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Chapter 18
Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration
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Nomadic Society
Variety of Turkish peoples Rainfall in central Asia too little to support
large-scale agriculture Small-scale (supplemental) farming
Grazing animals thrive, central Asians turn to animal herding Food Clothing Shelter (yurts)
Not aimless wandering but migratory patterns to follow pastureland
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Nomads in Turkmenistan
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Nomadic Economy
Some small-scale trading, but extensive knowledge of trade routes
Engage in long-distance travel as organizers Caravan routes
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Nomadic Society Social classes—commoners and nobles
Nobles seldom rule, unless in war Then rule is absolute
Daily governance clan-based Charismatic individuals become nobles,
occasionally assert authority Unusually fluid status for nobility
Hereditary, but could be lost through incompetence
Advancement for meritorious non-nobles
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Nomadic Religion
Early on, shamans center of pagan worship
Appeal of Buddhism, Nestorian, Islam, Manichaeism from 6th c
Most convert to Islam in 10th – 14th c Saljuqs first due to Abbasid influence
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Military Organization
Large confederations under a ruler referred to as a khan
Authority extended through tribal elders
Exceptionally strong cavalries Mobility Speed Short, recurved bows
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Saljuq Turks and the Abbasid Empire 8-10th c Turkish peoples on border of
Abbasid empire Serve in Abbasid armies Eventually come to dominate Abbasid caliphs
1055 CE Saljuq leader Tughril Beg recognized as sultan Consolidated hold on Baghdad, then to other
parts of the empire Abbasid caliphs served as figureheads of
authority
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Saljuq Turks and the Byzantine Empire Begin migrating into Anatolia early 11th
c 1071 Saljuq Turks defeat Byzantine army at
Manzikert, take emperor captive Remake Anatolia politically and socially
Many conversions to Islam Ottoman Turks conquer Constantinople
1453 Anatolia becomes Turkish and Islamic
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Ghaznavid Turks in Northern India
Mahmud of Ghazni of Afghanistan, invades northern India First for plunder, later to rule Northern India dominated by 13th century Establish Sultanate of Delhi
Sultanate undergoes attacks from local rulers; holds out
Strong persecution of Buddhists, Hindus Pushes for conversions
The Mongol Empires
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Chinggis Khan and the Making of the Mongol Empire Temüjin (b. 1167)
Father prominent warrior, poisoned c. 1177, Temujin forced into poverty
Mastered steppe diplomacy, elimination of enemies
Brought all Mongol tribes into one confederation
1206 proclaimed Chinggis Khan: “Universal Ruler”
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Mongol Political Organization
Chinggis Khan changes how Mongols are governed Break up tribal organization Formed military units of different tribes Promoted officials on basis of merit and
loyalty Established distinctly non-nomadic
capital at Karakorum
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Mongol Army
Mongol population only 1 million (less than 1% of Chinese population) Army appx. 100-125,000
Strengths: Cavalry Short bows Rewarded enemies who surrender, cruel to
enemies who fight Begin military conquests
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Mongol Conquests
Conquest of China by 1220 Conquest of Afghanistan, Persia
Emissaries murdered, following year Chinggis Khan destroys ruler
Ravaged lands to prevent future rebellions Large-scale, long-term devastation
On death of Chinggis Khan, realm is divided into four empires (khanates)
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The Mongol Empires c.1300 CE
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The Mongols and Western Integration“Pax Mongolia” Experienced with long-distance trade
Protection of traveling merchants Volume of trade across central Asia
increases Diplomatic missions protected Missionary activity increases
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The Great Khan—China
Khubilai Khan (grandson of Chinggis Khan) consolidates rule of China Ruthless warrior, but religiously tolerant
Hosted Marco Polo Establishes Yuan dynasty Unsuccessful forays into Vietnam,
Cambodia, Burma, Java Two attempted invasions of Japan
(1274, 1281) turned back by typhoons (kamikaze: “divine winds”)
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Mongol Rule in China
Strive to maintain strict separation from Chinese Intermarriage forbidden Chinese forbidden to study Mongol
language Import administrators from other areas
(esp. Arabs, Persians) No desire to assimilate Chinese culture
No support for Confucianism; wither away Yet tolerated religious freedoms
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The Mongols and Buddhism
Shamanism remains popular Lamaist school of Buddhism (Tibet)
gains strength among Mongols Large element of magic, similar to
shamanism Ingratiating attitude to Mongols: khans as
incarnations of Buddha
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Decline of the Yuan Dynasty
Mongols spend bullion that supported paper currency Public loses confidence in paper money,
prices rise From 1320s, major power struggles Bubonic plague spreads 1330-1340s 1368 Mongols flee peasant rebellion
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The Ilkhanate of Persia
Abbasid empire toppled Baghdad sacked, 1258
Loot city, kill Caliph, 200,000 massacred
Attempted expansion into Syria checked by Muslim Egyptian forces
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Mongol Rule in Persia
Nomadic conquerors had to learn to rule sedentary societies Inexperience leads to loss of control of most lands
within a century Persia: depends on (local) existing
administration Relative free hand as long as deliver tax revenues Left matters of governance to bureaucracy
Eventually assimilated into Islamic lifestyle Conversion to Islam Persecution of non-Muslims; Persia again privileged
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Decline of the Mongol Ilkhanate Overspending, poor tax returns from
overburdened peasantry Ilkhan attempts to replace precious
metal currency with paper in 1290s Failure, forced to rescind
Factional fighting Last Ilkhan dies without heir in 1335;
Mongol rule collapses
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The Golden Horde—Russia
Conquest of Russia, 1237-1241 Established tributary relationship that
lasts to 15th century Rule over Crimea to late 18th century
Raids into Poland, Hungary, Germany
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Surviving Mongol Khanates
Khanate of Chaghatai in central Asia Continued threat to China
Golden Horde in Caucasus and steppes to mid-16th century Continued threat to Russia Remain in Crimea to 18th c
After the Mongols…
Tamerlane
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Tamerlane the Conqueror (c. 1336-1405) Turkish conqueror Timur
Timur the Lame: Tamerlane Tamerlane the Whirlwind
United nomads in Khanate of Chaghatai Major military campaigns following
decline of khanates in Persia, Afghanistan, Caucuses Built capital in Samarkand
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The Mongol Empires c.1300 CE
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Tamerlane’s Empire c. 1405 CE
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Tamerlane’s Heirs
Poor organization of governing structure
Power struggles divide empire into four regions
Yet heavily influenced several empires: Mughal Safavid Ottoman
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The Ottoman Empire
Ethnic Turks move into Anatolia after Persian Ilkhanate established
Osman, charismatic leader rises to dominate northwestern part of Anatolia
Declares independence from Saljuq sultan, 1299 Attacks Byzantine empire Followers known as Osmanlis (Ottomans)
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Ottoman Conquests
1350s conquests in the Balkans Local support for Ottoman invasion
Peasants unhappy with fragmented, ineffective Byzantine rule
Tamerlane defeats Ottoman forces in 1402, but recover by 1440s
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The Capture of Constantinople, 1453 Sultan Mehmed II (“Mehmed the
Conqueror”) Renamed city Istanbul, capital of
Ottoman empire