A COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF ZOOTHERAPEUTICREMEDIES FROM SELECTED AREAS IN ALBANIA, ITALY,
SPAIN AND NEPAL
Cassandra Leah Quave, Usha Lohani, Alonso Verde, Jose Fajardo, Diego Rivera,Concepcion Obon, Arturo Valdes and Andrea Pieroni
Zootherapy is the treatment of human ailments with remedies derived from animals and theirproducts. Despite its prevalence in traditional medical practices worldwide, research on thisphenomenon has often been neglected in comparison to medicinal plant research. Interviewsregarding zootherapeutic traditions were conducted with informants from Albania, Italy, Nepal andSpain. We identified 80 species used in zootherapeutic remedies, representing 4 phyla in the animalkingdom: Annelida, Arthropoda, Chordata, and Mollusca. Remedies were ranked by consensusindices. Our studies show that the selection of medicinal fauna is mediated by human subsistencepatterns. Concepts of health and disease differ among our study sites in the Mediterranean and Asia,and these differences also play a substantive role in the selection and use of animal-based remedies.
Key words: zootherapy, ethnoveterinary, traditional medicine
La zooterapia es el tratamiento de las dolencias humanas con los remedios obtenidos de animales ysus productos. A pesar de su incidencia en las practicas medicas tradicionales en todo el mundo, lainvestigacion sobre este fenomeno a menudo ha estado descuidada en comparacion con lainvestigacion de las plantas medicinales. Las entrevistas respecto a las practicas de zooterapia sellevaron a cabo con informantes de Albania, Italia, Nepal y Espana. Identificamos 80 especies usadasen los remedios de zooterapia, representando 4 phyla en el reino animal: Annelida, Arthropoda,Chordata, y Mollusca. Los remedios fueron clasificados mediante ındices de consenso. Hablamos unpoco de las semejanzas interculturales y las diferencias en el uso medicinal de las faunas locales.
Cassandra Leah Quave, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Arkansas forMedical Sciences, 4301 W. Markham St., Mail Slot 511, Little Rock, AR 72205, USA (e-mail: [email protected])
Usha Lohani, Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, NEPAL Post Box-7844 (e-mail: [email protected])
Alonso Verde, Escuela de Magisterio, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Campus de Albacete, E-02007 Albacete, SPAIN (e-mail: [email protected])
Jose Fajardo, Escuela de Magisterio, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Campus de Albacete, E-02007 Albacete, SPAIN (e-mail: [email protected])
Diego Rivera, Dep. Biologıa Vegetal, Universidad de Murcia, Fac. de Biologıa, E-30100 Murcia, SPAIN(e-mail: [email protected])
Concepcion Obon, Dep. Biologıa Aplicada, Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Escuela PolitecnicaSuperior de Orihuela, Ctra Beniel km. 3,2, 03312 Orihuela, SPAIN (e-mail: [email protected])
Arturo Valdes, Escuela de Magisterio, Universidad de Castilla La Mancha, Campus de Albacete, E-02007 Albacete, Spain (e-mail: [email protected])
Andrea Pieroni, University of Gastronomic Sciences, Via Amedeo di Savoia 8, I-12060 Pollenzo/Bra,ITALY (e-mail: [email protected])
Journal of Ethnobiology 30(1): 92–125 Spring/Summer 2010
Introduction
The treatment of ailments with remedies made from animals and theirproducts is known as zootherapy (Alves and Rosa 2005). Animal-basedmedicines are generally derived from three sources: the whole or parts of theanimal body, metabolic products of the animal (secretions or excrement), andother things created by animals such as nests, cocoons, honey, and eggs (Costa-Neto 2005). Since ancient times, zootherapy has been integral to the traditionalpharmacopoeias of many cultures (Alves and Rosa 2006; Costa-Neto 1999; Lev2003; Mahawar and Jaroli 2007) and has comprised a fundamental element towell-known traditional medical systems, such as Ayurvedic medicine, Tradi-tional Chinese Medicine, and ancient Egyptian medicine. Records of themedicinal use of animals and their by-products date back to the invention ofwriting (Lev 2003, 2006). Today, animal products make up an important portionof modern pharmaceuticals; approximately 18% of prescription drugs used in theUSA have animal origins (WRI 2000). Yet, despite its continued prevalence intraditional medical practices around the globe and importance as a potentialsource of novel pharmaceutical agents, zootherapy appears in the literature muchless than studies of medicinal plant therapies.
Zootherapy is a vital component of traditional medicine (Alves and Rosa2007a, 2007b, 2007c). This is especially evident in rural communities where accessto modern healthcare is limited. Over centuries, the close interactions of ruralpopulations with the environment, often associated with an economic depen-dence on local natural resources, has fostered the accumulation of a wealth ofknowledge in this field. This knowledge of animal-based medicines, much likethat of medicinal plants, is usually passed down through the oral traditionstypical of many societies.
Loss of this traditional knowledge (TK) in the wake of rampant urbanizationin cultures across the globe instills a sense of urgency for ethnobiologists torecord and interpret this data before it is lost forever. In an effort to betterunderstand the role of zootherapy in traditional medicine today and to record TKof endangered medicinal practices, we have taken a cross-cultural approach toexamine data from our field sites located in four countries. We identify, describe,and compare zootherapeutic remedies used in the traditional pharmacopoeias ofrural communities in Albania, Italy, Spain, and Nepal (Figure 1). These fourregions were selected specifically for their disparate cultural and geographicdomains. We use data from the Mediterranean field sites in Albania, Italy, andSpain to compare zootherapeutic practices in locations that are characterized bydifferent cultures, but similar terrain and fauna. The Nepal data providezootherapeutic practices from a region with a different culture, environment, andnative fauna than that of the Mediterranean sites.
Cross-cultural studies of zootherapeutic practices are uncommon, yet theycan offer valuable insight into the dynamic relationship that we share with ourenvironment. In this paper, we aim to address the following questions: How doesculture mediate human-environment interactions as they relate to zootherapies?How do subsistence patterns and economic models influence human health and
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 93
access to medicines? How can we use our understanding of traditional lifewaysand ethnomedical systems to promote biodiversity conservation?
Study Area
Albania
Albania has a predominantly mountainous terrain. Although a relativelysmall country, it has a high level of biodiversity, and 5.8% of the country isprotected as national parks and reserves (Hoda and Zotaj 2007). The nation’seconomy is based on agriculture and forestry. According to the AlbanianNational Institute of Statistics, 58% of Albanians live in rural areas andapproximately 20% of the population live in very poor conditions, 10% on lessthan US $2 per day (World Bank 2003). Albania is one of the poorest countries inEurope with an estimated Gross National Product of US $930 per capita.
Recent ethnobiological studies have been conducted in two remote villages–Lepushe and Theth–both located in the Shala Valley in the northern Albanian Alps(Pieroni 2008; Pieroni et al. 2005). The terrain in this area is mountainous and ischaracterized by alpine pastures and beech forests. The average temperature in thesummer is 16uC, andwinter brings heavy snowfalls and an average temperature of23uC. Members of these communities survive on an economy of self-sufficiency;households care for a few livestock (usually one or two cows, pigs, and a fewsheep) and cultivate staple crops like potatoes and corn alongwith some additionalvegetables. Thus, due to the economic environment and physical isolation fromother populations, these communities maintain strong ties with their environmentand are actively involved in the collection of plant materials and animal productsfrom both wild and cultivated sources for food and medicine.
Italy
Italy’s Basilicata province lies in the south-central region of the country andis dominated by a rugged, mountainous terrain. This 9,992 km2 region has a
FIGURE 1. Map of the study area: Spain, Italy, Albania and Nepal.
94 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
population of about 600,000 people. The local economy is based on small-scaleagriculture and agro-pastoral activities, although in the past decade it has shiftedtoward factory labor for both men and women. One prominent geographicalfeature of Basilicata is the dormant volcano, Monte Vulture (1,330 m a.s.l.). TheMonte Vulture area is home to both autochthonous (native) Italians and ethnicArbereshe Albanian communities who have been included in extensiveethnobiological studies (Pieroni et al. 2002; Quave and Pieroni 2005).
In addition to the Vulture area, ethnobiological field studies have beenconducted in the Lucanian Dolomite area –an isolated mountainous region nearthe province capital city of Potenza. The population is autochthonous Italian,with the exception of some eastern European migrants employed as householdhelpers. The remote location of these communities combined with their closeproximity to forests fosters a close relationship between people and theirenvironment. The tradition of collecting wild plants for food and medicine (bothfor human and animal consumption or use) still thrives, as does the similar use ofwild and domestic animals and their products (Pieroni et al. 2004). Some of thedomestic animals common to Basilicata include poultry, swine, cattle, goats, andsheep. Those who regularly participate in pastoral labor often use horses ordonkeys for transportation while herding the livestock. Thus, the health of theiranimals is of primary importance, and a rich tradition of ethnoveterinarypractices has been documented (Pieroni et al. 2004).
Spain
Castilla-La Mancha lies in the center (C-SE) of Spain, near Madrid. This79,463 km2 region has a population of almost 2 million people (Instituto Nacionalde Estadıstica 2009). The flat plains of La Mancha are almost entirely devoid ofnatural vegetation and are instead occupied by crops, mainly grape vines andcereals like barley, wheat, oat, and rye. Groves of olive and almond trees arecommon in the warmer climes.
From an ethnobiological point of view, the most interesting areas are theperipheral mountains, where the Mediterranean forests are filled with Quercusspp. and Pinus spp. in the highest mountains. There, people live in small villagesstill close to nature and the traditional way of life. The elders living in this regionremember old healing practices, now in disuse, but which were an important partof their lives in the past (Verde et al. 2008). A review of the Spanish literatureconfirms the importance of traditional remedies in the Spanish medical heritage(Blazquez 1989, 1991; Iniesta and Jordan 1991; Sanchez-Mınguez 1995).Zootherapy was commonplace in Spain in the second half of the 20th century,particularly in mountainous areas. In the Pyrenees (Alto Aragon), 48 animalspecies were used to treat up to 197 different ailments (Palacın-Latorre 1994;Palacın-Rodrıguez 1985). In the Cantabrian mountains Orense and Asturias, 12and 13 animal species respectively, were reported as medicinal resources (Rico-Avello 1974; Taboada 1948).
Like other Mediterranean countries, Spain has a rich diversity of reptiles andamphibians and many species of birds. Big mammals, however, are rare, andwolves are almost extinct in the region. Some game like deer and wild boar arestill common, and foxes are also easy to find, even near villages and towns.
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 95
Hunting is an important source of income, and the focus is mostly on small gamelike partridges, rabbits and hares and big game in some mountainous areas likethe Toledo Mountains, Morena Range, and Cuenca Range.
Livestock, particularly sheep and goats used for their milk and meat, are alsovery important in La Mancha. Some areas are dedicated to breeding bulls forcorridas (bull-fighting). Cattle are frequently found in the mountains. Swine andrabbits are bred for meat, and poultry are raised as a source of meat and eggs.Horses and donkeys were very common in the past, but are now rare in thecountryside, although some remain in the mountain villages.
Nepal
Nepal has a distinctive topography that contributes to its rich biological andcultural diversity. Rugged terrain forms specific niches harboring uniqueassemblages of flora and fauna. Further, because of its location, the countryencompasses two zoogeographical regions: the Palearctic in the north and theOriental in the south. The country, though small, is rich in fauna of both therealms. The narrow middle strip of the country from east to the west is the mainregion of faunal mixing. Historic and current economic factors have promotedhuman interaction with biological resources in Nepal resulting in a rich body oftraditional knowledge concerning resource utilization, management and conser-vation (for example Nanhoe and Ouboter 1987; Rajbhandari 2001; Shah and Giri1992; Shrestha 2003), but Lohani et al. (2008) emphasize a strong need forcomprehensive ethnozoological studies.
In this study we document ethnozoological knowledge in Majhi communitiesfrom the central mountainous region of Nepal. Majhi communities are usuallyscattered along the river banks in the Inner Terai and lower mountainousregions. These are river people who constitute about 0.32% of the totalpopulation of the country (CBS 2001). The nearby ancient Tharu peopledepended only upon wild forest products for their livelihood while ancientMajhi were engaged in fishing and farming (Bista 2000). In the wake of moderndevelopment efforts, modern Majhi are now engaged in other economic activitiessuch as wage labor and business.
Materials and Methods
Our research methods included participant observation, semi-structuredinterviews, and focus groups. Although field research was conducted in each ofthe four study sites by different ethnobiologists, similar interview techniques anddata collection methods were employed. Prior informed consent was obtainedbefore conducting interviews, and ethical guidelines adopted by the InternationalCongress of Ethnobiology/International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE 2007) werefollowed. Interviewees were questioned in their native language about themedicinal uses of the local fauna. Study participants were asked to free-list anyknown zootherapeutic remedies. Informants were prompted by asking aboutremedies for different common health problems, such as remedies for respiratoryailments, skin infections, diarrhea, women’s health, stomach problems, pain, andwounds. When possible, informants were also interviewed using a focus group
96 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
format, and dialogue between the participants was encouraged while theresearcher(s) recorded references to zootherapeutic remedies. Details regardingthe local names of animals and the use and collection of animal products arepresented in Table 1. The consensus index uses how often a certain remedy wascited to provide a relative measure of the knowledge of remedies within eachstudy location.
For Albania, Pieroni conducted field research in the upper Shala Valley in thenorthern Albanian Alps from 2004 to 2007. Snowball sampling methods (Bernard2002) were used to recruit 38 study participants, primarily among elderlymembers of the community who had lived in the area for all or most of theirlives. Albanian fauna were identified using the Libri i kuq i faunes shqiptare [RedBook of Albanian Fauna] (Misja 2006).
Field research was conducted in the Basilicata Province of southern Italy byQuave and Pieroni from 2000 to 2008. Random sampling techniques wereemployed to recruit 112 interview subjects. Interviewees were equally stratifiedby gender and four age groups (21–35, 36–50, 51–70, 71+ years). Italian faunawere identified using the Checklist of Italian Fauna (Stoch 2009).
Fajardo, Verde, Rivera, and Obon conducted field research in Castilla-LaMancha Spain from 2000 to 2008. More than 600 study participants wereinterviewed, 170 of which were knowledgeable of local ethnobiologicalapplications of fauna. Fauna were identified using the Fauna Iberica (Ramos 2009).
Field research was conducted in the Inner Terai and Lower Mountainousregions of Nepal by Lohani from 2004 to 2006. A total of 38 informants wereinterviewed, 17 of whom were 18–29 years old, 10 were 30–49, and 11 were olderthan 50. Nepali fauna were identified using several taxonomic keys (Grimmet etal. 2003; Shah and Tiwari 2004; Shrestha 1981; Shrestha 2003).
Results
Our research in three countries in theMediterranean (Albania, Italy, and Spain)and one in Asia (Nepal) gathered information on 80 animal species used in 232traditional zootherapeutic remedies for either human or animal health (Figure 1). Adetailed description of these remedies is provided in Table 1, including popularuse, preparation and application, and. a consensus index system.
Animals from 4 phyla (Annelida, Arthropoda, Chordata, and Mollusca) werereported as sources of medicinal remedies, with the majority (62 species, 77.5%)Chordata, followed by Arthropoda (13 species, 16.3%), Mollusca (4 species, 5%)and Annelida (1 species, 1.3%). Of the animal classes, most reported species comefrom the Mammalia (27 species, 33.8%), followed by the Aves (12 species, 15%) –both in the phylum Chordata. As to orders, the Artiodactyla from the classMammalia had the most species represented (8 species, 10%), followed by theCarnivora of class Mammalia and order Squamata of class Reptilia, both of whichhad 7 species (8.8%) represented (Table 2).
Correlation of Remedies to Fauna
A total of 232 zootherapeutic remedies were reported. More remedies werereported from species belonging to certain orders. There were 52 remedies
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 97
TABLE1.
Popularusesofan
imalsas
zootherap
euticremed
iesin
Alban
ia,Italy,Nep
alan
dSpain.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
Phylum:AnnelidaClass:ClitellataOrder:Hirudinea
Hirudo
medicinalis
(Linnaeus,
1758)
EuropeanMed
ical
Leech
sanguijuelas[S]
healcontusion
Awhole
livean
imal
isplaceddirectlyover
the
woundto
suck
uptheblood.(M
)xxx
amignattola
[I]
amuletag
ainst
skin
disease
Awhole
livean
imal
isap
plied
totheskin
asan
amuletag
ainst
anondescriptskin
illness.
Itisconsidered
agoodomen
ifthean
imal
survives
thetreatm
ent.(M
R)
x
ushunjz
[A]
healmuscularpains
Alivean
imal
isap
plied
externally
toreliev
emuscularpains(‘‘they
suck
thebad
blood’’).
(M)
x
Phylum:ArthropodaClass:Arach
nidaOrder:Araneae
unknown
Spider
[A]
haemostatic
Aspider
web
isap
plied
tothelaceration.(M
)x
Tegenaria
domestica
(Clerck,17
57)
House
Spider
aranas[S]
vulnerary;healcontusion
Aspider
web
isap
plied
towoundsan
dbruises.
InCam
podeCalatrava(C
iudad
Real)itis
mixed
withdried
groundredpep
per
and
usedas
adressingaroundtheinjuries.(M
)
xx
Phylum:ArthropodaClass:Arach
nidaOrder:Scorpiones
Buthusoccitanus
(Amoreux,17
89)
CommonEuropean
Scorpion
alacran,aracran,
escorpion[S]
anti-otitic
Onewhole
scorpionisfriedin
oliveoil.Drops
ofthefiltered
oilareinstilledinto
theear.(M
)xx
Twoorthreewhole
scorpionsarefriedin
olive
oilwithrue(Ruta
angu
stifoliaPers.).Dropsof
thefiltered
oilareputin
theaffected
ear(s).
(M)
x
anti-cystitic
orag
ainst
ureterobstruction
inmules
Twoorthreewhole
scorpionsarefriedin
olive
oilwithlaurel(LaurusnobilisL.)leav
es.The
filtered
oilisgiven
tothemule
todrink.(M
F,
EV)
x
vulneraryforburns
Anoleolite
isprepared
bysoak
ing5or6whole
livean
imalsin
ajarofhotoliveoil.Theoilis
leftto
settle
forseveral
day
s,filtered
,an
dap
plied
toburns.(M
)
x
anti-cystitic
Whole
livean
imalsaresoak
edin
ajarofalcohol
andleftto
settle
forseveral
day
s.Thefiltered
alcoholisrubbed
onto
thelower
abdomen
.(M
)
x
98 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
Euscorpiussp
p.
(Thorell,18
76)
Scorpion
[I/A]
anti-otitic
Awhole
anim
alissoak
edin
oliveoilto
create
anoleolite
infusion.Thisoilisthen
instilled
intheinfected
orpainfulear.(M
)
#
Phylum:ArthropodaClass:InsectaOrder:Coleoptera
Annobium
puncta-
tum
(DeGeer,
1774)
CommonFurniture
Beetle
polverini[I]
healdiaper-rashorheat
rash
ininfants
Woodpowder
(saw
dust)createdbythis
wood-boringbeetleisap
plied
totherash.(M
)x
healinfantile
seborrheic
dermatitis
(cradle-cap
)Woodpowder
(saw
dust)createdbythis
wood-boringbeetleisrubbed
ontheinfant’s
scalp.(M
)
x
dru
ikalbete[I/A]
haemostatic
Woodpowder
createdbythewood-boring
beetleisap
plied
.(M
)#
anti-m
astitic
Woodpowder
createdbythiswood-boring
beetleisap
plied
totheaffected
breast.(M
)#
Scarabaeidae
(sev
-eral
gen
era)
ScarabBeetles
escarabajos[S]
healmouth
soresorulcers
Anoleolite
isprepared
byfrying7or9whole
livebeetles
inoliveoil.Thefiltered
oilis
applied
tothesores.(M
)
x
Phylum:ArthropodaClass:InsectaOrder:Hem
iptera
Cicad
idae
(sev
eral
gen
era)
Cicad
achicharras[S]
vulneraryforburns
Anoleolite
isprepared
bysoak
ing5or6live
anim
alsin
ajarofoliveoil.Theoilisleftto
settle
forseveral
day
s,filtered
,an
dap
plied
toburns.(M
)
x
Phylum:ArthropodaClass:InsectaOrder:Hymen
optera
Apiscerana(Fab
ri-
cius,
1793);A.
dorsata(Fab
ricius,
1793);A.dorsata
laboriosa(Smith,
1871);A.florea
(Fab
ricius,
1793)
Asiatic
Honey
Bee;
GiantHoney
Bee;
Him
alay
anHoney
Bee;DwarfHoney
Bee
mahuri
[N]
anti-pharyngitic;
anti-rhinitic;an
ti-gastritic
Honey
iseaten.(M
F)
x
A.mellifera
(Linnae-
us,
1758
)an
dother
spp.
EuropeanHoney
Bee
abejas[S]
anti-pharyngitic;an
ti-rhinitic;
anti-laryngitic
Honey
(mele)
iseatenaloneormixed
with
hottea.
(MF)
xxx
Honey
ismixed
withlemonjuice(Citruslimon
(L.)Osbeck)an
deaten.(M
F)
xxx
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 99
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
Honey
isad
ded
asasw
eetener
inherbal
tea
mixturescontainingingredients
from
someplants
such
asSp
anishsage(Salvia
lavandu
lifoliaVah
l.)an
dItalianbuckthorn
(RhamnusalaternusL.).(M
F)
xxx
healsore
eyes;an
ti-
conjunctivitic
Dropsofhoney
areplaceddirectlyin
the
eyes.(M
)xx
vulneraryforburns
Honey
istopically
applied
totheburn
wound.(M
)xx
[I]
emollientforch
apped
nipples
Honey
(miele)is
applied
tothenipple
betweenbreast-feed
ingsessions.
(M)
x
[A]
anti-otitic
Beeswax
(dyll)is
liquefiedan
darranged
on
thetopofasm
allpiece
ofcloth
that
isinserted
(stillwarm)into
theear.(M
)
x
healmouth
inflam
mations
Honey
istopically
applied
tothemucosa.(M
)x
anti-parotitic(m
umps)
Honey
isap
plied
externally
under
theear.(M
)x
post-partum
reconstituen
tHoney
isdissolved
inhotwater
andmilkan
ddrunk.(M
F)
x
Phylum:ArthropodaClass:InsectaOrder:Lep
idoptera
Bom
byxmori
(Linnaeus,17
58)
Silkworm
anti-w
art
Asilk
ribbonis
boundaroundthewart.(M
R)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:ActinopterygiiOrder:Anguilliform
esAngu
illa
bengalensis
bengalensis(G
ray,
1831
)
IndianMottledEel
raja
bam
[N]
promote
expulsionof
placenta
Aneel’stailis
usedto
touch
theheadofa
woman
duringch
ildbirth
tofacilitate
expulsionoftheplacenta
afterch
ildbirth
andpreven
tcomplications.
(MR)
xx
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:ActinopterygiiOrder:Clupeiform
esSardinapilchardus
(Walbau
m,17
52)
EuropeanPilch
ard
sardinas[S]
healfootblistersan
dsores
Headsan
dguts
ofsaltysard
ines
arerubbed
ontheaffected
feet.(M
)x
digestiveaidforlivestock
Amixture
ofheadsofsalted
sard
ines
with
fodder
saltis
given
tolivestock
toeatwhen
sufferingfrom
indigestion.(M
F,EV)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:ActinopterygiiOrder:Cypriniform
esSchizothorax
plagiostom
as(H
eckel,18
38);
S.richardsonii
(Gray,18
32)
Snowtrout
sunasala
[N];buche
asala
[N]
vulneraryforburns
anti-leu
coderma
Bilejuicean
dfish
oilareap
plied
toburns.(M
)Milt(sem
inal
fluid)ofthefish
issm
earedon
theskin.(M
)
xx
xx
100 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:ActinopterygiiOrder:Synbranch
iform
esMonopteruscuchia
(Ham
ilton,18
22)
MudEel
bam
maccha[N
]promote
expulsionof
placenta
Aneel’stailis
usedto
touch
theheadofa
woman
duringch
ildbirth
tofacilitate
expulsionoftheplacenta
afterch
ildbirth
andpreven
tcomplications.
(MR)
xx
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Amphibia
Order:Anura
Bufo
bufo
(Linnae-
us,
1758
)CommonToad
sapo,zampono[S]
taboo
Thereis
abeliefthat
touch
ingtheskin
ofa
toad
candam
agetheskin.(M
R)
x
Paa
liebigii(G
un-
ther,18
60)
Spiny-A
rmed
Frog
manpaha[N
]reconstituen
tnutraceu
tical
Cooked
andeatento
treatpersonwitha
prolonged
illness.
(MF)
x
Ranaperezi
(Seo
ane,
1885)
Perez’s
Frog
rana[S]
woundcleansing;
disinfectan
tThebelly
ofawhole
livean
imal
isslitopen
andap
plied
directlyto
thewound.(M
)x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Amphibia
Order:Cau
data
Salam
andra
salamandra
(Linnaeus,
1758)
FireSalam
ander
salamandra
[S]
taboo
Thereis
abeliefthat
touch
ingtheskin
ofthe
salaman
der
candam
agetheskin.(M
R)
x
Salam
andrasp
.Two-H
eaded
Salam
ander
asalagreca
[I]
augury
(goodomen
)Theheadiscu
toffan
dstoredin
alcohol.(M
R)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Aves
Order:Ciconiiform
esArdea
purpurea
(Linnaeus,
1766).
Purple
Heron
garza[S]
haemostatic
Thech
estdownfeathersareusedto
stop
bleed
ingin
lacerationsorwounds.
(M)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Aves
Order:Columbiform
esColumba
livia
(Gmelin,17
89);
C.oenas
(Linnaeus,
1758);C.palumbu
s(Linnaeus,
1758)
Rock
Pigeo
n;Stock
Pigeo
n;W
ood
Pigeo
nPigeo
n
paloma;paloma
zurita;paloma
bravia;paloma
torcaz[S]
anti-onych
ocryptosic
(ingrownnail);an
ti-acn
eFeces
aremixed
withbread
crumbsan
dap
plied
.(M
)x
Columbiasp
p.
(Gmelin,17
89)
upiccione[I]
post-partum
healing;
reconstituen
tSoupmad
ewithpigeo
nmeatis
prepared
(often
asagift)forwomen
recoveringfrom
childbirth
toeat.Itis
also
eatenas
agen
eral
reconstituen
tduringillness.
(MF)
xx
galactagogue
Pigeo
nmeatsoupis
eaten.(M
F)
xxx
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 101
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
parewa[N
]au
gury
(goodomen
)Villagerssetthepigeonfree
tofree
them
selves
from
untowardhap
pen
ings,fortheirpeace
andgen
eral
well-being.Itisbelieved
that
the
flyingpigeontakes
away
allkindsofdiseases
andbad
luck.(M
R)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Aves
Order:Coraciiform
esCoraciasbengh
alensis
(Linnaeus,17
58)
IndianRoller
theuwa[N
]an
ti-otitic
Thecooked
fleshis
eaten.(M
F)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Aves
Order:Cucu
liform
esCuculuscanorus
(Linnaeus,17
58)
CommonCuckoo
ucucche[I]
augury
(goodomen
)Hearingthebirdsingingis
considered
agood
omen
forlife.(M
R)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Aves
Order:Galliform
esGallusgallus
Chicken
galinas[S]
vulneraryforburns
Eggwhiteis
applied
directlyto
theburn.(M
)x
(Linnaeus,17
58)
anti-onych
ocryptosic
(ingrownnail)
Theaffected
finger
ortoeisplacedin
aglass
witharaw
eggto
soak
forafew
minutes.(M
)xx
amuletag
ainst
infantile
paralysis
Theeg
gslaid
onGoodFriday
arekep
tas
amulets
toprotect
infants
from
thisdisease.
(MR)
x
anti-anem
icRaw
eggs(w
iththeirsh
ell)arebeatenwith
lemonjuicean
dsu
gar
andleftto
macerate
forafew
day
sto
takean
aspectofpuree
(includingmold).This
pureeis
eatenby
childrenan
dad
ults.
(MF)
x
kukhura
[N]
vulneraryforburns
Chicken
fatistopically
applied
totheburn.(M
)xx
healbroken
bones
Smallchicken
saregroundinto
apaste
that
isusedas
aplasteringmaterialto
setthebone.
(M)
xx
blessingforhealing
Faith
healers
presentlivehen
sto
thehealing
diety
when
treatingwomen
andthey
present
arooster
tothedeity
when
healingmen
.(M
R)
xx
[A]
treatkidney
stones
Themem
braneofthemuscularstomach(m
ullis
pule)ofahen
isremoved
anddried
,then
groundan
dmad
einto
adecoction.
x
poisonan
tidote
Awhole
eggiseatenraw
asan
antidote.(M
F)
Thisisalso
usedto
treatcattle
andsheep.
(EV)
xxx
102 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
healstomachache
Eggsarecooked
(boiled
)an
deaten.(M
F)
xhealgen
eral
pains/
analgesic
Aritual
ceremonyisperform
edin
whicharaw
eggisputonapiece
ofraw
woolwhichis
adhered
tothebodywiththehelpofoil.The
eggmoves
onthewoolan
dwheretheyolk
stops,theyolk
‘‘takes
thepainaw
ay’’an
dcomes
outofthemem
brane.
Thewhole
treatm
entlast
atleastonehour.(M
R)
xx
agaddina[I]
anti-abscess;
anti-furuncle
Eggyolk
ismixed
withtheyeast
from
fresh
pasta
doughan
dap
plied
.(M
)x
healbroken
orbruised
bones
Eggwhiteis
beatenwell,an
dthen
usedto
coat
hem
p(Cannabis
sativa
L.)fiber
tomak
eahardcast
forsettingbones.(M
)
+
healgen
eral
sickness
Chicken
meatsoupis
eatenas
areconstituen
t.(M
F)
xx
[I],[I/A]
healcontusion
Theeg
galbumen
(bardhevejte
[I/A])is
scrambledan
dsoak
edupwitheither
cotton,
wheatbran,oracloth
andap
plied
tothe
bruisewithsalt.(M
)
#[I/ A];
xx[I]
post-partum
healing
Chicken
meatsoup(m
ishta
pulje[I/A])is
prepared
andfedto
motherssh
ortly
after
childbirth
asareconstituen
tan
dpost-partum
dep
urative.
(MF)
xx[I];
xx[I/
A]
[A],[I]
anti-diarrheic
Eggsarecooked
(boiled
)(ufe
[I])an
deaten.
(MF)
x[A
];xx[I]
Pavocristatus
(Linnaeus,17
58)
IndianPeafowl
mayoor[N
]mag
ical
amulet
Healers
use
single
ormultiple
feathers
arranged
infansin
mag
ico-religious
healingceremonies.
(MR)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Aves
Order:Passeriform
esHirundo
rustica
(Linnaeus,17
58)
BarnSwallow
golondrina[S]
anti-pharyngitic
Twoorthreesw
allowsarefriedan
dthe
resu
ltingoilis
filtered
andkep
tin
aglass
jar.Theoilis
applied
externally
tothethroat.
(M)
x
Myophonuscaerleus
(Scopoli,17
86)
Blue-W
histling
Thrush
kalchaude[N
]an
ti-asthma;
anti-gout
Either
cooked
fleshorbloodis
eaten.(M
F)
xx
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 103
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
Sturnussp
p.
(Linnaeus,17
58)
Starlings
saraun[N
]an
ti-otitic;
anti-asthma
Cooked
fleshis
eaten.(M
F)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Mam
malia
Order:Artiodactyla
Axisaxis
(Erxleben
,17
77)
Chital
chital,mriga[N
]fertilityaid
Infertilewomen
eatthebloodan
dbileto
becomepregnan
t.(M
F)
xx
evil-eyeam
ulet
Anam
ulet(buti)is
mad
eofbonean
dusedto
protect
childrenfrom
evil-eye.
(MR)
xx
anti-dysenteric
Bloodis
drunk.(M
F)
xx
Bos
taurus(Linnaeus,
1758
)Cattle
[I],[A
]vulneraryforburns
Fresh
cow
feces(a
rumata
davacche)
are
applied
tothewound.(M
)x[I]; x[A]
[A]
vulnerary
Fresh
cheese
(diath)is
applied
towoundsto
promote
healing.(M
)xxx
lipem
ollient
Milkcream
(masa)is
applied
toch
apped
lips.
(M)
x
anti-parotitic(m
umps)
Cow’s
milkis
drunkveryhot.(M
F)
xan
ti-diarrheic;
strengthen
thestomach
Fresh
cheese
(diath)is
eatencoolorcooked
withflouran
deatenhot.(M
F)
xxx
healintestinal
pain;poison
antidote
Cow’s
milkis
drunkto
treatintestinal
pains
andpoisonings(esp
eciallyin
children,an
dalso
inan
imals).(M
F,EV)
xx
healseveredigestive
problemsin
livestock
Ren
net
(from
thecalfab
omasus)
isdried
and
added
into
thean
imal
feed
.(M
F,EV)
x
vacche[I]
anti-pertussic
Smellingcow
fecesin
themorning.(M
)x
healskin
inflam
mations
(forinfants)
Fermen
tedmilkcream
(ubutirre)
isap
plied
asan
emollient.(M
)x
anti-furuncle
Cooked
cream
(pannacotte)
isap
plied
.(M
)x
treatfacial
wrinkles;
facial
emollient
Fresh
cow’s
milk(u
lattefresche)
isusedto
washtheface.(M
)x
gai[N
]an
ti-diarrheic;
anti-vomiting
Bileis
drunk.(M
F)
xprotectiveam
ulet
Thegallbladder
andbileareusedto
mak
ech
arms.
(MR)
x
Capra
aegagrushircus
(Linnaeus,17
58)
Goat
capre
[I];cabrito
[S];
boka[N
]an
ti-tussive;
reconstituen
tforch
ildren
Hotgoat
milk(u
lattedacapre)is
drunkwith
honey
.(M
F)
x
anti-asthmatic
Goat
fatis
heatedinto
aliquid
andone
spoonfulis
drunk.(M
F)
x
104 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
anti-w
art
When
anan
imal
iskilled,afew
dropsoffresh
bloodareap
plied
tothewart(s).(M
)xx
vulneraryforburns
Fat
isap
plied
toburns.
(M)
xx
Cervu
selaphu
s(Linnaeus,
1758)
Red
Deer
venao,ciervo[S]
amuletag
ainst
heart
failure
Adeeris
killedan
ditsheart
removed
.Upon
drying,acartilag
inousportionoftheheart
that
issh
aped
likeacross
isremoved
and
worn
onanecklace
asaprotectiveam
ulet.
(MR)
x
healsn
akebites
Thesh
arptipsofdeerhornsareusedto
puncture
theskin
surroundingasn
akebite
tohelpexpel
theven
om.(M
)
x
Moschuschrysogaster
(Hodgson,18
39)
Him
alay
anMusk
Deerkasturi
mriga[N
]protectiveam
ulet
Charmsaremad
efrom
themusk
andworn
by
childrenfortheirwell-being.(M
R)
x
Ovisam
mon
hodg
soni
(Linnaeus,
1758)
Tibetan
Argali
bhenda[N
]an
ti-otitic
Dropsofurineareinstilledin
theaffected
ear.
(M)
x
Ovisaries(Linnaeus,
1758)
DomesticSheep
pechere[I];
cordero[S]
anti-diarrheic;
galactagogue
Pasta
iscooked
andsomeofthecookingwater
ismixed
withdried
sheepricotta(a
ricotta
toste)
tomak
easauce
forthenoodles.
This
isthen
mixed
withboiled
bread
andeaten.
(MF)
xx
anti-diarrheic
Ricottach
eese
(gjez)
iseatenas
alightan
ti-
diarrhoeal.(M
F)
x
laxative
Whey
(sir[I/A];usjre
crude[I]),theliquid
precipitateremainingfrom
thecheese
mak
ing
process,isdrunkas
amildlaxative.(M
F)
xx[I/ A];
xx[I]
reconstituen
t;preven
tative
forman
yillnesses
Fresh
sheepmilkis
boiled
withsaltto
produce
aden
seyogurt-likeproduct
(jardun)that
iseaten.(M
F)
xxx
laxative
Sheepmilk(u
lattedapechere)
isdrunk.(M
F)
xdiaphoretic
Asp
ecialsinglet(krahol)an
dsocksmad
efrom
raw
woolareworn
only
when
affected
byhighfever.(M
)
xxx
anti-w
art
When
anan
imal
iskilled,afew
dropsoffresh
bloodaretopically
applied
tothewart(s).
(M)
xx
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 105
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
Susscrofa
domestica
(Linnaeus,
1758)
DomesticPig
[I/A]
anti-chilblains
Thesw
ine’sgallbladder
(fejlliderkut)is
removed
andleftoutsideovernight.Thenext
day
,itisap
plied
totheaffected
toes.(M
)
#
maiale
[I]
emollientforch
apped
nipplesorudders
Aged
dorsal
pork
fat(sugnafracide)
isap
plied
tosore
chap
ped
nipples(forbreast-feed
ing
women
)orto
chap
ped
skin
ingen
eral.(M
)Itis
also
applied
totheuddersofmilk
producinglivestock
(esp
eciallycattle).(EV)
x
anti-bronch
itic
Lay
erofag
eddorsal
pork
fat(sugnafracide)
isap
plied
tothech
est.This
isthen
covered
withawarm
towel.(M
)
x
laxative
Pork
lard
(l’unte)is
prepared
inasoup.(M
F)
xan
ti-furuncle;
vulnerary
(forlacerations);
anti-abscess;
suppurative
Athin
layer
ofag
eddorsal
pork
fat(sugna
fracide)
isplacedonaffected
area
ofskin,
andthen
covered
withfreshRubu
sulm
ifolius
Sch
ott.leav
es.(M
)
xx
vulneraryforburn
wounds
andan
imal
wounds
Pork
lard
(lardodimaiale)is
boiled
,cooled,
andap
plied
toburns.
(M)Lardis
also
rubbed
onto
livestock
woundsan
dlacerationsto
coat
andprotect
woundsan
dpromote
healing.(EV)
x
cochino,gorrino,
guarro,
marrano[S]
emollientforch
apped
han
ds
Pork
lard
isusedas
theexcipientin
man
ydifferenttrad
itional
med
ical
recipes
andis
thebaseofman
yointm
ents.Itis
applied
tothehan
ds.
(M)
xxx
anti-m
astiticforcows
Pork
lard
isap
plied
totheuddersofcows.
(M,EV)
x
anti-dep
ressan
tPork
lard
ismixed
withhoney
andsp
read
on
bread
tobeeatenbypeo
ple
sufferingfrom
dep
ression.(M
F)
x
healab
dominal
pains
Pork
lard
ismixed
withchopped
celery
(Apium
graveolensL.)an
dplacedonthebelly.(M
)xx
vulnerary
Bile(either
aloneormixed
withalcohol)is
applied
towounds.
(M)
106 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
[A]
healwolfbitein
livestock;
anti-erysipelas
inpigs
Pork
lard
isheatedan
dap
plied
externally.Itis
usedas
veterinarypreparationto
healwolf
bites
(incattle,sheep,goats),an
dfortreating
skin
inflam
mationsdueto
erysipelas
(Erysipelothrixrhusiopathiae)in
pigs.(M
,EV)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Mam
malia
Order:Carnivora
Canisaureus
(Linnaeus,
1758)
Golden
Jackal
syal[N
]an
ti-gout;an
ti-arthritic
Jackal
meatis
mixed
withmilletorlocally
producedcereal
andyeast
toproduce
alcohol,whichis
trap
ped
througha
distillationprocess.Thealcoholicbev
erag
esyalkoraksi
isverypopularan
dhas
ahigh
med
icinal
value.
Goutan
darthritisare
treatedbyeither
massagingtheaffected
area
withthis
alcoholordrinkingit.(M
)
xxx
bad
omen
Hearingthejackal
howlis
abad
omen
forthe
community.(M
R)
xxx
Canislupu
sfamiliaris
(Linnaeus,1758)
Dog
qeni[I/A]
anti-furuncle
Dogsaliva(lek
onqeni)is
applied
asan
antiseptican
din
thetreatm
entoffuruncles.
(M)
#
cuane[I]
vulneraryforburns
Dogfeces(a
rumata
ducuane)
areap
plied
.(M
)x
evil-eyeam
ulet
Leather
mad
efrom
theskin
ofblack
dog
(ucrigiule
ducuaneneure)isworn
asan
amuletag
ainst
theEvil-eye(m
alocchio).(M
R)
x
[I],[A
]healdogbite
Ahairfrom
thedogthat
bityouis
applied
tothebite.
(MR)
x[I];x
[A]
perro
[S]
reconstituen
tfor
malnourish
edch
ildren
Dogfecesareexposedto
open
airovernight
andthen
boiled
.Thiswater
isfiltered
and
given
tomalnourished
childrento
drink.
(MF)
x
anti-rhinitic
Dogfecesareprepared
inateawithdry
figs
(Ficuscarica
L.),ears
ofcorn
(Zea
maysL.),
snak
eskin
andhoney
.(M
F)
x
rabiesin
dogs
Hairfrom
arabid
dogis
friedin
oliveoilan
dtheoilis
usedto
washthewoundonthe
samedog.(M
,EV)
xx
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 107
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
Meles
meles
(Linnaeus,
1758)
EuropeanBad
ger
tajon,tejon,tason[S]
evil-eyeam
ulet
Bad
ger
hairs
areusedwithother
materials
tocreate
ascap
ularthat
isworn
for
protection.(M
R)
x
Melursusursinus
(Shaw
,17
91)
Sloth
Bear
rukhbhalu
[N]
anti-hydrocele
(scrotal
swelling)
Bileis
drunk.(M
)xx
protectiveam
ulet
Charmsaremad
efrom
bones.(M
R)
xx
Pantheratigristigris
(Linnaeus,1758)
Ben
gal
Tiger
bagh
[N]
protectiveam
ulet
Whiskers,piecesofbones,teeth,an
dclaw
sare
mad
einto
charmsthat
areworn
towardoff
evilsp
iritsan
dfrightentheen
emy.(M
R)
xxx
mag
ical
protection
Boneis
burntin
thecow
shed
toproduce
smoke.
Itis
believed
that
thesm
okedrives
away
disease
causingelem
ents
andev
ilsp
irits.
(MR)
xx
Prionailurus
bengalensis(K
err,
1792)
Leo
pardCat
kalo
biralo
[N]
healgen
eral
sickness
Bileis
drunkto
treatman
yillnesses.
(M)
x
Vulpes
vulpes
(Linnaeus,
1758)
Red
Fox
zorro,zorra[S]
anti-rhinitic;
anti-pneu
monia
Dried
foxliver
isad
ministeredas
aninfusion
oras
apowder
added
tosoups.
(MF)
xx
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Mam
malia
Order:Erinaceo
morpha
Erinaceuseuropaeus
(Linnaeus,
1758)
EuropeanHed
geh
og
riccio
[I]
calm
cryingbab
ies
Bileofafreshly
killedhed
geh
og(biledericce)
isfedto
bab
iesthat
won’tstopcrying.(M
F)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Mam
malia
Order:Perissodactyla
Equ
usasinus
(Linnaeus,
1758)
Donkey
asino,ciuccie
[I]
healwindillness(skin
inflam
mation)
Abraided
ropemad
eofhairfrom
adonkey
’stail(lasc)is
usedas
aritual
object
inthe
mag
ical
healingofwindillness(m
alvjnt).
Thebundle
ofhairis
dipped
into
redwine
andusedto
paintthewineonto
thearea
of
theskin
whereinflam
mationsoccur.(M
R)
x
reconstituen
tforch
ildren
Donkey
milk(u
latteduciuccie)isdrunk.(M
F)
xxx
[A]
anti-tussive
Fresh
donkey
milkis
drunkto
healcoughsin
theelderly.(M
F)
xx
burro,borrico[S]
promote
placenta
expulsion
Adonkey
’sfecesis
boiled
andtheliquid
isdrunkbywomen
aftergivingbirth.(M
)x
vulneraryforburns
Old
donkey
bones
areburnt(w
ithout
becomingcompletely
charred)an
dground
into
apowder
that
isap
plied
toburns.
(M)
x
108 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
Equ
uscaballus
(Linnaeus,
1758)
Horse
gjakukaljt[I/A]
anti-anem
icFresh
horsebloodis
drunk.(M
F)
#
Rhinoceros
unicornis
(Linnaeus,
1758)
IndianRhinoceros
gainda[N
]healsick
livestock
Urineisgiven
toailinglivestock
todrink.(EV)
xx
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Mam
malia
Order:Primates
Hom
osapienssapiens
(Linnaeus,
1758)
Human
[I/A]
evil-eyeam
ulet
Human
hairiscollectedto
use
inan
amuletthat
protectsonefrom
Evil-eye(m
alocchio).(M
R)#
uomo[I]
augury
(goodomen
)Theperson’shairiscu
t(a
cioccadecapeddi)on
thefirstFriday
inMarch
asaprotection
against
headache.(M
R)
x
healpurulentskin
abscess;
suppurative
Cerumen
(ucerume),earwax
,is
applied
topurulentskin
abscessescausedbybeing
pricked
byplantthorns.
(M)
x
healinfantile
seborrheic
dermatitis
(cradle-cap
)Breastmilkis
expressed
andrubbed
onto
aninfant’sscalp.Then
thehairis
brush
edto
removetheflak
yscales.(M
)
x
anti-m
astitis
Nursingmotherswithmastitismust
breast-feed
theirinfants
usingthe‘‘reverse’’or‘‘football’’
position(latteallareverse).(M
R)
xx
vulnerary
Human
sweatthat
has
soak
edinto
theinner
rim
ofahat
isap
plied
tothewound.(M
)x
haemostatic;disinfectan
tHuman
urine(u
pisce)is
usedto
rinse
fresh
bleed
inglacerations.
(M)
xx
anti-conjunctivitic
Fresh
breastmilk(u
lattedafemineorlatte
demama)is
expressed
into
theinfected
eyes
ofbab
ies(alsosometim
esforad
ults).Some
statethemilkmust
befrom
amother
who
nurses
ason.Otherssaythemilkmust
be
from
amother
nursingher
firstborn
child.
Lesscommonly,freshmilkfrom
amule
or
goat
isused.(M
)
xxx
Thefirsturineoftheday
isusedto
washthe
affected
eyes.(M
)x
emollientforch
apped
nipples
Breastmilkis
expressed
andrubbed
onto
the
nipple.(M
)x
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 109
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
hombre
[S]
emollientforch
apped
han
ds
Urineis
usedto
washthehan
ds.
(M)
xx
anti-otitic
Human
breastmilkis
expressed
andinstilled
intheaffected
ear(s).(M
)xxx
treatscorpionsting
Afew
dropsofmen
strual
bloodareap
plied
tothescorpionbitearea.(M
)x
anti-w
art
Afew
dropsofmen
strual
bloodareap
plied
tothewart(s).(M
)xx
[A]
treatsn
akebite
Fresh
fecesareap
plied
tothesn
akebite.
(M)
xMacacaassamensis
(McC
lellan
d,
1840);M.mulatta
(Zim
merman
n,
1780)
Assam
Macaq
ue;
RhesusMacaq
ue
bandar[N
]nutraceu
ticalforTB
patients
Thedried
liver
andgallbladder
areeatenby
thepersonsu
fferingfrom
tubercu
losisfor
afew
day
sfornourish
men
t.Peo
ple
also
eatthemeatfornourish
men
t.(M
F)
x
Presbytisentellus
(Dufresne,
1797)
Han
uman
Lan
gur
langur[N
]nutraceu
ticalforTB
patients
Personssu
fferingfrom
tubercu
losiseatthe
meat(raw
orcooked
)fornourishmen
t.This
meatispreferred
tothat
ofMacacasp
p.(M
F)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Mam
malia
Order:Proboscidea
Elaphas
maxim
us
(Linnaeus,
1758)
Asian
Elephan
thathi[N
]an
ti-gastritic
Bileis
drunk.(M
F)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Mam
malia
Order:Roden
tia
Musmusculus
House
Mouse
usorce[I]
anti-enuresis(bed
wetting)
Amouse
iscooked
orboiled
andeaten.(M
F)
xx
(Linnaeus,
1758)
raton[S]
anti-otitic
Sev
eral
livenew
born
miceareplacedin
ajar
ofoliveoilthat
isleftopen
toairfor
several
months.
This
oilis
then
filtered
and
kep
tin
aglass
jar.A
few
dropsoftheoil
areinstilledin
theaffected
ear(s).(M
)
x
Hystrix
indica
(Kerr,
1792);H.brachyura
(Linnaeus,
1758)
IndianCrested
Porcupine;
Him
alay
anPorcupine
dumsi
[N]
anti-asthma;
treatdifficu
lty
passingurine
anti-abscess
Thealim
entary
canal
withitscontents
isboiled
andeatenas
asoup.(M
F)
Thesp
ines
areusedas
needlesto
puncture
purulentab
scessesto
allow
drainingof
pus.
(M)
x x
110 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Osteich
thyes
Order:Cypriniform
esTor
tor(H
amilton,
1822)
River
Carp
sahar[N
]vulneraryforburns
Fishoilan
dbileareap
plied
toburns.
(M)
xx
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Rep
tiliaOrder:Squam
ata
Elaphequ
atuorlineata
(Wag
ler,18
33)
Four-Striped
Snak
easerpecervone[I]
anti-rheu
matic
Snak
efat(a
sunze)isextractedwhilethesnak
eisalivean
dap
plied
asan
ointm
ent.(M
)xx
Lacerta
lepida
(Dau
din,18
02)
Ocellated
Lizard
ardacho,jardacho,
lagarto[S]
anti-contusion;
anti-inflam
matory
inlivestock
Alivelizard
ishungfrom
theceilingofthe
stab
leofthewounded
anim
al(livestock).
(MR,EV)
x
vulnerary;disinfectan
tLizardfatis
applied
towounds.
(M)
xhealinguinal
hernia
Thebloodofthean
imal
isusedto
ruborscour
thegroin
region(locationofthehernia).At
theen
dofthisprocess,thewhole
dead
anim
alislaid
onthegroin
regionforafew
minutes.(M
)
x
Malpolon
monspessulanus
(Herman
n,18
04)
Montpellier
Snak
eculebra,bicha[S]
anti-rhinitic
Thesnak
eskin
isad
ministeredin
different
herbal
teas
mixed
withplants
such
asarnica
(ChiliadenusglutinosusFourr.),dried
gigs
(Ficuscarica
L.),pen
nyroyal
(Menthapu
legium
L.),corn
cobs(Zea
maysL.)an
dmarshmallow
(Althaea
officinalisL.).(M
F)
xxx
anti-tussive
Thedry
snak
eskin
isgroundinto
apowder
andmixed
withbread
crumbsto
mak
ea
porridgethat
iseaten.(M
F)
xx
diureticforkidney
stones
Thesnak
eskin
istaken
asan
herbal
teamixed
withAlgeriantea(ParonychiaargenteaLam
.)an
delderberry
(Sam
bucusnigra
L.).The
treatm
entcontinues
untilthepain
disap
pears.(M
F)
x
blooddep
urative;
anti-scabies
Snak
emeatisfriedin
oliveoilan
deaten.(M
F)
x
disinfectan
tforwounds
Snak
emeatis
friedwitholiveoil.Thecooled
filtered
oilis
applied
tothewound.(M
)x
treatcoldsan
dsicknessin
mules
Dry
snak
eskin
isgroundan
dmixed
withstraw
that
isgiven
asfodder
tomules.(M
F,EV)
xxx
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 111
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
Podarcishispanicus
(Steindachner,
1870).
IberianW
allLizard
relantija,lagartija[S]
anti-pertussic
Alivean
imal
isplacedinsidethehollow
stem
ofthegiantreed
(Arundo
donax
L.)an
dthe
reed
ishungonthesick
person’sneckas
anecklace.(M
R)
xx
anti-w
art
Thewhole
livean
imal
isrubbed
directlyon
thewart.(M
)x
anti-conjunctivitic
(allergy
associated
)A
livean
imal
isplacedinsidethehollow
stem
ofthegiantreed
(Arundo
donax)an
dthe
reed
ishungonthesick
person’s
neckas
anecklace.(M
R)
xx
Rhinechisscalaris
Lad
der
Snak
eculebra,bicha[S]
anti-scabies
Snak
emeatisfriedin
oliveoilan
deaten.(M
F)
x(Sch
inz,
1822
)vulnerary;wound
disinfectan
tSnak
emeatis
friedin
oliveoil.Thecooled
filtered
oilis
applied
tothewound.(M
)x
treatcoldsan
dsicknessin
mules
Dry
snak
eskin
isgroundan
dmixed
with
straw
that
isgiven
asfodder
tomules.
(MF,EV)
xxx
anti-tussive
Thedry
snak
eskin
isgroundinto
apowder
andmixed
withbread
crumbsto
mak
ea
porridgethat
iseaten.(M
F)
xx
anti-rhinitic
Thesnak
eskin
isad
ministeredin
different
herbal
teas
mixed
withplants
asarnica
(Chiliadenusglutinosus),dried
figs(Ficuscarica),
pen
nyroyal
(Menthapu
legium),corn
cobs(Zea
mays)an
dmarshmallow
(Althaea
officinalis).
(MF)
xxx
Trimeresurussp
p.
Asian
PitVipers
hareu[N
]an
ti-pharyngitic
Alivesnak
eiscooked
anditsfleshistopically
applied
tothesore
throat.Sn
akefatisalso
topically
applied
tothethroat
forquickrelief.
(M)
x
Viperalatastei
(Bosca,
1878
)Lataste’s
Viper
vibora
[S]
anti-toothache
Adeadviper
isplacedinsideapiece
ofcloth
that
islaid
ontheface
over
thepainfularea.
After
treatm
ent,theviper
isdried
andstored
forfuture
use.(M
)
x
112 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Rep
tiliaOrder:Testudines
Emys
orbicularis
(Linnaeus,
1758
)EuropeanPond
Turtle
galapago,Tortuga[S]
anti-rheu
matic;an
ti-
inflam
matory
Asoupisprepared
byboilingsometurtles
withram
headan
dleg(O
visaries)with
rosemary(RosmarinusofficinalisL.),Sp
anish
wildmarjoram
(ThymusmastichinaL.),
span
ishlaven
der
(Lavandu
lastoechas
L.),an
dTeucrium
gnaphalodesL’H
er.(M
F)
x
Indotestudo
elongata
(Blyth,18
54)
Elongated
Tortoise
kacchuwa,thotari
[N]am
ulet
Thebonean
dshellareusedto
mak
emag
ico-religiousam
ulets
byfaithhealers.
(MR)
xx
reconstituen
t;nutraceu
tical
Themeatiseatenas
asourceofprotein.(M
F)
xx
anti-tussive;
anti-rhinitic;
treatm
entforresp
iratory
tractinfections
Thesh
ellis
rubbed
against
aboulder
with
water
tocreate
athickpaste
that
isad
ministeredorallyto
childrenas
apreven
tivemeasu
reag
ainst
cough,cold
andother
resp
iratory
tractinfection.(M
)
xx
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Sau
ropsidaOrder:Testudines
Mauremys
leprosa
(Sch
weigger,
1812
).
Med
iterraneanPond
Turtle
galapago,tortuga[S]
anti-rheu
matic;an
ti-
inflam
matory
Asoupisprepared
byboilingsometurtles
withram
headan
dleg(O
visaries)with
rosemary(Rosmarinusofficinalis),Sp
anishwild
marjoram
(Thymusmastichina),Sp
anish
laven
der
(Lavandu
lastoechas),an
dTeucrium
gnaphalodes.(M
F)
x
unknownsp
ecies
Turtle
anti-tussive
Turtle
meatis
cooked
andeatento
treatcoughs
intheelderly.(M
F)
x
Phylum:Chord
ataClass:Teleo
stomiOrder:Cypriniform
esNeolissochilus
hexagonolepis
(McC
lellan
d,
1839
)
Copper
Mah
seer
katle[N
]an
ti-m
astitic
Fishbloodis
given
toalactatingmother
toreliev
ebreastpain.(M
)xx
Phylum:MolluscaClass:GastropodaOrder:Eupulm
onata
Arion
hortensis
(Ferrusac)
Garden
Slug
uvavalice
aranude,
marrucule,
lummachesenza
guscio
[I]
anti-w
art
Theslim
yslugmucousisrubbed
onto
thewart.
Thisprocedure
must
becarriedoutwhilethe
fullmoonisdecreasing.After
thetreatm
ent,
theslugishungonan
elmleaf
blackberry
(Rubusulm
ifoliusSchott.)thorn.When
theslug
dries
up,thewarts
willdisap
pear.(M
R)
xxx
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 113
TABLE1.
Continued
.
Scien
tificNam
eEnglish
Common
Nam
eVernacularNam
e[C
ountry]
PopularUse
Preparationan
dApplication*
C.I.{
anti-ulcer
(stomachulcer);
anti-gastritic
Aliveslugis
swallowed
whole.(M
F)
xxx
vulnerary;an
ti-dermatitic;
anti-inflam
matory
Mucousfrom
aliveslugis
rubbed
onto
skin.
(M)
xx
anti-callus
Mucousfrom
aliveslugis
rubbed
onto
skin.
(M)
x
anti-acn
e;facial
emollient
Mucousfrom
aliveslugis
rubbed
onto
skin
forfacial
cleansing.(M
)x
Arion
sp.
Black
Slug
chiplekira[N
]healbroken
bones
Afew
slugsaremixed
with‘‘sisnu’’–the
rootofstingingnettle(U
rticadioica
L.)an
dawhole
youngch
ickan
dgroundto
mak
efinepaste.Thepaste
isthen
applied
atthe
site
offracture
asplasteringmaterial.(M
)
xx
Phylum:MolluscaClass:GastropodaOrder:Pulm
onata
Helix
aspersa(O
.F.
Muller,17
74)
Garden
Snail
caracol,zampona,
caracolsapenco,
caracoldela
huerta[S]
anti-w
art;an
ti-callus
Mucousfrom
alivesn
ailis
applied
.(M
)xx
Lim
axsp
.GreySlug
chiplekira[N
]healbroken
bones
Afew
slugsaremixed
with‘‘sisnu’’–the
rootofstingingnettle(U
rticadioica)an
dyoungch
icken
andgroundto
mak
efine
paste.Thepaste
isthen
applied
atthesite
offracture
asplasteringmaterial.(M
)
xx
Countryabbreviations:A:Alban
ia;I:Italy;I/A:Arberesh(ethnic
Alban
ian)communitiesin
Italy;N:Nep
al;S:Spain.
* Typeof
medical
application:M:med
icine;
MF:med
icinal
food;MR:mag
ico-religious;
C:Cosm
etic;EV:Ethnoveterinaryremed
y.
{C.I.:Consensu
sIndex.The
consensusindexreflectsthespontaneousqu
otationfrequencies
fordifferentremedies:#:disap
peareduse
inthelast
decad
es;x:use
quotedbyless
than
10%
ofthe
inform
ants;xx:use
quotedbymore
than
10%
andless
than
40%
oftheinform
ants;xxx:use
quotedbymore
than
40%
oftheinform
ants.
114 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
TABLE2.
Distributionoffaunaan
dcorrespondingremed
iesbycountry.Numbersin
columnsforeach
specific
countryindicatethenumber
ofdifferentsp
ecies
orremed
iescitedfortheresp
ectivecountry.Totalsin
bold
indicatethetotalnumber
ofdifferentsp
eciesorremed
iescitedin
allcountries.Ifthesamesp
eciesor
remed
ywas
citedin
more
than
onecountry,thisiscountedonly
once
inthetotalcolumn.Forexam
ple,in
theord
erHirudinea,threecountriesreported
theuse
oftheEuropeanMed
icinal
Leech
.Since
thenumber
1assigned
toeach
countryrepresents
thesamesp
ecies,only
1goes
into
thetotalcolumnin
bold.Howev
er,
this
speciesis
usedin
differentway
sin
thedifferentcountries,
soeach
remed
ywillbecountedonce
andthetotalnumber
ofremed
iesis
3.
Phylum
Class
Ord
er
Anim
alSpecies(N
580
)Rem
edies(N
523
2)
Alban
iaItaly
Nep
alSpain
Total
Alban
iaItaly
Nep
alSpain
Total
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
%No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
%
Annelida
Clitellata
Hirudinea
11
11
1.3
11
13
1.3
Arthropoda
Arach
nida
Aranae
11
22.5
12
31.3
Scorpiones
11
22.5
15
62.6
Insecta
Coleoptera
11
22.5
41
52.2
Hem
iptera
11
1.3
11
0.4
Hymen
optera
14
15
6.3
42
34
13
5.6
Lep
idoptera
11
1.3
11
0.4
Chord
ata
Actinopterygii
Anguilliform
es1
11.3
11
0.4
Clupeiform
es1
11.3
22
0.9
Cypriniform
es2
22.5
22
0.9
Synbranch
iform
es1
11.3
11
0.4
Amphibia
Anura
12
33.8
33
62.6
Cau
data
11
22.5
11
20.9
Aves
Ciconiiform
es1
11.3
11
0.4
Columbiform
es1
13
45.0
31
15
2.2
Coraciiform
es1
11.3
11
0.4
Cucu
liform
es1
11.3
11
0.4
Galliform
es1
12
12
2.5
75
44
19
8.2
Passeriform
es2
13
3.8
41
52.2
Mam
malia
Artiodactyla
44
54
810.0
1421
99
52
22.4
Carnivora
11
43
78.8
14
86
18
7.8
Erinaceo
morpha
11
1.3
11
0.4
Perissodactyla
12
11
33.8
13
12
73.0
Primates
11
31
45.0
112
34
20
8.6
Proboscidea
11
1.3
11
0.4
Roden
tia
12
13
3.8
13
15
2.2
Osteich
thyes
Cypriniform
es1
11.3
11
0.4
Rep
tilia
Squam
ata
11
57
8.8
11
2224
10.3
Testudines
11
22.5
62
83.4
Sau
ropsida
Testudines
11
22.5
12
31.3
Teleo
stomi
Cypriniform
es1
11.3
11
0.4
Mollusca
Gastropoda
Eupulm
onata
11
22.5
91
10
4.3
Pulm
onata
11
22.5
12
31.3
TOTAL
11
21
37
34
80
100
31
71
56
77
232
100
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 115
(22.4%) reported using animals from the order Artiodactyla. Other importantorders included Squamata (24 remedies, 10.3%), Primates (20, 8.6%), Galliformes(19, 8.2%), Carnivora (18, 7.8%), and Hymenoptera (13, 5.6%). The distribution offauna and remedies is reported by country in Table 2. The greatest number ofremedies was reported in Spain, with 77 remedies coming from 34 species. This isclosely followed by Italy, where 71 remedies were reported from 21 species.Nepal reported the most species used–37 species used in 56 remedies, andAlbania reported 11 species used in 31 remedies.
Etic Categories of Use
Our research found over 50 categories of medicinal remedies, includingapplications for the treatment of various forms of infection and illness, as well asmagical or spiritual protection from illness or misfortune (Figure 2). Vulneraryagents were most numerous (20 remedies), followed closely by protectiveamulets and blessings (15 remedies). Each study site had a concentration ofcertain types of remedies. In Spain, the majority of remedies were for vulnerary(9) and anti-rhinitic (6) applications, and ethnoveterinary remedies for the
FIGURE 2. Distribution of remedies by etic category. Remedies reported only once are not included:fertility aid, anti-hydrocele, anti-blister, anti-dysenteric, anti-wrinkle, diaphoretic, heal inguinalhernia, treatment for difficulty passing urine, anti-enuresis, anti-erysipelas, anti-chillbains and anti-leucoderma.
116 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
treatment of sick livestock (7). In Italy, the majority of remedies were for anti-dermatitic (6), vulnerary (5), and emollient (5) applications. In Nepal, mostremedies were for protective amulets and blessings (9), followed by vulnerary(5), and reconstituent or nutraceuctical (5) purposes. In Albania, the mostcommonly reported remedies were for treating animal bites (3)–such as wolf, dogor snake-bites and for nutraceutical or reconstituent purposes (3).
Animal Parts Used in Remedies
There were 36 source categories reported for remedies (Figure 3). The mostcommon sources included the whole animal (33 remedies), milk and milkproducts (21), meat/animal flesh (16), fat (15), honey (12), and eggs (11). Some ofthe more unusual remedies come from animal excrements, including feces (10),urine (3), and seminal fluid (1). Figure 4 illustrates the use of some of thesedifferent remedies in traditional Spanish medical applications.
Only two species were used as remedies in all four study sites–the domesticchicken (Gallus gallus) and domestic goat (Capra aegagrus hircus). Other than thesetwo, Nepal shared no common species with the Mediterranean study sites.People in Albania, Italy, and Spain used 7 of the same species for their
FIGURE 3. Animal parts used in traditional zootherapeutic remedies. Animal parts quoted in only oneremedy are not illustrated: bees wax, cerumen, claws, heart, horns, saliva, milt, musk, silk, spines,sweat and teeth.
Spring/Summer 2010 JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY 117
zootherapeutic pharmacopoeias. These were mainly common livestock such asdonkeys, sheep, and swine and the honey bee, medicinal leech, and dog.
Discussion
It is not surprising that the fauna used in traditional zootherapeutic remediesin Nepal differ significantly from those in theMediterranean study sites (Figure 5).
FIGURE 4. Zootherapeutic remedies from Spain. (A) Feeding a mule bread and a snake skin to curegeneral sickness. (B) Applying a spider web to seal a skin laceration and promote healing. (C) Puncturingthe skin with a tip of a deer horn to release the poison from a snake bite. (D) Preparing an oleolite bysoaking several newborn mice in a jar of olive oil. The oil is instilled in the ears to treat earache.
FIGURE 5. Intercultural correlation of fauna reported in zootherapeutic remedies. The fauna reportedin Nepal (a) are very different from those in the other countries. Other than Gallus gallus (chicken) andCapra aegagrus hircus (goat) - reported in all study sites - Nepal shares no other common species withthe other study sites. Albania, Italy, and Spain (b) share 7 species as zootherapeutics: sheep, swine,donkeys, honey bees, medicinal leeches, and dogs.
118 QUAVE et al. Vol. 30, No. 1
While Albania, Italy, and Spain vary somewhat in their respective wild fauna, theirdomestic livestock are similar, typical of the agro-pastoral economies of theMediterranean. The study area in Nepal, on the other hand, is home to a muchdifferent wild fauna, and the ethnic populations living in this region demonstrate astrong reliance on wild resources rather than livestock. The native fauna in theNepali environment includes monkeys, rhinoceroses, tigers, and elephants–noneof which are indigenous to the Mediterranean.
It is interesting to note that even when the same or similar species are used inthe different study sites, the actual part of the animal and the application oftendiverge. The only exception we found is that in all study sites honey, fromvarious species of bees, is reported as a popular remedy for colds and sore throatand is typically added to a hot tea and drunk or eaten alone.
To better describe this divergence in preparation and use of similar species,we discuss the example of pigeons. Various species of pigeon are used in three ofthe study sites, but different parts or products of the pigeon are used dependingon the country. In Spain, pigeon feces are used to treat ingrown toenails and acne,whereas in Italy the meat is eaten as a soup for galactagogue, reconstituent, andpost-partum healing purposes. On the other hand, in Nepal, a live pigeon is setfree as an augury and magical protection against misfortune (Table 1).
The medicinal use of the domestic chicken also differs based on the studysite: in Italy it is used to heal broken bones, to treat general sickness, for post-partum healing, as well as to treat abscess and furuncle; in Spain it is used as anamulet, an anti-anemic, and treatment for ingrown toenail; in Albania it is used totreat kidney stones and stomachache, as a poison antidote and analgesic; inNepal it is used for magical blessings, as a vulnerary, and to heal broken bones.While some applications are similar in more than one country, the animal partused differs. For example, people in both Spain and Nepal use the chicken as avulnerary, but the egg white is used in Spain while fat is used in Nepal. Only inItaly and Albania, where eating boiled eggs is a diarrhea remedy, do we find asimilar preparation and application of chicken.
Besides chickens, other domestic animals commonly used as a source oftraditional medicine include cattle, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, donkeys, and horses.In fact, the largest portion of animal-based remedies reported in this study comefrom domestic animals, and this is likely due to their role in local subsistencepractices and the consequential ease of access and availability of these species tohumans. This is particularly evident in the Mediterranean study sites. While themedicinal use of these species was reported in several sites, once again, we notethat the actual animal part(s), application, and preparation of the remedies differbetween locations.
The use of wild fauna for traditional medicine is, of course, highly dependenton local availability and accessibility to wild resources. We would expect theclose proximity of communities to natural resource reservoirs such as forests orwater sources to be correlated with a greater use of wild fauna. Communities inthe Spanish study site are located near game preserves and hunting is a popularsport. The time spent in the forests perhaps gives this population a greater levelof access to wild fauna like snakes, foxes, badgers, and lizards–all of which werereported as popular zootherapeutic remedies. In Nepal, on the other hand, the
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emphasis on water creatures–such as fish, eels and turtles, as well as snakes–perhaps relates to the Nepalese economy, which is based in large part on fishing.In Italy and Albania the heavier reliance on domestic, rather than wild fauna islikely associated with the agro-pastoral economy of these study sites.
In addition to looking to other species for medical remedies, certainethnomedical solutions come from humans themselves. These human-basedremedies are not derived from essential organs, but instead from humanexcrements and secretions, including breast milk, cerumen, sweat, menstrualblood, urine, and feces. Some of these remedies, such as the use of breast milk asan anti-conjunctivitic, may have a biomedical basis to them. For example, breastmilk has antibacterial properties that could be useful in treating an eye infection(De Souza, et al. 2002; Stevens et al. 2000). While all of the human-based remedieswere reported in the Mediterranean study sites, this does not necessarily excludethe use of such products in Nepal. It is probable that many more zootherapeuticremedies are still practiced (or were used in recent years), but were simply notreported by informants in these particular field studies.
Other studies conducted in countries like Brazil (Alves 2009) and India(Mahawar and Jaroli 2008) have documented the zootherapeutic use of 250 and 109animal species, respectively. In comparison with these studies, our documentationof 34 medicinal species in Spain, 21 in Italy, 11 in Albania, and 37 in Nepal, reflectsa rather small number of species. This may be a consequence of one or more ofseveral possible factors: 1) our study documents the zootherapeutic practices ofisolated communities in distinct regions of each country, and the data do not reflectthe TK of zootherapy for the entire country; 2) the conversion of wildland habitats(especially forests and wetlands) to accommodate grazing animals and crops hasbeen detrimental to the faunal populations of these regions and also reducescommunity access to these wild resources; 3) modernization efforts and economicshifts in each study region have contributed to a decline in human daily interactionwith the environment and a general abandonment of traditional lifeways; and 4)especially in contrast to NE Brazil (Alves and Rosa, 2006, 2007a, 2007b, 2007c), thebiodiversity of our field sites is relatively low, and this is reflected in the diversityof resources used by the communities we studied.
Local Perceptions of Animals as They Relate to Human Health
Local economies doubtlessly play an important role in the relationshipbetween human health and the environment. We have established thatcommunities with an agro-pastoral economy, like that of the Mediterraneanstudy sites, utilize more domestic animals (especially ungulates such as sheep,cattle, swine, donkeys, and goats) in the management of human health, whereasethnic communities in Nepal that subsist on a fishing economy utilize moreanimals associated with a riverine or wetland environment for their medical care.These trends underline the implicit link between human subsistence behaviorsand the traditional healing praxis. While this general correlation is likelyassociated with ease of access to certain species, other distinct socioculturalfactors, such as religion, should also be taken into consideration.
Like other Nepalese ethnic groups, the Majhi believe in animism. The Majhiworship a family deity called Kulkulayan and sacrifice animals to appease the
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deity. The Majhi also worship a forest goddess called Ban Devi, who protects theforest, an area essential for Majhi survival. This devotion to the forest goddessexplains the group’s attention to resource conservation. The forest is believed tobe governed by the deity and thus is considered sacred. The Mahji believe thatlife is influenced by the attitude of forest spirits, and many of the zootherapeuticremedies prepared by this group are utilized as protective amulets against badspirits and as tokens of good fortune. In this sense, religion influences the Majhiperceptions of health and illness and guides the selection of remedies forparticular disease states. This health epistemology where a preoccupation withillnesses of magico-spiritual or supernatural origin predominates greatly differsfrom that of the Mediterranean.
The people in the Mediterranean study sites are Catholic and overall have amore naturalistic perception of health and illness. In other words, theMediterranean informants believe that many illnesses are caused by exposureto natural elements such as changing temperatures, humidity, rain, wind, andother seasonal weather events. In addition, our informants in Italy and Spainhave greater access to allopathic medical care and, as a consequence, alsodemonstrate a greater understanding of biomedical principles of health andillness. Here, zootherapeutic remedies are selected to treat distinct symptoms ofdisease–such as the use of animal fat as an emollient for burns and wounds ordairy products in the treatment of intestinal disorders (diarrhea and constipa-tion). In some cases, however, spiritual or magical elements are thought to be thecausative factor in disease or misfortune (Quave and Pieroni 2005), and there aresome zootherapeutic remedies, such as evil-eye amulets made from dog hide,which are used as a mode of spiritual protection.
Threats to these Medicinal Fauna
Eleven of the species documented in these field studies are included on theIUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Many of these species are threatened as aconsequence of human development and the associated loss of natural habitats.In the Mediterranean sites, medicinal reptiles are most at risk–the European pondturtle is listed as lower risk/near threatened (Tortoise & Freshwater TurtleSpecialist Group 1996), the four-lined snake is listed as near threatened (Romanoand Jelic 2008), and Lataste’s viper is listed as vulnerable (Mateo et al. 2008) Inaddition to the threat from loss of habitat, these two snakes are also subjected tohuman attack throughout their respective ranges. The European medicinal leech,whose use for phlebotomy has been documented over the centuries, is listed aslower risk/near threatened (World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1996). Themajor threats to this species are over-collection for medicinal purposes and theloss of their primary habitat from the conversion of grazing marshes to arableland.
In Nepal, four of the medicinal species documented in our study are listedunder endangered status: elongated tortoise (Asian Turtle Trade Working Group2000), Asian elephant (Choudhury et al. 2008), Himalayan musk deer (Wang andHarris 2008), and Bengal tiger (Ahmad et al. 2008). The sloth bear (Garshelis et al.2008) and Indian rhinoceros (Talukdar et al. 2008) are listed as vulnerable species.The Assam macaque is listed as a near threatened species (Boonratana et al.
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2008). Populations of the listed species above are declining due to a combinationof habitat loss and poaching/hunting. Moreover, obtaining medicinal productsfrom these species oftentimes requires killing the animal, which also contributesto the population decline.
Loss of habitat is not the only negative environmental factor instigated bypeople; reduced habitat quality also severely impacts these threatened species.The conversion of land for agriculture leads to the invasion of nonnative plantspecies and grazing by domestic livestock. Indian rhinoceros populations, inparticular, have been affected by such a reduction in habitat quality (Talukdar etal. 2008). Likewise, the Assam macaque is threatened by both a loss of habitat anddecline in the quality of habitat as a result of selective logging. They are alsotrapped for sport, food, medicine, and the pet trade (Boonratana et al. 2008).
Conclusion
We have found that while animal-based remedies constitute an importantfacet of traditional medicine in each study site, the actual application andpreparation of animal products differs noticeably among sites. In addition, thepopularity, or consensus of use, is dependent to a large degree on theaccessibility or availability of the animals to these communities. Moreover, ourstudies show that the selection of medicinal fauna is mediated by humansubsistence patterns. In other words, people are more likely to utilize medicinalproducts from animals with which they are in regular contact. This is why themost popular zootherapeutic remedies in the Mediterranean come from domesticanimals (especially ungulates), whereas in Nepal, communities rely more heavilyon wild fauna. In this sense, economic models play an important role intraditional healthcare practices by influencing the selection of particularmedicines.
Concepts of health and disease differ among our study sites in theMediterranean and Asia, and these differences play a substantive role in theselection and use of animal-based remedies. In Nepal, where a magical orspiritual medical epistemology is predominant, amulets are popularly used toward off bad spirits and to bring good fortune. Powerful and even feared animalssuch as the Bengal tiger provide a ‘‘strong’’ medicine. The same is true in Spainwith the medicinal use of venomous snakes. The difficulty of obtaining productsfrom rare (vulnerable and endangered) species is often associated with the‘‘potency’’ of the particular remedy. The sociocultural value assigned tothreatened species that are considered to be ‘‘powerful’’ due to their rarity orthe peril associated with their collection should be taken into consideration whendesigning biodiversity conservation measures.
In both the Mediterranean and Asia, populations of wild fauna are in a stateof decline due to over-hunting, habitat loss, and reduced habitat quality. Threatsposed to endangered and vulnerable wild fauna by poaching, which is alsodriven by their use in traditional medicine, must be acknowledged andaddressed. The resulting loss of biodiversity is detrimental not only to theimmediate wildlife affected, but also to local ecosystems and humans in general.Depletion of the variety of natural resources in our environment diminishes the
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potential for the discovery of new and much needed drugs. Thus, biodiversity iscritical to current and future human health. A thorough understanding of humancognition of animal utility in folk medical systems is necessary for the creationand implementation of appropriate biodiversity conservation measures.
Acknowledgements
This project was supported by grant numbers F31AT004288 and F32AT005040 fromthe National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine. The content is solelythe responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily reflect the official views of theNational Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine or the National Institutes ofHealth. Additional support for C. Quave was provided by Botany in Action and the AnneChatham Fellowship in Medicinal Botany. Financial support for U. Lohani was providedby the University Grant Commission, Nepal. Support for A. Verde, D. Rivera, C. Obon,and A. Valdes was provided by the Junta de Comunidades de Castilla La Mancha (PBC-05-011-2. Estudio etnobiologico de las areas de montana y humedales de Castilla-LaMancha and PAC-08-173-4838. Etnobiologıa de la Flora Medicinal De Castilla La Mancha).Support for A. Pieroni’s fieldwork in northern Albania was provided by EU Commission(RUBIA project, ICA3-2002-10023, http://www.rubiaproject.net/, 01.01.2003-31.12.2005).
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