedin the United States to collect such data, we hope that our results will stimulate further research in otherstates where there are large Brazilian communities, such as New York, Florida, New Jersey, andCalifornia.
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Survey respondents were Brazilian immigrants, born in Brazil, eighteen years old or older, who were working or had worked in the U.S. in the twelve months prior to the interview. A questionnaire wasadministered to 626 participants using a cross-sectional study design. Interviews were conducted fromMarch 31st 2005 to November 30th 2006. Recruitment for the survey employed convenience andsnowballing sampling. Selection was not random, though the recruitment included different cities anddifferent locations within those cities.
Socio-Demographic Profile Table 1 shows that the gender distribution of survey
respondents is balanced between males and females as foundin other surveys of Brazilian immigrants in Massachusetts(City of Boston, 2006; Project COBWEB, 2007; Lima andSiqueira, 2007).
Workers age ranged between 18 and 71. The average age was 35. The majority (64.3%) was in the 20-39 age group.Considering that in this survey only people over 18 years old
were interviewed, this distribution is similar to the one found indata collected in the Brazilian Consulate in 2003 (ProjectCOBWEB, 2007).
78% had a high school degree or less. Only 10.4%reported achievement of college or associate/bachelorsdegree. These findings are similar to the 2000 Census data(Lima & Siqueira, 2007).
Most respondents were born in the state of Minas Gerais(50.7%), followed by Paran (8.8%), Esprito Santo (8.3%), SoPaulo (5.9%), Santa Catarina (5.4%), Gois (4 %), Bahia andRio de Janeiro (2.9% each). There is little difference from thedistribution found in the 2003 Consulate data, though it is
worth noting that many of the surveys were collected inLowell, where a large number of immigrants from the state of Paran live.
Survey of Working Conditions ofBrazilian Immigrant Workers in Massachusetts
3 The average time of residence in the U.S. was 4.3 years, ranging from a few months to 22 years. Timeof residence in Massachusetts was very similar (average of 4.2 years), indicating that most Braziliansurveyed immigrated directly to Massachusetts.
The majority of survey respondents lived in Lowell, Allston/Brighton, andSomerville (48.3%). Those are very popular areas of residence among Brazilians andparallel the location of the sites were most interviews were conducted. Data from theBrazilian Consulate show a different geographic distribution, but both Somervilleand Lowell are included within the most frequent places of residence.
Allston/Brighton had high frequency in our survey because many interviews wereconducted in the office of the BIC. The same situation applies to Lowell (table 2).
When asked whether or not they intended to stay in the U.S., 55.9%answered positively, 25.4% negatively, and 18.7% did not know how long they
wanted to stay in the U.S. Most participants planned tostay in the U.S. for 5 years (46%) - a typical answer of sojourners - while 17.4 % didnt have plans to go back toBrazil at the time of the survey, suggesting that those
were the settlers in the sample (table 3).Most Brazilians interviewed had low English
proficiency. Almost 60% had very low or low proficiency forspeaking and reading in English. Their ability to understand English was better,
with 45.1% reporting good or regular level of understanding. Thus, poor Englishskills may lead to health and safety problems in the workplace because Brazilianimmigrant workers would not be able to a) communicate adequately withsupervisors and coworkers, and b) comprehend information provided in Englishin case they are trained in English.
Table 4 shows the types of businesses where Brazilians work. The threemost common
businesses were cleaning services(32.4%) - including commercial anddomestic cleaning- construction(27.6%), and food and restaurantservices (17.6%).
Table 5 shows the types of jobsheld by Brazilian immigrant workers inMassachusetts. Construction jobs(painters, carpenters, laborers, roofers,among others) were the most commonfor males (26%). Housecleaning wasthe most common for females (25%).Food and restaurant jobs were the thirdmost frequent jobs (14.5%), including cooks, assistant cooks, dishwashers,
waiters/waitresses, and cashiers.
Cities/townsof residence
Table 2
Cities N
Boston Allston/BrightonEast Boston
LowellSomervilleEverettMaldenRevereMedfordQuincyFraminghamCambridgePeabodyWatertownWeymouthArlingtonBrooklineNewtonOthers Total
15912529
1205733261817161514101010
777
100626
Settler or Sojourner Plans
Table 3
How long do you plan to stay in the U.S.?
N %
0-2 years3-5 years6-8 years9-10 yearsMore than
10 yearsMy whole lifeAs long as the U.S.government allows meOtherDon't knowMissingTotal
133155
2737
20109
716
1202
626
21.224.8
4.35.9
3.217.4
1.12.6
19.20.3
100.0
Gender
Age
Educational Attainment
State of birth
FemaleMale Total
0-1920-2425-3031-3435-3940-4445-4950-5455-5960 + Total
Less than high schoolHigh schoolSome collegeCollege/Bachelor'sdegree/ Associate's degreeGraduate degreeor higher
Total
Minas GeraisParanEsprito SantoSo PauloSanta CatarinaGoisBahiaRio de JaneiroStates with less than 1% Total
312314626
1086
11297
1079051362412
625
265220
60
65
15625
3175552373425181869
625
49.850.2
100.0
1.613.817.915.517.114.4
8.25.83.81.9
100.0
42.435.2
9.6
10.4
2.4100.0
50.78.88.35.95.44.02.92.9
11.0100.0
Var iable F requency (N)
Percent (%)
Variable
Sample CharacteristicsTable 1
Types of JobsTable 5
Job NConstruction workerHousecleanerRestaurant/Bakery/Fast Food worker
JanitorLandscaper
Newspaper/food delivererSecretary/Administrative Assistant
Babysitter/Home careHairdresserManagerInterpreterLaundry workerOthers Total
163159
913923
17
151010
876
78626
Types of BusinessesTable 4
Type of Business N %CleaningServices/HousecleaningConstructionFood and RestaurantsOther ServicesHealth Services
RetailManufacturingCommunication and MediaLandscapingBeauty ServicesAdministrative ServicesEducationReligious and Social ServicesBaby SittingDeliveryFinancial ServicesMissing Total
203173110
2519
1716151110
8443332
626
32.427.617.6
4.03.0
2.72.62.41.81.61.30.60.60.50.50.50.3
100.0
67
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However, they also reported several symptoms in the last year (table 6). Musculoskeletal pain is themost frequent symptom, mainly in the back, arms, and legs. Exhaustion is also very prevalent. Thesesymptoms can be associated with many job tasks performed by Brazilian immigrant workers, becausemost worked in demanding jobs in the cleaning, construction, and food and restaurant industries. High
workloads, time pressures, repetitive and awkward postures, are some of the risk factors that these workers are usually exposed to (NIOSH, 2007; Goldsheyder). They also have to face job insecurity,literacy barriers, racial and ethnic discrimination, inadequate safety training and others (Friedman-Gimenez, 1994; Levy & Wegmann, 2000; de Castro et al, 2006; Seixas et al, 2008).
VariableRelative Distribution of Perceived Workplace InjuriesFigure 1
Never Almost neverSometimesFrequentlyVery frequentlyMissing
39.8%
23.8%
30.7%
4.2%
2.2%
0.2%
VariableRelative Distribution of Work-Related Diseases,Injuries, or Symptoms in the Last Year
Figure 2
YesNoDon't knowMissing
42.3%
56.5%
0.7%
0.5%
VariableFrequency of Safety and Health TrainingFigure 3
Yes
No20.6%
79.4%
About 42% of respondentsreported some Work-Relatedproblem (injury, disease, orsymptom) in the last year(figure 2). Musculoskeletaldisorders, back pain,headaches, injuries from falls,cuts in hands, respiratory problems, allergies, and stress
were the most prevalent Work-Related problems.
Almost 80 % of the workerssurveyed did not get healthand safety training in Brazil,nor in the U.S. (figure 3).
Figure 4 shows that most respondents perceived their health status as very good or good (67%).
Symptoms in the Last Year Table 6
Symptoms N %
Musculoskeletal Pain
Forced vision/painful eyesStomach pain, burn, acid reflux, bad digestionSkin disorders/spotsCirculatory problemsRespiratory problemsExtreme tirednessIrritabilitySleep disordersHeadacheDepression periods
453394412292302223266300254
8107126124395318257372216
72.462.965.846.648.235.642.547.940.6
1.317.120.119.863.150.841.159.434.5
Back ArmsLegsNeck ShouldersWristsHands/fingersFeet
Variable Self-Reported Health StatusFigure 4
45.7%
21.1%
29.1%
3.2%0.8%
Very Good Good Regular Bad Very Bad
8 9
Figure 1 shows that only about 6% reported highfrequency of injuries intheir workplace
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As shown in figure 7, cuts, bites, and open wounds were the most frequent injuries reported (26%),followed by fractures (17%), back injury/pain (14%) and sprain, strain, or dislocation (14%).
4 Workers compensation data were collected at the Brazilian Immigrant Center, where Brazilian
workers who suffered Work-Related injuries look for legal support and medical referrals. These datastarted to be collected by BIC staff in 2003. This report describes results from 2003 to 2007. The caseclassification used here is based on the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines for injury surveillance.
147 cases of Work-Related injuries and diseases were filed at the Brazilian Immigrant Centerbetween 2003 and 2007. There were 136 cases of injuries and 11 cases of occupational diseases,including lead poisoning.
Figure 5 displays the absolute frequency of injuries and diseases per year of occurrence. There was ahigher frequency of cases in 2005 and 2006, and a considerable number of cases through mid-2007.
This pattern can be partially explained by activities conducted by Project COBWEB, which increasedcommunity awareness of workplace health and safety through newspaper articles, radio shows, and
worker training. Almost 20% of the case reports did not have any information on the injury date.
Worker Compensation Casesof Brazilian Immigrant Workers
Construction workers were the most affected by Work-Related injuries and diseases. Laborers,carpenters, and painters were responsible for 45% of the cases (figure 6). Janitors and housecleaners,landscapers, and food and restaurant workers (cooks, dishwashers, and bakers) also represented animportant percentage of cases (26.5%).
VariableNumber of Cases of Work-Related Injuries/Diseases by Year, 2003-2007 Figure 5
1
147
20000
2001 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 Missing Total
40
80
120
160
1 58
3848
1630
Year
Numberof cases
Source: BIC Database
Variable
Relative Distribution of Cases of Work-Related Injuries/Diseases by Occupation, 2003-2007
Figure 6
Constructionworker/LaborerCarpenterPainterCleaning servicesLandscaperCookDishwasherBakerOthers
17.0%
16.8%
7.5%
29.3%
10.9%
6.1%5.4%
4.1%
3.4%
Source: BIC Database
Variable
Distribution of Cases of Work-Related Injuries/Diseasesby Nature of Injury, 2003-2007
Figure 7
1
b o r
n n d
C u t s ,
i t e s o p e
w o u
s0
25,9
Nature of Injuries
Source: BIC Databa
Percentageof cases
5
10
15
20
25
30
F r a c t u
r e
a c k u r y
B i n j
/ P a i n
S p
t r a n ,
d l o c
t
r a i n , s
i i s
a i o n
o i n f o r
m t
N
a i o n
c k e l
t a d
a s
M u s u
l e s e
l i s e
e
A p u
t t
m a i o
n r B u n
r i t t
I r a i o
n
C o n c u s
s i o n
C h e m
i c a l n
t o x i c
t
I a i o
n
a d x
L e I n t o i
c a t i o n
s p i r t
i s e a s e
R e a o
r y D
17,014,3 14,3
5,4 5,4 4,1 3,4 3,42,0 2,0 1,4 1,4
10 11
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Source: BIC Database
Figure 8 shows that stabs or cuts were the most frequent mechanisms of injuries (about 26%),followed by falls (23%) and struck by/hit by person or object (about 14%). Ladders or stairs were theobjects or tools responsible for the injuries in about 12% of the cases. 79% of the cases needed hospitalcare, indicating that these injuries were probably the most serious. Only 60.5% of the cases werereported as Work-Related when workers sought medical care. About 20% of the expenses with medicalcare were paid by the Free Care Pool insurance program of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.
Distribution of Cases of Work-Related Injuries/Diseasesby Mechanism, 2003-2007
Figure 8
Data on Work-Related fatalities were collected through a joint effort of the MassachusettsDepartment of Public Health (DPH), the Brazilian Immigrant Center, Project COBWEB, community representatives, and local Brazilian media. The information about the cases was collected fromnewspapers, a hotline at DPH, family members and coworkers of the victims, company representatives,
and death certificates. Some fatality cases were followed up until the end of fatality investigationsconducted by inspectors of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). There were 16 Work-Related fatalities of Brazilian workers between 1999 and 2007 (table 7). All
workers were male between 18 and 59 years old. Most victims worked in construction (56%). Themajority was from the state of Minas Gerais, which is the state in Brazil that sends the most emigrants tothe U.S. Fall was the mechanism of death for 50% of the cases, but violence in the workplace and struck by vehicles were also important. All these deaths were preventable if Brazilian immigrants worked foremployers that provided adequate workplace safety and health training and personal protectiveequipment to employees, followed safe work procedures, and implemented good communication andsafety warning systems.
Work-Related Fatal Injuries ofBrazilian Immigrant Workers
1
2
3
45
6
7
8
9
10
1112
13
14
15
16
5/7/1999
4/5/2000
1/8/2002
3/11/20024/11/2002
7/2/2002
12/19/2002
7/11/2003
2/16/2004
5/21/2004
10/9/20043/10/2005
12/19/2005
3/4/2006
9/15/2006
4/9/2007
male
male
male
malemale
male
male
male
male
male
malemale
male
male
male
male
Date of death
Sex Case
48
42
41
3633
37
41
39
18
35
4038
24
27
59
30
Resplendor, MinasGerais, BrazilSalinas, MinasGerais, BrazilIvaipora, Parana,BrazilBrazilGovernadorValadares,Minas Gerais,BrazilColatina, EspiritoSanto, BrazilAnapolis, Goias,BrazilMinas Gerais,BrazilBrazil
Brazil
BrazilRio Grande do Sul,BrazilIvaipora, Parana,BrazilAlpercata, MinasGerais, BrazilBento Goncalves, RioGrande do Sul, BrazilIcara, Santa Catarina,Brazil
Shipper
Carpenter
Laborer
LaborerForeman
Laborer
Laborer
LaborerSalesman
Maintenance
RooferGraniteworkerRoofer
Laborer
Laborer
Laborer
Woburn
Salem
Gloucester
AshlandNatick
Boston
Newton
Cambridge
Boston
Worcester
LawrenceMarlborough
Pembroke
DowntownBostonJamaica Plain
Revere
Fall from ladder
Fall from second floor
Struck by backhoe
Fall from a treeTractor rollover
Compressed armin stone crusherFall from ladder
Fall from roof
Stab wound onthe neck caused bya robberStabbed in the chest
- homicideElectrocutionCrushed bygranite slabsFall from ladder
Fall from scaffold
Fall from deck
Struck by a bobcat
Bakery
Construction
Construction
LandscapeConstruction
Cleaning Ind.
HVACCompanyConstruction
Pharmacy
Restaurant
ConstructionGranite Industry
Construction
Construction
Construction
Construction
Age Placeof Birth
Occupation Business Circumstanceof death
Place of Accident
Work-Related Fatal Injuries of Brazilian Immigrantsin Massachusetts, 1999-2007
Table 7
Source: Massachusetts Department of Public Health, Occupational Health Surveillance Program, 2008
Percentage
0,6Solid Material
Polishing
Ground Impact
Awkward Postures
Traffic Injury
Poisoning
Fire, Flames or Heat
No information
Chemical Contact
Repetitive Movement
Lifting Load
Struck by/hit byPerson or Object
Fall
0,6
0,6
0,6
1,3
2,7
2,7
2,7
3,4
4,0
12,2
13,6
Stab or Cut
23,1
25,8
Agression
5,4
12 13
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Adults and childrens health can be affected by lead, which is a heavy metal that can cause anemia, nervous systemdysfunction, kidney problems, hypertension, infertility, and miscarriage in adults (MDPH, 2005; La Dou, 2004). Childrenunder the age of six are at greatest risk because their neurological system is still in development.
The workplace is the most common source of exposure to lead for adults. Painters in Massachusetts are frequently exposed to lead when scraping paint or power sanding paint because the state has a significant stock of old houses,
which were painted with lead-based paint. Painters may inhale or ingest paint dust without adequate respiratory protection. They may also carry lead dust in their clothing and thus contaminate their family members and children. Astudy in Massachusetts found that 39 (80%) of 49 workers with blood lead levels of 60 g/dL or greater worked inconstruction. Twenty of them (51%) were bridge and house painters, and seventeen (44%) were deleaders (Rabin et al,1994). Unpublished data on blood lead levels of immigrant workers reported to the Massachusetts Occupational Lead
Registry between 2001-2007 shows thatBrazilian painters represented 37% of thecases of elevated blood levels. Routinescreening procedures adopted by Community Health Centers have increasedthe detection of elevated blood lead levelsamongst Brazilian painters.
The Massachusetts Occupational LeadPoisoning Registry defines a case of elevatedblood lead level (BLL) as an individual 15years or older who has a reported BLL equalor greater to 25 g/dl and for whom there
were no reports of elevated BLL in theprevious calendar year (MDPH, 2005). TheOSHA construction lead standard defineselevated lead levels only in cases of BLLs =40 g/dl. Under the OSHA lead standardfor construction and state deleading
regulations workers with BLLs =50 g/dl should be treated and removed from further exposure.Based on the serious health impact of lead poisoning and on the fact that there are many
Brazilian painters in Massachusetts, the Brazilian Immigrant Center (BIC), as a result of ProjectCOBWEB, developed a partnership with the Lead Poisoning Prevention Program of the BostonPublic Health Commission (BPHC) to educate and screen Brazilian construction workers.
The BIC and the BPHC conducted three workshops in Portuguese for Brazilianconstruction workers, painters, and residents of Allston and East Boston. The workshops firsteducated Brazilians about the danger of this invisible enemy that can cause serious harm to thehealth of adults and children. Blood samples were collected from adults and children after the
workshops. We only present here the blood lead screening results for construction workers. Alladults who participated in the workshops were male construction workers.61 blood lead samples were collected. The mean blood lead level found was 12.1 g/dl.
16% of the samples had blood lead levels higher than 25 g/dl and 8% had levels higher than 40g/dl (figure 9).
The data shown in table 8 indicates that lead poisoning may be a prevalent problemamongst Brazilian construction workers, especially painters. More data need to be collected to confirm these findings.Lead awareness training seems to be a good preventive strategy to reduce lead exposure since most Brazilian painters arenot aware of lead paint hazards and lead screening procedures.
References
COBWEB Project. A Report on Brazilian Immigrant Workers in Massachusetts .2007.
City of Boston. Imagine all the people Brazilian immigrants in Boston. September,2006.
Goldsheyder, D.; Schecter-Weiner, S.; Nordin, M.; Hiebert, R. Prevention of Work-Related musculoskeletal disorders in construction laborers. Occupational andIndustrial Orthopaedic Center (OIOC), Hospital for Joint Diseases OrthopaedicInstitute, Mount Sinai NYU Health. Graduate Program of Ergonomics andBiomechanics, New York University.
Holder, Y. et al. Injury Surveillance Guidelines. Published in conjunction with theCenters for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, USA, by the World HealthOrganization. 200.
La Dou, J. Current Occupational and Environmental Medicine. McGraw Hill, 3rdEdition, 2004.
Lima, A. & Siqueira, E. Brazilians in the U.S. and Massachusetts: A Demographic and Economic Profile . The Mauricio Gaston Institute for Latino CommunityDevelopment and Public Policy. November, 2007.
Massachusetts Department of Public Health/Occupational Health SurveillanceProgram. Lead at Work - Elevated Blood Lead Levels in Massachusetts Workers,19962001. November 2005
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. Simple Solutions:Ergonomics for Construction Workers. NIOSH Publication No. 2007-122, April2007.
Rabin,R.; Brooks,D.; Davis,L. Elevated Blood Lead Levels among Construction
Workers in the Massachusetts Occupational Lead Registry. American Journal of Public Health. Vol. 84, N 9, September 1994.
U.S. Department of Labor. Occupational Safety & Health Administration. Standards- 29 CFR Safety and Health Regulations for Constructi on Lead.http://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10641
6 High Blood Lead Levels in BrazilianConstruction Workers
Variable
Frequency of Blood Lead Levels ( g/dL) amongBrazilian Construction Workers, 2007
Figure 9