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<LRH>Consciousness and Free Action</LRH>
<RRH>Stubborn Moralism and Freedom of the Will</RRH>
<CN>Chapter </CN>
<C!>Stubborn Moralism and Freedom of the Will</C!>
<CA>David A. Pizarro and Erik G. Helzer</CA>
Imagine discovering that yor neigh!or" #hom yo have kno#n $or years" is in $act a
very so%histicated ro!ot that has had all o$ his !ehavior %rogrammed in advance !y a team o$
ro!otics e&%erts. 'his in$ormation might case yo to re(evalate all o$ yor interactions #ith
him. )here yo %reviosly may have !ecome angry #ith him over the slightest o$$ense" yo
may no# $eel the need to remind yorsel$ that he is merely $ollo#ing his %rogramming* he has
no say over his o#n !ehavior. +ike#ise" yo might $ind it nreasona!le to hold him in contem%t
$or having !elie$s that con$lict #ith yor o#n. In short" yo may $ind yorsel$ #anting to
ss%end yor moral evalations a!ot his !elie$s" ,dgments" and !ehaviors across the !oard
!ecase" a$ter all" he did not act $reely.
'his connection !et#een $reedom and moral res%onsi!ility is evident in the long and
storied de!ate over $ree #ill among %hiloso%hers" many o$ #hom have arged that i$ $ree #ill
does not e&ist" then the a!ility to hold individals res%onsi!le is com%romised -e.g." Clarke"
01. 2n this vie#" in order to hold an individal morally res%onsi!le $or an act" the %ossi!ility
mst e&ist that he cold have done other#ise. 'he deterministic %rocesses that give rise to the
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!ehavior o$ the ro!ot neigh!or #old" o$ corse" !e incom%ati!le #ith this re5irement6it is
sim%ly a $act that the ro!ot lacks the a!ility to do anything other than #hat he #as %rogrammed
to do. 7ome have 5estioned this conclsion" arging that even i$ hman !eings are not $ree in
this ltimate sense -and that hmans are all sim%ly very com%le&" organic versions o$ the ro!ot(
neigh!or1" the a!ility to hold others morally res%onsi!le remains logically na$$ected -Pere!oom"
3* 7tra#son" 389:1. ;onetheless" the dee% connection !et#een $reedom and moral
res%onsi!ility remains" as disagreements are generally not over #hether $reedom is necessary $or
moral res%onsi!ility !t rather over the s%eci$ic kind o$ $reedom necessary -Dennett" 38:1.
In an im%ortant sense" these 5estions a!ot $ree #ill and moral res%onsi!ility are !eyond
the sco%e o$ em%irical investigation6an e&%eriment cannot settle the 5estion o$ #hether moral
res%onsi!ility actally re5ires li!ertarian $reedom or #hether determinism and moral
res%onsi!ility can com$orta!ly coe&ist. =t individals entirely nconcerned #ith scholarly
de!ates a!ot $reedom do make ,dgments a!ot moral res%onsi!ility $airly $re5ently" and o$ten
these ,dgments have serios conse5ences -sch as social e&clsion" im%risonment" and even
death1. 'he descri%tive 5estion o$ ho# %eo%le go a!ot making these ,dgments o$ moral
res%onsi!ility has there$ore !een o$ mch interest to %sychologists. Accordingly" a great deal o$
research has !een condcted docmenting the rles individals seem to se #hen determining
#hether or not to hold others morally res%onsi!le. Perha%s nsr%risingly" this research has
sho#n that %eo%le seem to care a!ot #hether an act #as committed nder conditions that seem
to limit an agents $reedom -sch as involntary acts or accidents1. ?ost in$lential theories o$
!lame and res%onsi!ility #ithin %sychology have there$ore characterized $reedom as an
im%ortant %rere5isite $or the attri!tion o$ moral res%onsi!ility" mch like the normative
theories o$ !lame and res%onsi!ility $rom %hiloso%hy and la# that in$lenced them -e.g." 7haver"
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38@* )einer" 388@1. 2n these acconts" #hen individals are $aced #ith a moral in$raction" they
$irst set ot to determine i$ a %erson acted $reely then %roceed to se that in$ormation as in%t
into their ,dgment o$ #hether to hold the %erson res%onsi!le.
)e #ill arge that this vie# is mistaken. ather than serve as a %rere5isite $or moral
res%onsi!ility" ,dgments o$ $reedom o$ten seem to serve the %r%ose o$ ,sti$ying ,dgments o$
res%onsi!ility and !lame. 'his seems tre not ,st $or ,dgments o$ Bltimate meta%hysical
$reedom -i.e." $reedom $rom determinism1" !t also tre $or $reedom in the more local Bagentic
sense that is central to %sychological and legal theories o$ res%onsi!ility -sch as #hether or not
an act #as intentional or controlla!le1.
2ne reason $or this is that %eo%le are $ndamentally motivated to evalate the moral
actions o$ others" to hold them res%onsi!le $or these acts" and to %nish them $or moral violations
6they are Bst!!orn moralists. -Althogh morality can re$er to a very large set o$ !ehaviors
and ,dgments" #hen #e re$er to Bmorality throghot the %a%er" #e are limiting or the
de$inition to these a$orementioned as%ects o$ hman morality6that o$ ,dging acts as morally
right or #rong" and ,dging others as res%onsi!le $or moral violations or virtos acts.1 'his
motivation most likely has its roots in the evoltionary $orces that sha%ed hman morality and
has %sychological %rimacy over more $ine(grained social ,dgments" sch as ,dgments a!ot
#hether or not an act #as committed $reely. As sch" the motivation to seek ot and %nish
#rongdoers can %sh individals in the direction o$ holding %eo%le res%onsi!le even #hen the
#rongdoers do not meet the criteria $or $reedom re5ired !y normative acconts o$
res%onsi!ility. 7im%ly %t" #hen %eo%le say that someone acted $reely" they may !e saying little
more than that the %erson is !lame#orthy. In s%%ort o$ this general argment" #e $irst de$end
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the claim that %eo%le are st!!orn moralists !e$ore revie#ing recent em%irical evidence that this
moralism drives ,dgments o$ $reedom rather than the other #ay arond.
<H">Stubborn Moralism</H">
?oral ,dgment comes natrally to hman !eings. Peo%le #rite stories a!ot good and
evil" make long lists o$ morally $or!idden acts" and take a keen interest in the moral misste%s o$
com%lete strangers. Peo%le are also very B%romiscos #ith their moral ,dgments6they
readily o$$er moral evalations o$ $ictional characters" animals" and even com%ters. In short"
#hile it may !e tre that s%eci$ic moral !elie$s vary across time and %lace" the !asic !elie$ that
some acts are morally $or!idden" and that %eo%le shold !e held res%onsi!le $or these acts"
a%%ears to !e a common hman trait.
As evidence o$ the strength o$ these moral !elie$s" consider !rie$ly some o$ the %tative
threats that might !e e&%ected to shake con$idence in morality6atheism" relativism -o$ the sort
arising $rom moral diversity1" and determinism. 'he #ide dissemination o$ these ideas does not
seem to have dented the !elie$ that some acts are #rong" and that individals are morally
res%onsi!le $or their actions -oskies" 4* -<>Cha%ter 3</>" this volme1. or
instance" contrary to the !elie$ that morality hinges on the e&istence o$ God -as Dostoevskys
Ivan Faramazov claimed" Bi$ there is no God" everything is %ermitted1" atheists seem to have no
tro!le holding %eo%le morally acconta!le. ;or has the kno#ledge that there is #ide diversity
in many moral !elie$s seemed to ndermine lay%eo%les !elie$ in their o#n ethical systems or
their !elie$ that individals shold !e held res%onsi!le $or moral in$ractions more generally. I$
anything" %eo%le res%ond in a %articlarly harsh manner #hen %resented #ith others #ho hold
moral !elie$s that diverge $rom their o#n -Haidt" osen!erg" Hom" 01. inally" #hat o$ the
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threat o$ determinism I$ it trns ot to !e tre that hmans are all %re%rogrammed atomatons"
doesnt this invalidate the a!ility to hold others res%onsi!le -Greene Cohen" :1 )hile #e
#ill address this concern s%eci$ically a !it later" oskies -41 has arged convincingly that
neither the old threat o$ determinism B$rom a!ove -i.e." theistic determinism6that Gods
$orekno#ledge ndermines hman $reedom1 nor the ne#er threat B$rom !elo# -i.e." scienti$ic
determinism1 a%%ears to have had a #ide in$lence on the !elie$ that some things are #rong" that
most %eo%le are a!le to choose !et#een right and #rong" and that individals deserve to !e
!lamed $or these #rong actions -althogh the threat o$ determinism does a%%ear to in$lence or
o#n moral !ehavior" hinting at the %ossi!ility that di$$erent %rocesses govern or moral sel$(
evalations than or evalation o$ others* =ameister" ?asicam%o" De#all" 8* 7chooler"
<>Cha%ter 3</>" this volme* ohs 7chooler" 1.
'he $act that %eo%le cling tightly to moral !elie$s des%ite cltral and historical shi$ts that
might encorage their a!andonment s%eaks against the once(common vie# that morality is a thin
layer masking hmans dee%ly sel$ish and amoral natre -De)aal" 41. 2n the contrary" the
$act that morality thrives des%ite these $orces sggests that the mechanisms that give rise to
%eo%les !asic moral intitions -sch as the !elie$ that %eo%le shold !e held res%onsi!le $or their
acts1 are too dee%ly entrenched in the hman mind to !e a!andoned easily -Haidt Jose%h"
:1. 'his Bdee% vie# o$ morality has !een increasingly !olstered !y research in game theory"
evoltionary !iology" and economics sho#ing that the %resence o$ !asic moral !ehaviors -e.g."
altristic acts1 and ,dgments -e.g." a %re$erence $or $airness1 is not inconsistent #ith the Bsel$ish
gene a%%roach to evoltion !y natral selection" and that evoltion may actally $avor
individals #ho e&hi!it sch !ehaviors and ,dgments -A&elrod Hamilton" 383* 'rivers"
38931. or instance" the most %lasi!le accont o$ ho# hman altrism emerged relies on the
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dal mechanisms o$ kin selection -a #illingness to act altristically to#ard mem!ers o$ ones
immediate gene %ool1 and reci%rocal altrism -a #illingness to act $or the !ene$it o$ others #hen
there is a chance that the organism #ill !e %aid in kind1. 'ogether" these mechanisms most likely
gave rise to the sorts o$ moral emotions that %ro&imally motivate moral action" sch as em%athy
$or the s$$ering o$ others and anger over !eing cheated -rank" 381. ?ore recently it has even
!een %ro%osed that se&al selection may have %layed a signi$icant role in the %reservation o$
morality !y $avoring the %resence o$ many traits considered to !e morally virtos -?iller"
91. or instance" men #ho acted virtosly -e.g." #ith !ravery and trst#orthiness1 #ere
more likely to !e soght a$ter !y #omen either !ecase sch acts %rovided a direct ce to the
mens $itness -indicating a higher likelihood that they #old stay to hel% rear the o$$s%ring" ths
ensring the s%reading o$ their genes to the ne&t generation1" or !ecase the virtes #ere relia!le
correlates #ith other $itness(related ces. 'his !ridging o$ morality and evoltion re%resents one
o$ the most signi$icant advances in the %sychology o$ morality" as the !elie$ that evoltion cold
only $avor sel$ish organisms im%lies a vie# o$ morality as s%er$icial in the sense that it is
entirely de%endent on cltral transmission and a %ro%er %!ringing -and !y e&tension" that a
change in cltre or %!ringing cold eliminate hman morality in one generation16a %ictre o$
morality that is increasingly vie#ed as ntena!le.
'his vie# o$ morality as dee%ly rooted in !asic hman natre $inds additional s%%ort
$rom %sychologists #orking across varios $ields" inclding social %sychology" develo%mental
%sychology" and social/cognitive neroscience. Consistent #ith the vie# that hmans are
Bhard#ired to !e ethical creatres" recent neroimaging stdies have demonstrated that the
!rain systems associated #ith re#ard and distress are involved in a !asic $acet o$ hman morality
6a %re$erence $or $airness -a %re$erence that not only emerges early in develo%ment" !t that
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also seems %resent in hmanitys close evoltionary relatives* =rosnan De)aal" 01. In
these imaging stdies" researchers relied on a common method sed to stdy $airness in a
la!oratory setting in #hich %airs o$ individals %artici%ate in an economic game kno#n as the
Bltimatm game. In this game" one %layer -the Bdonor1 is given a sm o$ money and told that
she may allocate as mch o$ the money as she #old like to a Breci%ient. 'he reci%ient" in trn"
mst then decide #hether to acce%t the o$$er -in #hich case" !oth %layers kee% the money1 or to
re,ect the o$$er -in #hich case" neither %layer kee%s any money1. In order to !e a!le to kee% the
money" the donor mst strategically allocate a 5antity that #ill entice the reci%ient to acce%t the
o$$er. As it trns ot" a ma,ority o$ individals in the role o$ reci%ient #ill re,ect an o$$er that is
s!stantially !elo# the B$air mark o$ @K -des%ite the $act that acce%ting an n$air o$$er al#ays
garantees more money than the re,ection %ayo$$ o$ zero1. ?any economists have sed this
sim%le $inding that individals #ill take a monetary Bhit in order to %nish n$air !ehavior as an
argment $or the %rimacy o$ moral motivation over rational sel$(interest. Indeed" the %o#er o$
this method lies in its a!ility to ca%tre the seemingly irrational reactions to n$airness o!served
in the real #orld -sch as #hen an angry individal s%ends L3 in $el costs in order to drive
!ack to a store that he is convinced cheated him ot o$ L@1. Interestingly" it seems as i$ this moral
motivation shares nerological real estate #ith more !asic hedonic motivational systems. In
stdies tilizing measres o$ !rain activation -$?I1 #hile %artici%ants %lay an ltimatm game"
researchers have sho#n that reci%ients demonstrate increased activation in re#ard centers o$ the
!rain -inclding older strctres" sch as the ventral striatm and amygdala" and the cortical
region o$ the ventromedial %re$rontal corte&" #hich most likely evolved $or reasons nrelated to
hman social cognition1 #hen %resented #ith $air o$$ers as com%ared to #hen %resented #ith
n$air o$$ers -'a!i!nia" 7at%te" +ie!erman" 1. Ho#ever" those e&%osed to n$air o$$ers
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demonstrate increased activation in the !ilateral anterior insla" a region commonly associated
#ith the e&%erience o$ %ain and distress -7an$ey" illing" Aronson" ;ystrom" Cohen" 01.
?oreover" the level o$ activation in !rain regions associated #ith !oth re#ard and distress is not
%redicted !y the degree o$ economic gain or loss reslting $rom the o$$er" sggesting that %eo%le
are sensitive to $airness and n$airness $or reasons other than !asic economic tility. At the
nero!iological level" at least" it is not so mch that $airness trm%s sel$(interest" as it is that the
!rain does little to distingish !et#een the t#o.
)hile research in social and cognitive neroscience contines to %rovide evidence $or the
!iological !asis o$ moral evalations" looking into the !rain is only one sorce o$ evidence that
hmans are $ndamentally %redis%osed to evalate others on a moral dimension. or instance" a
great deal o$ #ork has demonstrated that hmans readily make in$erences a!ot the dis%ositional
traits o$ others given minimal in$ormation -Gil!ert ?alone" 388@* Gil!ert" 3881. ecent #ork
!y 'odorov and colleages has sho#n that this is es%ecially tre $or in$erences regarding
trst#orthiness. Across a nm!er o$ stdies" these researchers have demonstrated that
individals make 5ick and atomatic evalations o$ the trst#orthiness o$ others $rom !rie$
e&%osres to their $acial $eatres -see 'odorov" 7aid" Engell" 2osterho$" " $or a revie#1.
)hile there is mi&ed evidence as to #hether these evalations are correlated #ith actal
trst#orthiness" a strong !ias to#ard evalation along this dimension is evidence o$ its
%sychological %rimacy. ?oreover" a !asic motivation to evalate others on the dimension o$
trst#orthiness may aid overall accracy !y $ocsing individals on other s!se5ent ces that
may !e good %redictors" sch as emotional signals o$ trst#orthiness -rank" 381. 7ch an
a!ility to detect trst#orthy individals #old have %rovided o!vios advantages to hmanitys
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ancestors" $rom allo#ing them to avoid mrderos %sycho%aths to allo#ing them to gain social
ca%ital !y coo%erating #ith trst#orthy individals and avoiding Bcheaters.
airness and trst#orthiness are only a small %art o$ hman morality" and it is likely that
other $acets o$ morality that have received less em%irical attention are ,st as !asic and
hard#ired. Jon Haidt and his colleages" $or instance" have arged that evoltionary %ressres
have %redis%osed s to hold %articlar moral !elie$s regarding in(gro% loyalty" %rity" and
athority -Haidt Jose%h" :1. )hile cltral in$lences certainly %lay an im%ortant role in
the relative im%ortance %laced on these $ondational moral intitions -$or instance" %olitically
conservative individals are more likely to vie# violations o$ in(gro% loyalty" %rity" and
athority as moral violations" #hile li!erals tend to $ocs e&clsively on violations o$ harm and
,stice1" Haidt arges that hmans are heavily !iased to#ard %erceiving all $ive o$ these domains
as morally relevant de to hmanitys %articlar evoltionary heritage.
In sm" the monting evidence that hman morality has its origins in !iological evoltion
and is s%%orted !y a dedicated set o$ cognitive mechanisms is consistent #ith or claim that
hman moral motivation -es%ecially the motivation to evalate other individals on a moral
dimension1 is Bst!!orn and may hold %rimacy over other kinds o$ social ,dgments. It is to the
more s%eci$ic claim that these evalations a%%ear to trm% ,dgments o$ $reedom that #e no#
trn.
<H">What #ind of Freedom$</H">
)e have arged that moral evalations are a $ndamental %art o$ hman %sychologyM
hmans arrive at moral ,dgments 5ite easily" retain con$idence in these moral !elie$s in the
$ace o$ challenges to morality" and are strongly motivated to evalate others on a moral
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dimension. 'his moralism is %articlarly evident in the #illingness and ease #ith #hich
individals !lame and %nish others $or their moral violations rather than sim%ly ignoring them"
even #hen the cost o$ %nishing ot#eighs any !ene$its to the individal -so(called Baltristic
%nishment* ehr GNchter" 1. Ho#ever" %eo%le do not go a!ot making these ,dgments
a!ot !lame and %nishment ha%hazardly. 'here is a large !ody o$ %sychological research
descri!ing the nderlying rles individals se in order to determine #hether or not to !lame
others -e.g." 7haver" 38@* )einer" 388@1. 'hese $indings can !e characterized as con$irming an
intition that is most likely shared !y most individals6that #hen making these ,dgments"
%eo%le care a!ot #hether or not an agent acted $reely. 7%eci$ically" the sort o$ $reedom that
seems to matter most $or res%onsi!ility ,dgments" and that has !een highlighted in
%sychological theories o$ res%onsi!ility" is #hat #e #ill re$er to as Bagentic $reedom -in contrast
to the Bltimate" meta%hysical $reedom arged to e&ist !y li!ertarian %hiloso%hers1.
<H2>Agentic Freedom.</H2> 'he most in$lential theories o$ res%onsi!ility #ithin
%sychology -descri!ed !rie$ly a!ove1 have generated a great deal o$ research indicating that
#hen making ,dgments o$ res%onsi!ility" %eo%le seem to care a!ot $eatres o$ an action that
%oint to an individals agency -7haver" 38@* )einer" 388@* see ohs" <>Cha%ter @</>"
this volme1. 'hese theories em%hasize the need $or an actor to have %ossessed volitional control
over an action" and re5ire the %resence o$ sch things as intentionality" casality" control" and
$orekno#ledge. I$ all these conditions are met" there is nothing to %revent a ,dgment that the
%erson shold !e held res%onsi!le and !lamed accordingly. 'hese ,dgments a!ot the local
$eatres o$ an agent and his action" #hat #e are re$erring to as Bagentic $reedom" are o$ o!vios
im%ortance $or at least one sim%le reason6they allo# s to %redict the $tre !ehavior o$ an
individal #ith some degree o$ relia!ility -something that shold matter greatly to a social
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s%ecies living in a gro% and involved in re%eated interactions #ith the same individals1. 'ake
the criteria o$ intentionalityM i$ some!ody intends and kno#ingly !rings a!ot a harm$l
otcome" it is a sa$e !et that she might commit a similar violation in the $tre" and assigning
!lame and doling ot %nishment #old serve as an e$$ective social sanction in that it #old not
only discorage her $rom committing sch violations in the $tre" !t it #old also serve as a
signal to others that she shold not !e trsted.
As it trns ot" attri!ting intentionality to actors is something hmans do 5ite readily"
and 5ite o$ten. Intentions seem so central to social ,dgment that %eo%le seem to s%ontaneosly
attri!te intentionality even #hen it is clear that none cold e&ist. or instance" %eo%le have !een
sho#n to attri!te the random movement o$ sha%es on a com%ter screen to the $igres
nderlying intentions and desires -Heider 7immel" 38::1" and even in$ants seem to attri!te
goal(directed motives to sha%es that %er$orm negative and %ositive !ehaviors -sch as Bhel%ing
to %sh another sha%e % a hill or %reventing the %rogress o$ a sha%e as it tries to clim!* Hamlin"
)ynn" =loom" 9* Fhlmeier" )ynn" =loom" 01.
;ote that the %erce%tion o$ casality and intentionality in the acts o$ others most likely
did not evolve in the service o$ attri!ting moral res%onsi!ility !t" rather" evolved !ecase it
allo#ed hmans to %redict the !ehavior o$ %hysical o!,ects and agents they encontered. 'he
detection o$ casality" $or instance" may even !e a !asic $eatre o$ the hman visal system.
Psychologists stdying visal %erce%tion have demonstrated that individals seem to !e
hard#ired to %erceive casality and animacy in the movements o$ sim%le o!,ects -7choll
'remolet" 1. Even chim%anzees demonstrate a !asic nderstanding o$ goal(directed agentic
!ehavior -Premack )oodr$$" 3891" althogh the evidence that they tilize this nderstanding
in the service o$ anything other than their immediate sel$(interest is s%arse at !est -Call
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'omasello" 1. )hile the %erce%tion o$ agency may come easily to s even #hen %resented
#ith the actions o$ o!,ects and nonhmans" it is nonetheless evident that %eo%le are es%ecially
likely to %erceive agency and intentionality in the acts o$ other hman !eings. And i$ these !asic
$eatres o$ agency a%%ear to !e com%letely a!sent" holding someone morally res%onsi!le is mch
less likely to occr. 'ake a very sim%le e&am%leM %eo%le dont sally !lame some!ody #ho
!roght a!ot harm to another in an entirely accidental #ay -e.g." i$ 'om tri%s on a cr! and ends
% $alling on Dennis" it #old seem odd to morally !lame 'om $or the harm he cased Dennis* at
most someone might accse him o$ sim%le clmsiness and avoid #alking too closely to him in
the $tre* )einer" 388@1.
=y many measres" %sychological theories o$ res%onsi!ility that $ocs on the
re5irements o$ agentic $reedom have !een sccess$l6they seem to ca%tre a great deal o$
%eo%les intitions a!ot ho# and #hen res%onsi!ility shold !e attri!ted or attenated" and do
a good ,o! o$ %redicting actal ,dgments o$ res%onsi!ility across a #ide range o$ cases. As
evidence" a great deal o$ research has demonstrated that #hen one or more o$ the criteria that
com%ose agentic $reedom are a!sent" individals tend to e&hi!it a redction in their ,dgments o$
res%onsi!ility and !lame. or instance" relatives o$ individals s$$ering $rom schizo%hrenia
attenate !lame $or actions that #ere %er$ormed as a direct reslt o$ ncontrolla!le hallcinations
and delsions -Provencher incham" 1. +ike#ise" individals are more likely to assign
!lame to AID7 %atients i$ they contracted the disease throgh controlla!le means -licentios
se&al %ractices1 than i$ throgh ncontrolla!le ones -receiving a tainted !lood trans$sion*
)einer" 388@1. )hen it comes to the criterion o$ casality" there is even evidence that %eo%le are
more sensitive than these theories might %redict. or instance" individals seem to not only care
#hether or not an agent cased an otcome" !t #hether he cased it in the s%eci$ic manner that
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#as intended. I$ an act #as intended and cased" !t cased in a manner other than the one
intended -so(called Bcasally deviant acts* 7earle" 3801" %artici%ants vie# the acts as less
!lame#orthy. or instance" a #oman #ho desires to mrder her hs!and !y %oisoning his
$avorite dish at a restarant" !t #ho scceeds in casing his death only !ecase the %oison made
the dish taste !ad" #hich led to him ordering a ne# dish to #hich he #as -n!ekno#nst to all1
deathly allergic" does not receive the same !lame as i$ the death #ere cased !y the %oison
directly -Pizarro" Ohlmann" =loom" 01. It seems as i$ %eo%le are 5ite ca%a!le o$ %aying
close attention to the $eatres o$ an action in ,st the manner %redicted !y traditional acconts o$
res%onsi!ility. In this sense" it is $air to conclde that there is a great deal o$ evidence that agency
$ndamentally matters #hen arriving at ,dgments o$ res%onsi!ility.
et des%ite the o!vios sccess o$ these models in %redicting a #ide range o$
res%onsi!ility ,dgments" a nm!er o$ recent $indings have emerged that" taken together" %oint to
the conclsion that ,dgments o$ agentic $reedom are o$ten the reslt o$ res%onsi!ility ,dgments
rather than their case. Des%ite the evidence that hmans are ca%a!le o$ making $ine(grained
,dgments a!ot intentions" casality" and control" these distinctions may not actally serve as
in%t #hen %eo%le are strongly motivated to hold another %erson res%onsi!le6the !asic
mechanisms that give rise to an initial moral evalation may overshado# the a!ility or desire to
engage in a care$l attri!tional analysis o$ the sort %redicted !y these theories. Im%ortantly" the
sitations that call $or making a ,dgment o$ res%onsi!ility in everyday li$e may !e ones in #hich
%eo%le are es%ecially motivated to hold an agent !lame#orthy" either !ecase o$ the natre o$ the
violation or !ecase o$ an initial negative evalation o$ an agent.
Even i$ the %sychological %rocesses involved in attri!tions o$ agency and those involved
in ,dgments o$ moral !lame are inde%endent" it may still seem odd that ,dgments o$ agentic
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$reedom cold !e distorted to serve the %r%ose o$ holding others res%onsi!le. Ho#ever" the
criteria sed to arrive at a ,dgment o$ agency -sch as intentionality and control1 actally
%rovide a great deal o$ $le&i!ility and may there$ore !e es%ecially %rone to the in$lence o$
motivational !iases. In the social domain" the tendency to attri!te the case o$ others !ehavior
to nderlying intentions o$ten comes at the cost o$ ignoring cases that are e&ternal to the actor
-Gil!ert ?alone" 388@* Jones Harris" 38491. 'he conse5ence o$ this attri!tional !ias is
that other %eo%les acts are %erceived as intentional even i$ they #ere not" and any motivation to
!lame an individal may e&acer!ate the %erce%tion that an act #as intentional. +ike#ise" the
other criteria $or agentic $reedom" sch as %ossessing control over an otcome" can also !e $airly
am!igos6$or any given action" there is rarely an easily identi$ia!le" o!,ective ans#er a!ot
ho# mch control an individal trly %ossessed.
A nm!er o$ recent $indings seem to s%%ort the vie# that ,dgments o$ agentic $reedom
are driven !y moral evalations. ?ost o$ this #ork has $ocsed on the criteria o$ casality"
control" and intentionality and has demonstrated that s%ontaneos negative evalations o$ an act
or an agent are enogh to change these ,dgments o$ agency in a manner consistent #ith the
motivation to !lame an agent. or instance" most theories o$ res%onsi!ility %osit that %ossessing
casal control over an otcome is an im%ortant determinant $or the attri!tion o$ !lame6the less
control" the less res%onsi!ility -)einer" 388@1. =t the relationshi% !et#een control and
res%onsi!ility a%%ears $ar less straight$or#ard. In some cases" individals im%te more control
over an act to individals #ho seem %articlarly nlikea!le than to other individals #ho
%er$ormed an identical action. esearch !y Alicke and colleages" $or instance" has sho#n that
individals make di$$erential ,dgments a!ot ho# mch control a %erson had over an otcome
i$ they have reason to think o$ him as a !ad %erson. In one e&am%le" #hen %artici%ants are told
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that a man #as s%eeding home in a rainstorm and gets in an accident -in,ring others1" they are
more likely to say that he had control over the car i$ he #as s%eeding home to hide cocaine $rom
his %arents than i$ he #as s%eeding home to hide an anniversary gi$t des%ite the $act that the
$actors that led to the accident #ere identical across !oth scenarios -Alicke" 388" 1.
According to Alicke" the desire to !lame the ne$arios Bcocaine driver leads individals to
distort the criteria o$ controlla!ility in a $ashion that validates this !lame. or Alicke" the
s%ontaneos and atomatic ,dgments o$ !lame %rovide a ready sorce o$ motivation to distort
any in$ormation that might !e re5ired to ,sti$y this !lame.
'his a%%ears to !e tre $or the intentionality criterion as #ell. A gro#ing !ody o$ research
!y Fno!e and his colleages has sho#n that %eo%le are more inclined to say that a !ehavior #as
%er$ormed intentionally #hen they regard that !ehavior as morally #rong -+eslie" Fno!e"
Cohen" 4* see Fno!e" 4" $or a revie#1. or instance" #hen given a scenario in #hich a
$oreseea!le side e$$ect reslts in a negative otcome" individals are more likely to say that the
side e$$ect #as !roght a!ot intentionally. In the most common e&am%le" the CE2 o$ a
com%any is told that im%lementing a ne# %olicy #ill have the side e$$ect o$ either harming or
hel%ing the environment. In !oth cases" the CE2 e&%licitly states that he only cares a!ot
increasing %ro$its" not a!ot the incidental side e$$ect o$ harming or hel%ing the environment
-e.g." BI dont care at all a!ot harming the environment. I ,st #ant to make as mch %ro$it as I
can1. ;onetheless" %artici%ants %erceive that the side e$$ect o$ harming the environment #as
intentional6!t not the side e$$ect o$ hel%ing the environment. 'his %attern o$ $indings -#ith
sim%ler scenarios1 is evident in children as yong as 4 and 9 years old -+eslie" Fno!e" Cohen"
41. Althogh the mechanism nderlying these $indings that morally !ad actions are %erceived
as more intentional have !een hotly de!ated" the $indings are consistent #ith the vie# #e are
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de$ending here6that the motivation arising $rom a desire to !lame leads %eo%le to make
,dgments o$ $reedom that are consistent #ith this !lame.
I$ the motivation arising $rom a ,dgment o$ moral !adness leads to a magni$ication o$
intentionality ,dgments" then it shold !e the case that individals #ho $ind a certain act
%articlarly !ad shold ,dge these acts as more intentional than individals #ho are indi$$erent
a!ot the morality o$ the act. In a series o$ stdies" 'annen!am" Ditto" and Pizarro -81
demonstrated that this is indeed the case. Across a nm!er o$ stdies" individals #ho di$$ered in
their initial assessment o$ ho# immoral an act #as demonstrated di$$ering ,dgments o$
intentionality. or instance" sing the scenario develo%ed !y Fno!e and colleages descri!ed
a!ove" individals #ho re%orted a strong moral motivation to %rotect the environment #ere more
likely to re%ort that the damage to the environment !roght a!ot as a side e$$ect o$ the CE2s
decision #as intentional than those #ho held no sch moral vales a!ot the environment.
7imilarly" #hen %resented #ith a case in #hich military leaders ordered an attack on an enemy
that #old have the $oreseen -yet nintended1 conse5ence o$ casing the death o$ innocent
civilians" %olitical conservatives and li!erals rated the action as intentional #hen it ran contrary
to their %olitics. )hen the case involved Ira5i insrgents attacking American troo%s #ith the side
e$$ect o$ American civilian deaths" %olitical conservatives #ere more likely to ,dge the killings
as intentional than li!erals. 'he converse #as tre #hen the case #as descri!ed as American
troo%s killing Ira5i civilians as a conse5ence o$ attacking Ira5i insrgents.
In another stdy" %artici%ants #ere given one o$ t#o e&am%les in #hich the %rinci%le o$
harm redction #as sed to ,sti$y the distri!tion o$ $ree condoms in order to %revent the
incidence o$ %regnancy and the s%read o$ disease. Partici%ants #ere all s!se5ently asked
#hether the distri!tion o$ condoms intentionally %romoted se&al !ehavior. ?oral motivation
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#as mani%lated !y changing the intended reci%ients o$ the $ree condomsM one set o$ %artici%ants
read a!ot local school !oard mem!ers #ho decided to distri!te condoms to stdents !ecase
they #ere a#are that middle(school and high(school stdents #ere engaging in risky se&al
!ehavior" #hile another set read that %olicy makers #ho #ere a#are that soldiers stationed in
$oreign contries #ere engaging in acts o$ se&al aggression -i.e." ra%e1 against local #omen
decided to distri!te condoms to the soldiers in order to cr! the s%read o$ n#anted diseases. In
!oth cases it #as e&%licitly stated that the gro% o$ individals making the decision to distri!te
condoms did not condone the se&al !ehavior o$ the intended reci%ients !t merely #anted to
redce the harm associated #ith these actions.
As %redicted" %artici%ants #ho read a!ot the distri!tion o$ condoms to yong teens
re%orted that the %olicy makers #ere not intentionally %romoting teen se&" #hile %artici%ants
reading a!ot $oreign soldiers re%orted that %olicy makers had intentionally %romoted ra%e. 'he
o!vios di$$erence in the moral stats o$ %remarital teen se& and ra%e seemed to !e driving
,dgments o$ intentionality. ?ore interestingly" these di$$erences in the moral stats o$ the t#o
acts may have acconted $or an ne&%ected gender di$$erence in these ratings o$ intentionality6
#omen #ere mch more likely to re%ort that the %olicy makers had intentionally %romoted ra%e
in the military case !t had not intentionally %romoted se& in the case o$ yong teens. ?en
,dged the t#o scenarios nearly identically. 2ne inter%retation o$ this $inding is that the
motivation to condemn ra%e #as stronger in $emale %artici%ants" es%ecially since the se&al
aggression in the scenario targeted #omen" and that this increased motivation drove
intentionality ,dgments.
Consistent #ith the vie# that a motivation to hold an individal !lame#orthy can lead to
a distortion o$ the criteria $or agentic $reedom" it a%%ears as i$ !lame can even in$lence memory
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$or the severity o$ a moral in$raction. In one stdy" Pizarro and colleages %resented individals
#ith scenarios in #hich a man #alked ot o$ a restarant #ithot %aying $or his meal. )ithin the
descri%tion o$ this action" %artici%ants #ere given detailed in$ormation a!ot the %rice o$ the
dinner. esearchers mani%lated the degree o$ !lame#orthiness $or this in$raction !y telling one
set o$ %artici%ants that the individal had $ailed to %ay $or his meal !ecase he had received a call
noti$ying him that his daghter had !een in a car accident" #hile another set o$ %artici%ants #ere
told that the individal sim%ly desired to get a#ay #ithot having to %ay. )hen asked to recall
the events a%%ro&imately one #eek later" %artici%ants #ho had read that the man $ailed to %ay
sim%ly to get a#ay #ith it recalled the %rice o$ the dinner as signi$icantly higher than those #ho
had read that the man had le$t !ecase o$ his daghters accident -#hose memory $or the %rice
#as accrate1. Across conditions" the degree o$ moral !lame %artici%ants re%orted a$ter reading
the story #as a signi$icant %redictor o$ the memory distortion one #eek later -Pizarro" +aney"
?orris" +o$ts" 41.
<H2>“Ultimate” Freedom.</H2> 'he agentic $reedom that seems im%ortant $or lay
attri!tions o$ moral res%onsi!ility is conce%tally inde%endent $rom the Bltimate"
meta%hysical $reedom that many %hiloso%hers have arged is necessary $or attri!ting moral
res%onsi!ility -e.g." li!ertarian $reedom" or the $reedom to Bhave done other#ise1. A dee%
concern es%osed !y many is that the casal determinism that has !een a relia!le gide in
scienti$ic research may also threaten the ltimate $reedom that seems necessary to !e held
morally acconta!le. I$ thoghts and $eelings are entirely cased !y %hysical %rocesses in the
!rain" and i$ the la#s that govern these %rocesses are no di$$erent than the la#s governing the
motion o$ !illiard !alls and atomo!iles" then %erha%s a %erson is no more accrate in the !elie$
that she $reely decided to get % in the morning than that a !illiard !all $reely chose to roll across
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the ta!le. 7ome have arged that the increased dissemination o$ %sychological research
highlighting the deterministic %rocesses that give rise to hman thoght and action may radically
change %eo%les notions o$ $reedom and %nishment -Greene Cohen" :1. et #hile
%sychologists have condcted a great deal o$ research on the criteria o$ agentic $reedom" only
recently have %sychologists and e&%erimental %hiloso%hers trned their attention to the 5estion
o$ #hether this ltimate $reedom is treated !y individals as a %rere5isite $or the ascri%tion o$
moral res%onsi!ility in the manner many %hiloso%hers have arged.
As it trns ot" the dee% concerns that determinism threatens moral res%onsi!ility may !e
n$onded. In the $irst %lace" it is nclear #hether the lack o$ ltimate $reedom is o$ mch
concern $or individals #hen making ,dgments o$ res%onsi!ility6in some cases" des%ite
e&%licit in$ormation that ndermines the %resence o$ ltimate $reedom" %eo%le still seem #illing
to hold others morally acconta!le. et even in cases in #hich %artici%ants a%%ear to endorse the
vie# that ltimate $reedom is a necessary %rere5isite $or the attri!tion o$ moral res%onsi!ility"
the motivation to hold others morally acconta!le seems to lead individals to selectively ignore
this in$ormation. or instance" in a recent stdy !y ;ichols and Fno!e -91" individals #ere
%resented #ith a descri%tion o$ a #orld that #as descri!ed as entirely deterministic in the manner
that is incom%ati!le #ith ltimate" meta%hysical $reedom. )hen %artici%ants #ere asked i$" in
general" mrderers in this deterministic #orld shold !e held morally res%onsi!le" most
%artici%ants said no. =t #hen %resented #ith a s%eci$ic individal #ho mrdered his entire
$amily" individals #ere more than #illing to attri!te !lame6even #hen it #as clear $rom the
descri%tion o$ the #orld that he cold not have acted other#ise. It a%%ears as i$ the vivid"
emotional natre o$ the s%eci$ic crime -and the likely motivation to hold an individal ca%a!le o$
sch a crime given its vividness1 led individals to either ignore the in$ormation a!ot ltimate
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$reedom or ad,st their meta%hysical !elie$s a!ot #hether determinism is trly incom%ati!le
#ith moral res%onsi!ility.
In s%%ort o$ this latter vie#" )ool$olk" Doris" and Darley -41 descri!ed a scenario to
%artici%ants in #hich a man #as nder a clear sitational constraint that $orced him to mrder a
%assenger on an air%lane -he #as $orced !y hi,ackers to kill the %erson or else he and 3 others
#old !e killed1. )hile the man a%%eared to %ossess agentic $reedom" he #as clearly constrained
!y the sitation in terms o$ his a!ility to have acted other#ise. Des%ite this constraint"
%artici%ants nonetheless held the man more res%onsi!le $or the mrder i$ it #as something he
#anted to do any#ay -i$ he Bidenti$ied #ith the act1. Consistent #ith the com%ati!ilist a%%roach
es%osed !y rank$rt -38931 and others" the mans ina!ility to do other#ise6his lack o$
ltimate $reedom6did not seem to distr! %artici%ants a!ility to hold him morally acconta!le.
As a $inal e&am%le o$ ho# nderlying motivation to hold an individal acconta!le can shi$t
,dgments o$ $reedom" #e recently asked %artici%ants to recont a !ad deed that #as either
committed !y a good $riend or !y an enemy -Helzer Pizarro" 81. Given the di$$ering
motivations at %lay in their ,dgments o$ res%onsi!ility $or a liked verss a disliked individal"
#e #ere interested in ho# individals #old ,dge the $reedom o$ the %erson #ho had
committed the moral in$raction !y asking %artici%ants to ,dge to #hat e&tent they thoght the
%ersons !ehavior #as intentional as #ell as #hether they thoght the %ersons !ehavior #as
$reely chosen. As e&%ected" %eo%le $ond the !ad deed %er$ormed !y an enemy as more
!lame#orthy than the one %er$ormed !y a $riend -this #as tre a$ter controlling $or the severity
o$ the act" as #ell as #hen limiting or analyses to ,dgments o$ identical acts committed !y a
$riend or an enemy" sch as se&al in$idelity1. ?ore im%ortantly" the mani%lation o$ motivation
-$riend vs. enemy1 a$$ected %artici%ants ,dgments o$ $reedom as assessed !y their res%onses to
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!oth 5estionsM relative to the immoral deeds o$ their $riends" %artici%ants attri!ted the misdeeds
o$ their enemies to their enemys nderlying intentions and #ere more likely to re%ort that the act
#as $reely chosen.
)hat these stdies seem to sho# is that #hile many %hiloso%hers %erceive determinism
to !e a threat to $reedom -and !y e&tension" to moral res%onsi!ility1" the %sychology o$ moral
res%onsi!ility is sch that %eo%le are $airly #illing to hold others morally acconta!le even in the
%resence o$ strong determinism -see also ;ahmias" ?orris" ;adelho$$er" 'rner" 4" $or
evidence sggesting that $or lay%ersons" determinism doesnt even threaten $reedom o$ the
li!ertarian variety1.
<H">Conclusion</H">
)e have tried to de$end a nm!er o$ s%eci$ic claims a!ot the lay conce%t o$ $reedom
and ho# individals se in$ormation a!ot $reedom #hen making ,dgments o$ moral
res%onsi!ility. 7%eci$ically" #e have arged that individals are highly motivated to hold others
acconta!le $or moral in$ractions" and that the %rimacy o$ this motivation o$ten in$lences
,dgments a!ot $reedom" rather than the other #ay arond. 'his seems tre $or ,dgments
regarding agentic $reedom -sch as #hether an act #as intended" cased" and controlled1" as #ell
as $or ,dgments o$ ltimate" or meta%hysical $reedom -the a!ility to have done other#ise1. 2ne
%shot o$ these $indings is that the classic incom%ati!ilist vie# that determinism %oses a threat to
morality and res%onsi!ility" #hile seemingly intitive" may %ose a threat only to individals #ho
do things like read !ooks a!ot $ree #ill. 'he %sychological link !et#een ltimate $reedom and
res%onsi!ility a%%ears less strong than many have sggested. Indeed" to the e&tent that
individals %ossess the intition that there is a link !et#een $reedom and res%onsi!ility" they
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seem to se sch a link %rimarily as a strategy to de$end their moral ,dgments. ree #ill is
im%ortant" !t not $or the reason many might think.
In moments o$ re$lection" then" individals may realize that they shold ss%end their
moral evalations o$ the ro!ot neigh!or descri!ed in the introdction -!ecase he does not
%ossess Bltimate $reedom1. ;onetheless" #hen he %lays his msic lodly" $ails to mo# his
la#n" and lets his dog se their yard as a !athroom" they #ill have no %ro!lem attri!ting all the
$reedom needed to in order to !lame him $or his rde !ehavior.
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<D7C(3>Discssion #ith David A. Pizarro</D7C(3>
<DSC>Are there differences beteen beliefs abo!t free ill in the abstract and beliefs abo!t
free ill in concrete cases"
=ertrand ?alle condcted several stdies in #hich he asked %eo%le a!stract 5estions
a!ot %eo%les intitions a!ot intentionality" and reslts seemed to indicate that %eo%le !elieve
that a %erson has to intend to do a thing in order to do it intentionally. In contrast" Josha Fno!e
gave %artici%ants a concrete scenario $eatring a CE2 and asked them to make determinations
a!ot #hether his actions #ere done intentionally. eslts indicated that one need not intend to
do something in order to do it intentionally. 'hs" there seems to !e a distinction !et#een
a!stract !elie$s and the concrete case $or the 5estion o$ intentionality. ?ight there !e a similar
distinction $or $ree #ill
Indeed" %eo%le do seem to res%ond di$$erently to 5estions a!ot $ree #ill in the a!stract
as com%ared to concrete cases. In %articlar" %eo%le generally !elieve !oth that determinism
ndermines $ree #ill in the a!stract. et" $or s%eci$ic cases" %eo%le generally !elieve that
individals are not to !e e&csed $rom #rongdoing !ecase o$ determinism. 'his seeming
con$lict likely is !ecase %eo%le have a strong rge to see intentionality" in order to hold others
res%onsi!le. 7aid di$$erently" %eo%le seem to alter #hat they mean !y intentionality" or the
re5irement o$ $ree #ill in esta!lishing intentionality" in order to !lame. It #old !e nsal to
hear a ,dge say B=ecase o$ meta%hysical determinism" yo shold get a redced sentence.
'hat is" a!stract !elie$s a!ot $ree #ill may con$lict #ith the desire to assign !lame in concrete
cases.
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#s the $!estion of free ill related to %!dgments of moral res&onsibilit'"
'he consenss vie# is that the t#o are dee%ly ent#ined. Ho#ever" an alternative vie# is
that $ree #ill and moral res%onsi!ility are entirely orthogonal" sch that determined !ad !ehavior
re5ires %nishment ,st as ndetermined !ad !ehavior does. or instance" i$ a %arent has one
child #ho is tem%eramentally -and navoida!ly1 agreea!le" and one that is tem%eramentally -and
navoida!ly1 disagreea!le" the %arent #ill srely increase the %nishment on the disagreea!le
child" des%ite the $act that it is tem%eramental and not chosen. Indeed" greater %nishment may
!e necessary to alter the disagreea!le childs !ehavior. 2n this vie#" there is no real relationshi%
!et#een $reedom and res%onsi!ility.
A second alternative to the vie# that $ree #ill and moral res%onsi!ility are closely related
is that they are %eri%herally related. 2n this vie#" the 5estion o$ $ree #ill is so mch more
im%ortant than that o$ moral res%onsi!ility that moral res%onsi!ility is incidental. Consider the
$ollo#ing e&am%le. Imagine a %erson #ho is totally amoral. 'his %erson makes no moral
,dgments a!ot others or a!ot the sel$. 7ch a %erson may e&%erience inter%ersonal %ro!lems"
!t he or she can $nction in society and order $rom a men. In contrast" one cannot $nction
#ithot a sense o$ $ree #ill. A %erson convinced o$ the trth o$ determinism cannot go to a
restarant" sit do#n and say BEverything is determined" so Ill ,st #ait and see #hat I order. In
other #ords" %eo%le cannot $nction #ithot the assm%tion o$ $ree #ill" !t they can $nction
#ithot the conce%t o$ moral res%onsi!ility. 'hs" moral res%onsi!ility may !e considered a
%eri%heral 5estion to that o$ $ree #ill.
+ay%ersons" ho#ever" seem to react strongly and viscerally to the %ossi!ility o$ an
a!sence o$ moral res%onsi!ility" #hile they vie# the %ossi!ility o$ determinism #ith less
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reactance. 'hs" among lay%ersons" the 5estion o$ moral res%onsi!ility seems %reeminent
relative to the 5estion o$ $ree #ill.
#s moral res&onsibilit' !ni$!e among h!mans"
2ne o$ the distingishing $eatres o$ hman !eings is sel$(reglation. In most nonhman
animals" !ehavior is nder social control. Ho#ever" certain %atterns o$ instinctal !ehavior are
ada%tively necessary $or the srvival o$ the s%ecies. 'he #ay that individal nonhman animals
are controlled is !y ho# their !ehavior a$$ects the gro%. 'his is social control. 'he interesting
thing a!ot ,dicial decisions is that they are %artly a system o$ social control and %artly a system
that has ta%%ed into the notion o$ sel$(reglation and moral res%onsi!ility. In a sense those are
con$onded roles. 'he distinction !et#een the kind o$ social control $ond in nonhman animals
and the kind o$ social control $ond in hmans is that an additional amont o$ social control is
$ond in hmans.</D7C>
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