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2 Hui Zhang
Communication & Physical Medium
There were communications before computers
There were communication networks before computer networks
Talk over the air
Letter delivered by person, horse, bird …
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3 Hui Zhang
How to Characterize “Good” Communication?
Latency
Distance
Bandwidth
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4 Hui Zhang
Historical Perspective
Independent developments of telecommunication network and local area data networks (LAN)
Telecommunication networkAnalog signal with analog transmission
Digital transmission of voice over long distance
Long distance digital circuit for data transmission service
Access modem for data transmission
Introduction of optical transmission
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5 Hui Zhang
Frequency, Bandwidth of Signal
A signal can be viewed as a sum of sine waves of different strengths.
Corresponds to energy at a certain frequency
Every signal has an equivalent representation in the frequency domainFrequency: how fast a period signal changes, measured in HzBandwidth: width of the frequency range
E.g. human voice: 100~3300 Hz, with a bandwidth of 3200
TimeFrequency
Am
plitu
de
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6 Hui Zhang
Bandwidth of Transmission Channels
Every medium supports transmission in a certain frequency range.
Outside this range, effects such as attenuation degrade the signal too much
Transmission and reception hardware will try to maximize the useful bandwidth in this frequency band.
Tradeoffs between cost, distance, bit rate
As technology improves, these parameters change, even for the same wire.
Thanks to our EE friends
Frequency
Good Bad
Signal
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7 Hui Zhang
Multiplexing
Transmit multiple signals on the same channelFrequency Division Multiplexing
Time Division Multiplexing
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8 Hui Zhang
Baseband versus Carrier Modulation
Baseband modulation: send the “bare” signal.
Carrier modulation: use the signal to modulate a higher frequency signal (carrier).
Can be viewed as the product of the two signals
Corresponds to a shift in the frequency domain
Important for Frequency Division Multiplexing
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9 Hui Zhang
Amplitude Carrier ModulationA
mpl
itude
Signal CarrierFrequency
Am
plitu
de
ModulatedCarrier
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10 Hui Zhang
Frequency Division Multiplexing:Multiple ChannelsA
mpl
itude
Different CarrierFrequencies
DeterminesBandwidthof Channel
Determines Bandwidth of Link
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11 Hui Zhang
Analog vs. Digital
Used in different contexts
Analog Digital
Data
(something has meaning)
Voice, Image Text, computer message
Signal
(encoded data)
Continuously varying wave
Sequence of 1’s and 0’s
Transmission Propogation of waves
Propogation of 1’s and 0’s
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12 Hui Zhang
Data Encoding: Mapping Data Into Signal
Analog data encoded in analog signalRadio,TV, telephone
Analog data encoded in digital signalDigital voice (PCM sampling)
Digital data encoded in digital signalEthernet (Manchester)
FDDI (NRZ 4B/5B)
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13 Hui Zhang
Analog vs. Digital Transmission
Digital transmissionInterpret the signal as 1’s and 0’s
Use repeaters to reconstruct the signal
Analog transmissionDo not interpret content
Use amplifiers to boost the strength of signal
Why digital transmission?
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14 Hui Zhang
Non-Ideal Channel
Noise: “random” energy is added to the signal.Attenuation: some of the energy in the signal leaks away.Dispersion: attenuation and propagation speed are frequency dependent.
Changes the shape of the signal
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15 Hui Zhang
Digitalization of Analog Voice
Two steps: Sample the voice signal at certain frequency
Quantize the sample
What should be the sampling frequency so that the original signal can be reconstructed losslessly?
Nyquist’s sampling theorem: 2H, where H is the bandwidth of the signal
PCM coding:8000 Hz sampling
7 or 8 bits encoding of each sample (logarithmically spaced)
56 or 64 kbps
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16 Hui Zhang
Digital Transmission/Multiplexing Hierarchy
North AmericaT1/DS1: 24 voice channels plus 1 bit per sample
– (24 x 8 + 1) x 8000 = 1.544 Mbps
T3/DS3: another D2 hierarchy that is rarely exposed
– 7 x 4 x 1.544 = 44.736 Mbps
Europe has different standardE1, E3
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17 Hui Zhang
Data over Telephone Network
Private line data service56kbps, T1, T3
How to extend data service to home over analog subscriber loop?
Modem: digital signal over analog transmission channel
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18 Hui Zhang
Modulation
Sender changes the nature of the signal in a way that the receiver can recognize.
Amplitude modulation: change the strength of the signal, typically between on and off.
Sender and receiver agree on a “rate”
On means 1, Off means 0
Similar: frequency or phase modulation
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19 Hui Zhang
Amplitude and FrequencyModulation
0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1
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20 Hui Zhang
Channel Bandwidth and Capacity For Digital Signal
Question: given a channel with bandwidth H, what is the capacityof the channel for digital signal?
How to measure channel capacity? Baud rate: number of symbols per second (Hz)
Bit rate: Baud rate x bits/symbol
Nyquist Theorem:a noiseless channel of width H can at most transmit a signal of rate 2H
Examplesthe twisted pair long loop has channel bandwidth of 3200 Hz
Use Phase-Shift Modulation, there are 8 possible configurations per symbol
Channel bit rate?
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21 Hui Zhang
Capacity of Noisy Channel
Nyquist establishes the channel capacity of an ideal channel, what about noisy channels?Shannon’s theorem:
C = B x log (1 + S/N)
C: maximum capacity (bps)
B: channel bandwidth (Hz)
S/N: signal to noise ratio of the channel
Example: Local loop bandwidth: 3200 Hz
Typical S/N: 1000
What is the upper limit?
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22 Hui Zhang
Copper WireUnshielded twisted pair
Two copper wires twisted - avoid antenna effect
Grouped into cables: multiple pairs with common sheath
Category 3 (voice grade) versus category 5
100 Mbps up to 100 m, 1 Mbps up to a few km (assuming digital transmission)
Coax cables.One connector is placed inside the other connector
Holds the signal in place and keeps out noise
Gigabit up to a km
Signaling processing research pushes the capabilities of a specific technology.
E.g. modems, use of cat 5
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23 Hui Zhang
Age of Fiber and Optics
Enabling technology: optical transmission over fiber
Advantages of fiberHuge bandwidth (TeraHz): huge capacity
Low attenuation: long distance
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24 Hui Zhang
Ray Propagation
lower indexof refraction
core
cladding
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25 Hui Zhang
Light Transmission in Fiber
1000
wavelength (nm)1500
0.0
0.5
1.0
loss(dB/km)
tens of THz
1.3μ1.55μ
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26 Hui Zhang
Fiber and Optical Source TypesMultimode fiber.
62.5 or 50 micron core carries multiple “modes”
used at 850 nm or 1310 nm, usually LED source
subject to mode dispersion: different propagation modes travel at different speeds
typical limit: 1 Gbps at 100m
Single mode8 micron core carries a single mode
used at 1.3 or 1.55 microns, usually laser diode source
typical limit: 10 Gbps at 40 km or more, rapidly improved by technology advances
still subject to chromatic dispersion
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27 Hui Zhang
Gigabit Ethernet:Physical Layer Comparison
Medium Transmit/receive Distance Comment
Copper 1000BASE-CX 25 m machine room useTwisted pair 1000BASE-T 100 m
MM fiber 62 μm 1000BASE-SX 260 m1000BASE-LX 500 m
MM fiber 50 μm 1000BASE-SX 525 m1000BASE-LX 550 m
SM fiber 1000BASE-LX 5000 m
Twisted pair 100BASE-T 100 m 2p of UTP5/2-4p of UTP3
MM fiber 100BASE-SX 2000m
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28 Hui Zhang
SONET: Optical Network for Long Distance
Sender and receiver are always synchronized.Frame boundaries are recognized based on the clock
No need to continuously look for special bit sequences
SONET frames contain room for control and data.Data frame multiplexes bytes from many users
Control provides information on data, management, …
3 colstransportoverhead
87 cols payload capacity
9 rows
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29 Hui Zhang
SONET FramingBase channel is STS-1 (Synchronous Transport System).
Takes 125 μsec and corresponds to 51.84 Mbps
1 byte corresponds to a 64 Kbs channel (PCM voice)
Also called OC-1 = optical carrier
Standard ways of supporting slower and faster channels.Slower: select a set of bytes in each frame
Faster: interleave multiple frames at higher rate
3 colstransportoverhead
87 cols payload capacity,including 1 col path overhead
9 rows
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30 Hui Zhang
Know Your Signal Line Rates
Asynchronous Payload Carrying CapacityAsynchronous Payload Carrying CapacitySignal TypeSignal Type Line RateLine Rate
# of DS0# of DS0 # of DS1# of DS1 # of DS3# of DS3
DS0 (POTS DS0 (POTS eqeq.).) 64,000 bps64,000 bps -- -- --
DS1DS1 1.544 Mbps1.544 Mbps 2424 -- --
DS3DS3 44.736 Mbps44.736 Mbps 672672 2828 --
ECEC--1 (STS1 (STS--1E)1E) 51.84 Mbps51.84 Mbps 672672 2828 --
OCOC--33 155 Mbps155 Mbps 2,0162,016 8484 33
OCOC--1212 622 Mbps622 Mbps 8,0648,064 336336 1212
OCOC--4848 2.49 Gbps2.49 Gbps 32,25632,256 1,3441,344 4848
OCOC--192192 9.95 Gbps9.95 Gbps 129,024129,024 5,3765,376 192192
OCOC--768768 39.8 Gbps39.8 Gbps 516,096516,096 21,50421,504 768768
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31 Hui Zhang
Optical Amplification
At end of span, either regenerate electronically or amplify.Electronic repeaters are potentially slow, but can eliminate noise.Amplification over long distances made practical by erbium doped fiber amplifiers offering up to 40 dB gain, linear response over a broad spectrum. Ex: 10 Gbps at 500 km.
source
pumplaser
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32 Hui Zhang
Wavelength Division Multiplexing
Send multiple wavelengths through the same fiber.Multiplex and demultiplex the optical signal on the fiber
Each wavelength represents an optical carrier that can carry a separate signal.
ITU grid: 40 wavelengths around 1510 nm
OpticalSplitter
Frequency
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33 Hui Zhang
WDM: A Winner in Long Haul
Source: Lucent Technologies and BancBoston Robertson Stephens.
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34 Hui Zhang
2x4 Network ArchitectureLong HaulMetro CoreSubscriber/
Enterprise
LAN
HAN
Metro Hub Office
End Office/ Collocation
λ INTERCITYG(λ)
Router Voice Switch
ACCESS INTEROFFICEG(SONET)
TransportServices
Metro Access
Router
Service Node/ASPVoice Switch
Wireless
Server
Server
RF
Cable
Copper
Fiber
ATM
OXC λλ
λ
Voice Switch
Backbone Router
ISP
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35 Hui Zhang
Some Observations
2x4 Network architecturePremise, access, metro, core
Transport and service layers
Optical vs. CopperPremise and access dominated by copper loops
DWDM very effective solution for long-haul
Metro is dominated by SONET
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36 Hui Zhang
Encoding
Mapping bits into signal
AdaptorAdaptor AdaptorAdaptorSignal
Adaptor: convert bits into physical signal and physical signal back into bits
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37 Hui Zhang
Why Do We Need Encoding?
Meet certain electrical constraints.Receiver needs enough “transitions” to keep track of the transmit clock
Avoid receiver saturation
Create control symbols, besides regular data symbols.E.g. start or end of frame, escape, ...
Error detection or error corrections.Some codes are illegal so receiver can detect certain classes oferrors
Minor errors can be corrected by having multiple adjacent signals mapped to the same data symbol
Encoding can be very complex, e.g. wireless.
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38 Hui Zhang
Encoding
We use two discrete signals, high and low, to encode 0 and 1
The transmission is synchronous, i.e., there is a clock used to sample the signal
In general, the duration of one bit is equal to one or two clockticks
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39 Hui Zhang
Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)
1 high signal; 0 low signal0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
NRZ(non-return to zero)
Clock
Disadvantages: when there is a long sequence of 1’s or 0’s
Sensitive to clock skew, i.e., difficult to do clock recovery
Difficult to interpret 0’s and 1’s (baseline wander)
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40 Hui Zhang
Non-Return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
1 make transition; 0 stay at the same level
Solve previous problems for long sequences of 1’s, but not for 0’s
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
Clock
NRZI(non-return to zero
inverted)
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41 Hui Zhang
Manchester
1 high-to-low transition; 0 low-to-high transition
Addresses clock recovery and baseline wander problems
Disadvantage?
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
Clock
Manchester
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42 Hui Zhang
Manchester
0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0
Clock
Manchester
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43 Hui Zhang
4B/5B Encoding
Goal: address inefficiency of Manchester encoding, while avoiding long periods of low or high signals
Solution:Use 5 bits to encode every sequence of four bits such that no 5 bit code has more than one leading 0 and two trailing 0’s
Use NRZI to encode the 5 bit codes
0000 111100001 010010010 101000011 101010100 010100101 010110110 011101111 01111
1000 100101001 100111010 101101011 101111100 110101101 110111110 111001111 11101
4-bit 5-bit 4-bit 5-bit
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44 Hui Zhang
Other Encoding
8B/10B: Fiber Channel and Gigabit EthernetDC balance
64B/66B: 10 Gbit Ethernet