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Chapter 10Global Effects
Lecture #21HNRS 228Energy and the EnvironmentAdapted from UNM and USGS
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Chapter 10+ Overview
• Earth as a planet• The polar regions and sea ice effects• The stratospheric ozone situation• Another look at greenhouse gasses• Climate change• Global warming
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iClicker Question
Which of the following layers of the atmosphere is highest above the surface of the Earth?
A TroposphereB StratosphereC ThermosphereD MesosphereE Ozone Layer
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iClicker Question
What is the primary ingredient of the Earth's atmosphere?
A NitrogenB OxygenC Nitrogen and oxygen in equal partsD HydrogenE Carbon dioxide
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iClicker Question
In what part of the atmosphere does weather occur?
A HydrosphereB StratosphereC IonosphereD TroposphereE All of the above
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iClicker Question
How rapidly a planet loses its atmosphere depends on the planet's
• I. mass• II. atmospheric composition• III. temperature• IV. rotation period
A I & IIB III & IVC I, II, & IIID II, III, & IVE I, II, III, & IV
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iClicker Question
The presence of Earth’s magnetic field is a good indication that
A there is a large amount of magnetic material buried near the North Pole.
B there is a quantity of liquid metal swirling around in the Earth's core.
C the Earth is composed largely of iron.D the Earth is completely solid.E there are condensed gasses in the core of
the Earth.
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The Earth
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General Features
Mass: MEarth = 6 x 1027 g
Radius: REarth = 6378 km
Density: = 5.5 g/cm3
Age: 4.6 billion years
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Earth's Internal Structure
Crust: thin. Much Si and Al(lots of granite). Two-thirds covered by oceans.
How do we know? Earthquakes. See later
Mantle is mostly solid, mostly basalt (Fe, Mg, Si). Cracks in mantle allow molten material to rise => volcanoes.Core temperature is 6000 K. Metallic - mostly nickel and iron. Outer core molten, innercore solid.
Atmosphere very thin
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Earth's Atmosphere78% Nitrogen21% Oxygen
gas is ionized by solar radiation
ozone is O3 , which absorbs solar UV efficiently, thusheating stratosphere
commercial jet altitudes
room temperature
Original gases disappeared. Atmosphere is mostly due to volcanoes and plants!
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Ionosphere
Particles in the upper reaches of the atmosphere are ionized by the sun.
Radio signals below ~20 MHz can “bounce” off the ionosphere allowing communication “over the horizon”
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Convection
Earth's surface heated by Sun. What would happen if it couldn't get rid of the energy as fast as it gets in?
Convection causes both small-scale turbulence and large scale circulation patterns. It also occurs within Earth, on other planets, and in stars.
Convection also occurs when you boil water, or soup. Think of Earth's surface as a boiling pot!
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The Greenhouse Effect
Main greenhouse gases are H2O and CO2 .
If no greenhouse effect, surface would be 40 oC cooler!
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iClicker Question:
The dinosaurs were most likely wiped out by:A: disease
B: hunting to extinction by cavemen
C: a giant meteor impact
D: the close passage of another star
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iClicker Question:
A leading cause of Global Warming is:A: Increased soot (smog) in the atmosphere.
B: Increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
C: The Earth is getting closer to the sun.
D: The luminosity of the sun is steadily increasing.
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iClicker Question:
The Greenhouse effect would not occur if:A: The Earth had no atmosphere.
B: The amount of carbon dioxide doubled.
C: We got rid of all the forests.
D: The Earth didn’t have an ocean.
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18Burning carbon-containing fossil fuels produces carbon dioxide.
(Combustion)
C + O2 CO2
Global Warming Basics
Pollution is a primary CausePollution is a primary Cause
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CO2: Most Significant Greenhouse GasCO2: Most Significant Greenhouse Gas
Global Warming Basics
Source: ACIA 2004
Jennifer Allen graphic
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CO2
CH4
Humans have increased carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere by
more than 35% since the Industrial Revolution. (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2006)
The most carbon dioxide in 650,000 years. (IPCC 2007)
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Temperature Measurements
“Warming of the climate system is UNEQUIVOCAL” (IPCC 2007)
Top 11 warmest years on record have all occurred in the last 12 years.(IPCC 2007)
2006 warmest year on record in continental US. (NOAA 1/07)
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Alaska is Ground ZeroAlaska is Ground Zero
In past 50 years,
Alaska: Temperatures haveincreased
•4oF overall(National Assessment Synthesis Team)
Worldwide:Temperatures haveincreased
•Slightly more than 1oF
(IPCC 2007)
Surface Air Temperature Trends 1942-2003
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Snow and sea ice reflect 85-90% of sun’s energy.
Ocean surface and dark soil reflect only
10-20%.
The Albedo Effect
“White shirt versus Black shirt”
Why has Alaska warmed the most?Why has Alaska warmed the most?
Increased melting of
snowand sea ice
Increased melting of
snowand sea ice
More of sun’s heat energy is absorbed
More of sun’s heat energy is absorbed
More dark earth
and ocean surface is
exposed
More dark earth
and ocean surface is
exposed
Land or water warms faster
Land or water warms faster
Global Warming BasicsG
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(ACIA 2004)
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Source ACIA, 2004Jennifer Allen Animation
An area twice the size of Texas has melted away since 1979 (over 20%
decrease). (National Snow and Ice Data Center 2005)
Ice 40% thinner. (Rothrock,D.A, et al. 1999)
Ice only 6 – 9 feet thick at North Pole (NOAA FAQ 2007).
Northwest passage opened Aug 21, 2007
Impacts in Alaska1. Melting
Melting Sea IceMelting Sea Ice
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Source: NSIDC, 2005
ARCTIC SEA ICE AREA1979-2005
2005
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Impacts in Alaska1. Melting
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Melting Sea IceMelting Sea Ice
Arctic Ocean could be ice free in summer by 2040
(U.S National Center for Atmospheric Research 2006).
“Our research indicates that society can still minimize the impacts on Arctic ice.” Dr. Marika Holland, National Center for Atmospheric Research
2000 2040
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Impact World-wide1. Melting
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Impact on Ski IndustryImpact on Ski Industry
• In the US skiing is a $5B industry• 2006 saw a 78% decline in skiers visiting the pacific northwest US• Ski Seasons have shortened by 1 day/year for the last 20 years• Many European ski resorts below 1800 m (6000 ft) will close • 50 to 90% of Alpine glaciers will be gone by 2100• Some resort to snowmaking
• Expensive• Requires lots of water• Requires lots of energy
• In New Mexico, many ski areas can’t open until after Xmas
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Impacts in Alaska1. Melting
The rapid retreat of Alaska’s glaciers represents about 50% of the estimated mass loss by glaciers through 2004 worldwide. (ACIA 2004)
Loss of over 588 billion cubic yards between ’61 and ’98. (Climate Change 11/05)
Alaska’s glaciers are responsible for at least 9% of the global sea level rise in the past century. (ACIA 2004)
19411941
20042004
Glacier Bay (Riggs Glacier)
USGS photo
Bruce Molnia photo
Glacial RetreatGlacial Retreat
20032003
Matt
Nola
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photo
19581958
McCall Glacier
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Melting of the Greenland Ice Sheet
• According to NASA scientists, the Greenland ice sheet is melting faster than it is being replaced, contributing to sea level rise
• The loss of ice from Greenland doubled between 1996 and 2005
• From 1996 to 2000, the largest acceleration and mass loss came from southeast Greenland
• From 2000 to 2005, the trend extended to include central east and west Greenland
• It is estimated that 69 per cent of the ice-mass loss in recent years came from eastern Greenland
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Greenland ice is declining faster than expected
• Between 2003 and 2005 the low coastal areas of Greenland lost 155 gigatons of ice per year due to excess melting while the high elevation interior gained 54 gigatons annually from excess snowfall
• Between 2004 and 2006, the rate of melting accelerated, with the massive ice sheet melting two and one-half times faster than the previous two-year period
• Greenland lost roughly 164 cubic miles of ice from April 2004 to April 2006—more than the volume of the North American Great Lake Erie
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Greenland Ice Sheet
Dramatic ice mass losses concentrated in the low-elevation coastal regions, with nearly half of the loss coming from southeast Greenland
NASA Earth Observatory
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Greenland Ice Sheet
Greenland is now losing 20 percent more mass than it receives from new snowfall each year.
NASA Earth Observatory
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Greenland Ice Sheet
University of Colorado, CIRES
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Melting of ice in Greenland
2001-2003:
A significant increase in the melting area has been observed along the edge of the ice cap in Greenland.
NASA Earth Observatory
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Retreat of Ice and Snow in Greenland
NASA Earth Observatory
Ice loses in Greenland range from 5 to 25 centimeters of water equivalent per year
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This May 2005 picture of Helheim Glacier, demonstrates high calving activity associated with faster glacial flow
Helheim glacier, located in southeast Greenland, is now one of the fastest moving glaciers in the world1986-2006: These images show the retreat of Helheim glacier’s calving front
Calving of Helheim Glacier, Greenland
The glacier’s peak rate of flow has increased from 8 km/yr in 2000 to 11 km/yr in 2005
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Dramatic changes in Arctic Sea Ice
Imagine an ice-free Arctic
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Evidence of extensive snowmelts in West Antarctica
• January 2005: Areas of extensive snowmelt (shown in yellow and red) have been discovered by a team of NASA and university scientists in response to warmer temperatures in west Antarctica .
• The combined area affected is as big as California.
NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory
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Breakup of Larsen ice shelf (Antarctic Peninsula)
220 metres thick Larsen B shelf existed for at least 400 years prior to breakup
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Disintegration of the Larsen B Ice Shelf, Antarctic Peninsula
The ice shelf disintegrated suddenly in March 2002 due to warm summer temperatures
NASA Earth Observatory
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Breakup of Antarctica’s Ross Ice Shelf
• An iceberg (B-15J) of size of a small United States state cracked off the Antarctica’s Ross Ice Shelf in March 2000
• On February 1, 2007, three new icebergs were formed due to the break up of the original iceberg
NASA Earth Observatory
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Breaking Off Filchner Ice Shelf Antarctica
Filchner Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf on the planetIn 1986 the front edge of Ice Shelf broke off into three enormous icebergs
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Calving of Ninnis Glacier Antarctica
22 January 2000: The Ninnis Glacier Tongue soon after the initial calving5 February 2002: Iceberg split into two sections and started moving away from Ninnis Glacier
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Cracks on Drygalski Ice Tongue Antarctica
The ice tongue was discovered in 190221 February 2005: Drygalski calved an iceberg Image shows cracks formed by time and ocean currents
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Shrinking Lake Chad shared by Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon
Persistent drought has shrunk the lake to about a tenth of its former size
• 1972: Larger lake surface area is visible in this image• 2001: Due to regionally drying climate and human demand for fresh water, Lake Chad is fraction of what is once was• 2004: In many places, the green of wetlands is being replaced by drifting sand dunes (tan ripples mixed with green)
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Shrinking Breidamerkurjökull Glacier Iceland
• 1973-2000: Images show glacier has receded and the glacial lake at its tip has enlarged
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• 1986: Images show Degradation of forest area
• 2001: Between 1984 and 1999, 38 per cent of forests were degraded
Ayles Ice Shelf, Ellesmere Island, Canada
Ayles Ice Shelf on Ellesmere Island, broke free on August 13, 2005 and drifted out to the sea
NASA Earth Observatory
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Disappearing Icecap of Mt. Kilimanjaro, Tanzania
Africa’s highest mountain with a forest belt having rich diversity of ecosystems
• 1976: Glaciers covered most of the summit
• 2000: The glaciers had receded alarmingly
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Retreat of Gangotri Glacier, India
NASA Earth Observatory
• Gangotri glacier has retreated more than 850 metres, in the last 25 years
• It has retreated more than 76 metres from 1996 to 1999
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Glacial Lakes and Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
Jeffrey Kargel, USGS/NASA JPL/AGU
• Glacial lakes are formed due to the melting of ice and snow from glaciers
• Due to the faster rate of melting from the glaciers, possibly due to global warming, water is accumulating at an increasing rate in these lakes
• Sudden outburst results in Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) downstream causing destruction of life and property
Glacial Lakes in the Bhutan-Himalaya Region
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Retreat of Upsala Glacier, Argentina
NASA Earth Observatory
The Upsala glacier has retreated more than 4 kilometres since late 1960’s to mid 1990’s and continues to retreat
January 2004 position
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Retreat of San Quintin Glacier, Chile
NASA Earth Observatory
The San Quintin Glacier appears to be losing mass and retreating
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Impacts in Alaska3. Animals
Animals at RiskAnimals at Risk
Rising temperatures
Shrinking habitat Food harder to get Expanding diseases Competition
Polar bearsWalrusesIce seals
Caribou
Black guillemotsKittiwakesSalmon
Arctic grayling
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Inundation
Sea level has increased 3.1 mm/year between 1993 and 2003 (IPCC 2007).
This is 10-20 times faster than during the last 3,000 years (ACIA 2004).
0.4-0.6 meters of sea level rise by 2100 if 3 times pre-industrial CO2 or 1% increase/year (Overpeck et al. 2006).
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Inundation InundationInundation from Four Meter Sea Level Rise (or, 1m rise + 3m storm surge)
Weiss and Overpeck, 2006
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What We Can DoWhat We Can Do
1. Is it Achievable?
2. Action Is Essential at Every Level
• Individual• Corporate• Local• State• Federal• International
3. Some Steps
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What We Can Do
Wind PowerWind Power
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Measuring Your Carbon Footprint
Major Carbon Contributors:
Electric Consumption Gas/Heating Oil
Consumption Car and Miles Driven Miles Flown Recreational Vehicle Use
Average Footprint is 30,000 pounds
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Conservation: Three Examples
Unplug Appliances Vampires! 43 billion kWH lost/year in
US Est: 1,000 lbs/year/person
Pump Up Tires 4 million gallon of gas
wasted daily in US Extends life of tires by 25% Est: 1,000 lbs/year/person
Lower Thermostat 2 degrees Est: 2000 lbs/year/person
What We Can Do
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Energy Efficiency: Two Examples
Compact Fluorescents
Four to six times more efficient
Est: for each bulb converted, save about 100 lbs/year
Bus/Walk/Bike Save money on fuel
and maintenance Est: 5,000 lbs/year
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EarthquakesThey are vibrations in the solid Earth, or seismic waves.
Two kinds go through Earth, P-waves ("primary") and S-waves ("secondary"):
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How do they measure where Earthquakes are centered?
* *
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seismic stations
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Like all waves, seismic waves bend when they encounter changes in density. If density change is gradual, wave path is curved.S-waves are unable to travel in liquid.Thus, measurement of seismic wave gives info on density of Earth's interior and which layers are solid/molten.
But faint P wavesseen in shadow zone,refracting off denseinner core
Curved paths ofP and S waves:density must slowlyincrease with depth
Zone with no S waves:must be a liquid corethat stops them
No P waves too:they must bend sharplyat core boundary
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Earth's Interior Structure
Average density
CrustMantleCore
5.5 g/cm3
3 g/cm3
5 g/cm3
11 g/cm3
Density increases with depth => "differentiation"
Earth must have been molten once, allowing denser material to sink, as it started to cool and solidify.
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Earthquakes and volcanoes are related, and also don't occur at random places. They outline plates.
Plates moving at a few cm/year. "Continental drift" or "plate tectonics"
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When plates meet...
1) Head-on collision (Himalayas)
2) "Subduction zone" (one slides under the other) (Andes)
3) "Rift zone" (two plates moving apart) (Mid-Atlantic Ridge, Rio Grande)
4) They may just slide past each other (San Andreas Fault)
side view
top view
=> mountain ranges, trenches, earthquakes, volcanoes
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iClicker Question:
Sunlight absorbed by the Earth’s surface is reemitted in the form of?A: radio waves
B: infrared radiation
C: visible radiation
D: ultraviolet radiation
E: X-ray radiation
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iClicker Question:
What steps are you willing to take to reduce your carbon dioxide footprint?A: Walk/bike/bus to work
B: Unplug appliances when not in use
C: Replace light bulbs with compact fluorescents
D: Wash clothes in cold or warm water
E: Buy a Prius
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The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a rift zone.
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What causes the drift?
Convection! Mantle slightly fluid and can support convection. Plates ride on top of convective cells. Lava flows through cell boundaries. Earth loses internal heat this way.
Cycles take ~108 years.
Plates form lithosphere (crust and solid upper mantle).Partially melted, circulating part of mantle is asthenosphere.
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Pangaea Theory: 200 million years ago, all the continents were together!