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Chapter 2: Representations of Earth
Physical Physical GeographyGeographyNinth EditionNinth Edition
Robert E. Gabler
James. F. Petersen
L. Michael Trapasso
Dorothy Sack
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2.1 Location on Earth
•Maps and Mapmaking•History
•Language of location
•Cartography
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U.S. Landforms in 1954
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2.1 Location on Earth
• Size and Shape of Earth– Eratosthenes– Oblate spheroid
• Equator bulges outward due to earth’s rotation.
• Equator (12,758 km, 7927 miles) • Pole to pole (12,714 km, 7900
miles)
– Mt. Everest (29,035 feet)– Mariana Trench (36,200 ft)
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2.1 Location on Earth
• Globes and Great Circles– Great Circle– Hemispheres– Circle of illumination– Small circle– Great circle routes
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2.1 Location on Earth
• Latitude and Longitude– Coordinate system
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2.1 Location on Earth
• Measuring Latitude– Reference points: North
and South Pole– Reference Line: Equator– Latitude
• degrees North or south of equator
• Lines that run east and west
– sextant
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2.1 Location on Earth
• Measuring Longitude– Reference Line: Prime
Meridian– Longitude
• degrees East or West of Prime Meridian
• Lines that run north and south from pole to pole
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2.2 The Geographic Grid
• Geographic Grid: Lines of Latitude and Longitude– East to West lines are
also called parallels– North to South lines are
also called Meridians
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2.2 The Geographic Grid
• Longitude and Time– Time Zones: relationships
between longitude, Earth’s rotation, and time.
– Solar noon– Central meridian– Greenwhich Mean Time
(GMT), Zulu time, Universal time (UTC)
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World Time Zones
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2.2 The Geographic Grid
• International Date Line– Generally follows 180th
meridian– Jogs to separate Alaska
and Siberia as well as some pacific Island groups
– Going east across IDL, subtract a day
– Going west across IDL, add a day.
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2.2 The Geographic Grid
• U.S. Public Lands Survey System– Also called Township
range system– Divides towns based on
north-south lines called meridians and east-west lines called base lines.
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2.2 The Geographic Grid
• Township: square plot 6 miles on a side.– Divided into 36 sections
of 1 square mile.– Sections divided into
quarter sections– Quarter-quarter sections– Forties (each with an
area of 40 acres.
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Public Lands Survey System
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2.2 The Geographic Grid
• Global Positioning System– Uses a network of
satellites.– Determines latitude,
longitude, and elevation.
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2.2 The Geographic Grid
• Global Positioning System– Uses a network of
satellites.– Determines latitude,
longitude, and elevation.
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Advantages of Maps– Spatial relationships– Enormous amount of
information– Limitless possibilities
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Limitations of Maps– Impossible to present a
“spherical” planet on a flat surface.
– All flat maps are distorted.
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Properties of Map Projections– Planar– Cylindrical– Cone
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Shape– Conformal maps: correct
shape but incorrect size.– Example: Mercator
Projection• Compare Greenland and
South America• South America is 8 times
larger.
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Size– Equal-area maps: correct
size but incorrect shape.– Essential when examining
spatial distribution of any element:
• People• Churches• Cornfields• Volcanoes
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Distance– No flat map depicts
correct distance– On small maps,
distances errors are minor
– Equidistance: constant scale
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Direction
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Examples of Map Projections– Mercator Projection
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Examples of Map Projections– Gnomonic Projection– Conic Projection
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Compromise Projections
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Map Basics– Title– Legend– Scale
• Verbal scale• Representative fraction• Graphic (bar) scale
– Distance
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Scale– Small scale
• Large areas in a relatively small area
• Little detail• Large denominators
– Large scale• Small areas in greater detail• Smaller denominators
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Direction– Magnetic north– Magnetic field– Magnetic declination– Isogonic map
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2.3 Maps and Map Projections
• Isogonic map
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2.4 Displaying Spatial Data and Information on Maps
• Thematic Maps– One feature (or a few related ones)
• Climate, Vegetation, Soils, Earthquakes, Tornadoes
– Discrete data• Point, area, or line
• Examples: school, roads, hurricane path
• Regions: discrete areas with common characteristics
– Continuous data• Element exists at all points on earth
• Examples: elevation, air temperature, air pressure
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• Discrete and Continuous data
2.4 Displaying Spatial Data and Information on Maps
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• Direction– Magnetic north– Magnetic field– Magnetic declination– Isogonic map
2.4 Displaying Spatial Data and Information on Maps
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• Topographic Maps– Contour lines: lines that
connect points of equal elevation
2.4 Displaying Spatial Data and Information on Maps
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• Gradient– Steeper (stronger)
gradient• lines are closer together• Example: steeper slope;
A to top of hill
– Smaller (weaker) gradient
2.4 Displaying Spatial Data and Information on Maps
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2.5 Modern Mapping Technology
• Digital Mapmaking– Digital elevation models
(DEM’s): computerized, 3-D view of topography.
– Vertical exaggeration
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2.5 Modern Mapping Technology
• Geographical Information Systems– Map layers– Data
• Geocoding: entering spatial data in relation to grid coordinates
• Attributes: specific features (e.g. name of river)
– Registration and Display
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• Visual Models: Salt Lake City, Utah
2.4 Displaying Spatial Data and Information on Maps
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• Visual Models: Cape Town, South Africa
2.4 Displaying Spatial Data and Information on Maps
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• GIS in the Workplace
2.4 Displaying Spatial Data and Information on Maps
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2.5 Remote Sensing of the Environment
• Remote Sensing: collection of information and data about distant objects or environments.– Digital image– Spatial resolution– Pixels– Megapixels
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2.5 Remote Sensing of the Environment
• Aerial Photography and Image Interpretation– Oblique– Near Infrared (NIR)
• Light reflected off of surfaces, not radiated heat.
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2.5 Remote Sensing of the Environment
• Specialized Techniques– Thermal Infrared (TIR)
• Patterns of heat and light• Day or night• Many weather satellites
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2.5 Remote Sensing of the Environment
• Specialized Techniques– Radar (Radio Detection And Ranging)
• Transmits radio waves and reads reflected energy signal
• Side-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR)
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2.5 Remote Sensing of the Environment
• Weather Radar systems– produce map-like images of
precipitation– Penetrates clouds– Day or night– Reflects off raindrops (or other
precip.) producing a signal– Doppler radar – precip.
Patterns, direction of storm and speed of storm
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2.5 Remote Sensing of the Environment
• Multispectral Remote Sensing Applications– Using and comparing
more than 1 type of image
– Example: radar and TIR image
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Physical Geography
End of Chapter 2: Representations of Earth