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EARTHQUAKEENGINEERINGHAND BOOK
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Forthcoming TitlesEarthquake Engineering Handbook
W.F.Chen and Charles Scawthorn
Transportation Systems Planning: Methods and ApplicationsKonstandinos Goulias
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CRC PRESS
Boca Raton London New York Washington,D.C.
EARTHQUAKE
ENGINEERINGWai-Fah Chen
Charles Scawthorn
EDITED BY
HAND BOOK
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This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reprinted material is quoted with
permission, and sources are indicated.A wide variety ofreferences are listed. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish
reliable data and information, but the authors and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials
or for the consequences of their use.
Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
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permission in writing from the publisher.
All rights reserved. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use, or the personal or internal use of specific
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The consent of CRC Press LLC does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works,
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Direct all inquiries to CRC Press LLC, 2000 N.W. Corporate Blvd., Boca Raton, Florida 33431.
Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for
identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.
Visit the CRC Press Web site at www.crcpress.com
2003 by CRC Press LLC
Information contained in this work has been obtained from sources believed to be reliable. ICBO , NCSEA, or their
memberships shall not be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of this information. This work is
published with the understanding that ICBO and NCSEA, as copublishers, are supplying information but are not attempting
to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional
should be sought.
No claim to original U.S. Government works
International Standard Book Number 0-8493-0068-1Library of Congress Card Number 2002073647
Printed in the United States of America 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
Printed on acid-free paper
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Earthquake engineering handbook/ edited by Wai-Fah Chen, Charles Scawthorn.
p. cm.(New directions in civil engineering)
Includes bibliographicalreferences and index.
ISBN 0-8493-0068-1 (alk. paper)
1. Earthquake engineeringHandbooks, manuals, etc. I. Chen, Wai-Fah, 1936- II.
Scawthorn, Charles, III. Series.
TA654.6 .E374 2002
624.1'762dc21 2002073647
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Foreword
The International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO) is proud to join CRC Press to co-publish
the Earthquake Engineering Handbook. Known internationally for its development and publication of the
Uniform Building Code(UBC), ICBOs reputation as a leader in seismic codes traces its origin back
to 1927 with its release of the nations first complete model building code. The Earthquake Engineering
Handbook is not only timely, reflecting the most recent research in earthquake engineering, but also
comprehensive, covering more than 30 topics. Written byapanel of internationally known experts, the
Handbookprovides applications and practical information to help solve real-world problems faced by
civil, structural, geotechnical, and environmental engineers. The Handbook also serves as an excellent
resource for researchers and students wishing to extend their knowledge of earthquake engineering.
Editors Wai-Fah Chen, and Charles Scawthorn have donea masterful job of assemblingablue ribbon
panel of authors from both academic and professional engineering communities. The result is abook
that more than lives up to the reputation of the long and outstanding line of engineering handbooks
from CRC Press. The Earthquake Engineering Handbookdoes not just review standard practices, but alsobrings readers quickly up to date on new approaches and innovative techniques.
CRC Press and ICBO would like to thank the National Council of Structural Engineers Associations
(NCSEA) for co-sponsoring this Handbook. NCSEA was founded for the purpose of improving the level
of standard practice for the structural engineering profession throughout the United States and to
represent the profession ona national level.
MarkA.Johnson
Director of Publications and
Product Development, ICBO
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Preface
The Handbook of Earthquake Engineering isa comprehensive reference and resource work covering the
spectrum of disciplines required for mitigation of earthquake effects and design of earthquake-resistant
structures. It has been written with the practitioner in mind. The focus is on a graduate engineer with
a need fora single reference source to keep abreast of new techniques and practices, as well as review
standard practices.
Earthquake engineering requires first of all knowledge of the geologic causes of, and expected shaking,
liquefaction, and other effects that result from,a strong earthquake. It also requiresa good understanding
of the impacts these natural effects have on humankind, ranging from our buildings and other structures
to the entire built and even social environment. In this regard, earthquakes are an almost unique natural
phenomenon, in that they affect virtually everything within a region even to furnishings within a
building, and underground structures.
To this end, the Handbook is divided into five parts. Initially, Part I reviews the basic problem of
earthquakes fromahistorical perspective, provides an overview of the framework within which earth-quake risk is managed and an introduction to dynamics, since earthquakes are most fundamentally a
dynamic process and problem. Part II of the Handbookaddresses the geoscience aspects, covering geology,
tectonics, liquefaction and tsunamis, focusing especially on earthquake strong ground motion.
Parts III and IV cover the broad spectrum of structures, from buildings built of steel, concrete, wood
and masonry, to special structures such asbridges and equipment, to the variety of infrastructure called
lifelinesthat is, the water, power, transportation and other systems and components without which
modern urban society cannot function. Earthquake structural engineering in the last decade has also
seen a burst of new technology intended to avoid rather than resist the forces of earthquakes. These
topics, base isolation and structural control,are also included.
Because earthquakes affect not only the built but also the social environment, in all its aspects, Part
V addresses special topics that the earthquake engineer must be cognizant of, if not indeed be expert in.
An important aspect of this is the social and economic impacts of earthquakes, which in recent years
have assumed increasing importance.
We wish to thank all the authors for their contributions and also to acknowledge the support of
CRC Press.
Wai-Fah Chen
Charles Scawthorn
2003 by CRC Press LLC
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Editors
Wai-Fah Chenis presently Dean of the College of Engineering at the
University of Hawaii. He was a George E. Goodwin Distinguished
Professor of Civil Engineering and Head of the Department ofStruc-
tural Engineering at Purdue University from 1976 to 1999.
He received hisB.S. in civil engineering from the National Cheng-
Kung University, Taiwan, in 1959,M.S. in structural engineering from
Lehigh University, Pennsylvania, in 1963, and Ph.D.in solid mechan-
ics from Brown University, Rhode Island, in 1966. He received the
Distinguished Alumnus Award from the National Cheng-Kung Uni-
versity in 1988 and the Distinguished Engineering Alumnus Medal
from Brown University in 1999.
Dr. Chens research interests cover several areas, including consti-
tutive modeling of engineering materials, soil and concrete plasticity,structural connections, and structural stability. He is the recipient of
several national engineering awards, including the Raymond Reese
Research Prize and the Shortridge Hardesty Award, both from the
American Society of Civil Engineers, and the T. R. Higgins Lectureship Award from the American Institute
of Steel Construction. In 1995, he was elected to the U.S. National Academy ofEngineering. In 1997, he
was awarded Honorary Membership by the American Society of Civil Engineers. In 1998, he was elected
to the Academia Sinica (National Academy of Science) in Taiwan.
A widely respected author, Dr. Chen authored and coauthored more than 20 engineering books and
500 technical papers. His books include several classical works such as Limit Analysis and Soil Plasticity
(Elsevier, 1975), the two-volume Theory of Beam-Columns(McGraw-Hill, 197677), Plasticity in Rein-
forced Concrete(McGraw-Hill, 1982), and the two-volume Constitutive Equations for Engineering Materials
(Elsevier, 1994). He currently serves on the editorial boards of more than 10 technical journals. He has
been listed in more than 20 Whos Who publications.
Dr. Chen is the editor-in-chief for the popular 1995 Civil Engineering Handbook, the 1997 Handbook
of Structural Engineering, and the 1999 Bridge Engineering Handbook. He currently serves as the consulting
editor for McGraw-Hills Encyclopedia of Science and Technology.
He has been a longtime member of the Executive Committee of the Structural Stability Research
Council and the Specification Committee of the American Institute of Steel Construction. He has been
a consultant for Exxon Production Research on offshore structures, for Skidmore, Owings, and Merrill
in Chicago on tall steel buildings, and for the World Bank on the Chinese University Development
Projects, among many others.Dr. Chen has taught at Lehigh University, Purdue University, and the University of Hawaii.
2003 by CRC Press LLC
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Charles Scawthorn is aSenior Vice President with an international
risk consulting firm. He received his Bachelor of Engineering from
The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science and Art, New
York; M.S. in structural engineering from Lehigh University, Bethle-
hem, Pennsylvania; and Doctor of Engineering in seismic risk analysis
from Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan.
In more than 30 years of practice, Dr. Scawthorn has designed and
analyzed buildings and industrial structures and engaged in planning
projects and research in the United States and internationally. These
projects have included structural design of high-rise buildings, off-
shore platforms, and critical facilities such as LNG plants and data
processing and emergency operating centers. These activities have
progressed from the assessment of individual structure risk to that of
complex systems risk and the development of integrated risk reduc-
tion programs. Dr. Scawthorn has assessed organizational and com-
munity risk due to earthquake and other hazards for the Federal Emergency Management Agency
(FEMA), the Office of Emergency Services, and other agencies in the United States, and for national
governments and the World Bank internationally. These projects have ranged from analysis of portfolio
risks for multinational corporations and insurance companies, and regional loss assessments for govern-
ment, to analysis of enterprise-wide risk for multinationals, and design of national insurance programs.
These projects have ranged across the United States, Mid-East, Far East, and Europe.Under funding from the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Geological Survey, FEMA and the
insurance industry, Dr. Scawthorn has developed innovative approaches for the analysis of fires following
earthquakes, optimizing urban land use with respect to natural hazards risk, and seismically reinforcing
low-strength masonry buildings. Much of his decision-oriented and emergency management work on
the spread and mitigation of fires following earthquakes has been performed in conjunction with fire
departments in California, particularly San Francisco. He has been a principal in the development of
techniques for the rapid assessment ofseismic vulnerability,is the original author of the EQEHAZARDTM
software for seismic risk assessment, and was technical lead on the development of a national Flood Loss
Estimation Model for HAZUS, for the National Institute of Building Sciences and FEMA. Dr. Scawthorn
has investigated natural disasters in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Japan, Turkey, and the former
Soviet Union.
Dr. Scawthorn is a Fellow of the American Society of Civil Engineers and a member of various other
professional organizations. He has served on the Scientific Advisory Committee of the National Center
for Earthquake Engineering Research, received the Applied Technology Council s Award of Excellence
for Extraordinary Achievement in Seismic Evaluation of Buildings, and is on the Editorial Board of
Engineering Structuresand the Natural Hazards Review(ASCE). He is the author of over 100 technical
papers as well as a contributor to the McGraw-Hill Yearbook of Science and Technology.
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Contributors
Jorma K. ArrosABS Consulting
Oakland, California
Donald B.BallantyneABS Consulting
Seattle, Washington
Horst G. BrandesDepartment of Civil
Engineering
University of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii
Gilles J. BureauConsulting Engineer
Piedmont, California
Kenneth W. CampbellABS Consulting and EQECAT, Inc.
Portland, Oregon
Kuo-Chun ChangDepartment of Civil Engineering
National Taiwan UniversityTaiwan, China
Wai-Fah ChenUniversity of Hawaii
Honolulu, Hawaii
J. Daniel DolanBrooks Forest Product Research
Center
Department of Wood Science and
Forest ProductsVirginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University
Blacksburg, Virginia
Lian DuanCalifornia Department of
TransportationSacramento, California
Eser DurukalBogacizi University
Kandilli Observatory
Istanbul, Turkey
Ronald T. EguchiImageCat, Inc.
Long Beach, California
Mustafa ErdikBogacizi University
Kandilli Observatory
Istanbul, Turkey
Ronald O. HamburgerSimpson Gumpertz & Heger, Inc.
San Francisco, California
Susumu Iai
Port and Airport ResearchInstitute
Yokosuka, Japan
Hirokazu IemuraGraduate School of Civil
Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering
Systems
Kyoto University
Kyoto, Japan
Gayle S. JohnsonHan-Padron Associates
Oakland, California
James J. JohnsonJames J. Johnson and Associates
Alamo, California
Mahmoud KhaterABS Consulting
Oakland, California
Richard E.KlingnerDepartment of Civil
Engineering
The University of Texas
Austin, Texas
Howard KunreutherWharton School
University of Pennsylvania
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
David L. McCormickABS Consulting
Oakland, California
Y. L. MoDepartment of Civil and
Environmental Engineering
University of Houston
Houston, Texas
Niaz A.NazirDeSimone Consulting Engineers
San Francisco, California
Michael J. ORourkeDepartment of Civil EngineeringRensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Troy, New York
2003 by CRC Press LLC
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KeithA. PorterCivil Engineering Department
California Institute of Technology
Pasadena, California
Mulyo Harris PradonoStructural Dynamics
Laboratory
Department of Civil Engineering
Systems
Kyoto UniversityKyoto, Japan
Richard Roth, Jr.Consulting Casualty Actuary
Huntington Beach, California
Charles ScawthornConsulting Engineer
Berkeley, California
Anschel J. SchiffStanford University
Stanford, California
Hope A.SeligsonABS Consulting
Irvine, California
Guna SelvadurayMaterials Engineering
Department
San Jose State University
San Jose, California
Kimberly I. ShoafSchool of Public Health
University of California at
Los Angeles
Los Angeles, California
Costas SynolakisDepartment of Civil Engineering
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, California
Paul C. ThenhausABS Consulting
Evergreen, Colorado
Yeong-Bin YangDepartment of Civil Engineering
National Taiwan University
Taiwan, China
Jong-Dar YauDepartment of Architecture and
Building Technology
Tamkang University
Taiwan, China
2003 by CRC Press LLC
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Contents
SECTION I Fundamentals
1 Earthquakes: A Historical Perspective Charles Scawthorn1.1 Introduction
1.2 Review of Historical Earthquakes
2 Earthquake Risk Management: An Overview Charles Scawthorn2.1 Introduction
2.2 Overview of Earthquake Risk
2.3 Identifying the Assets at Risk
2.4 Earthquake Hazard
2.5 Earthquake Damage and Loss2.6 Mitigation Alternatives
2.7 Earthquake Risk Management Decision-Making
2.8 Earthquake Risk Management Program
2.9 Summary
3 Dynamics of Structures Jorma K. Arros3.1 Introduction
3.2 Single-Degree-of-Freedom System
3.3 Multidegree-of-Freedom Systems
SECTION II Geoscience Aspects
4 Earthquakes: Seismogenesis, Measurement, and DistributionCharles Scawthorn4.1 Introduction
4.2 Causes of Earthquakes and Faulting
4.3 Measurement of Earthquakes
4.4 Global Distribution of Earthquakes
4.5 Characterization of Seismicity
5 Engineering Models of Strong Ground Motion Kenneth W. Campbell5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Attenuation Relation
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8.19 Conclusions
8.20 PSHA Computer Codes
9 Tsunami and Seiche Costas Synolakis9.1 Introduction
9.2 Tsunamis vs. Wind Waves
9.3 Tectonic Tsunami Sources
9.4 Initial Waves Generated by Submarine Landslides
9.5 Exact Solutions of the Shallow-Water (SW) Equations
9.6 Numerical Solutions for Calculating Tsunami Inundation9.7 Harbor and Basin Oscillations
9.8 Tsunami Forces
9.9 Producing Inundation Maps
10 SoilStructure Interaction James J. Johnson10.1 SoilStructure Interaction: Statement of the Problem
10.2 Specification of the Free-Field Ground Motion
10.3 Modeling of the Soil
10.4 SoilStructure Interaction Analysis
10.5 SoilStructure Interaction Response
SECTION III Structural Aspects
11 Building Code Provisions for Seismic Resistance Ronald O. Hamburger11.1 Introduction
11.2 Historical Development
11.3 2000 NEHRP Recommended Provisions
11.4 Performance-Based Design Codes
12 Seismic Design of Steel Structures Ronald O. Hamburger and Niaz A. Nazir12.1 Introduction
12.2 Historic Development and Performance of Steel Structures
12.3 Steel Making and Steel Material
12.4 Structural Systems
12.5 Unbraced Frames
Appendix A: Design Procedure for a Typical Reduced Beam Section-Type Connection
13 Reinforced Concrete Structures Y. L. Mo13.1 Introduction13.2 Basic Concepts
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13.3 Seismic Behavior
13.4 Analytical Models
13.5 Seismic Design
13.6 Seismic Retrofit
14 Precast and Tilt-Up Buildings Charles Scawthorn and David L. McCormick14.1 Introduction
14.2 Precast and Tilt-Up Buildings
14.3 Performance of Precast and Tilt-Up Buildings in Earthquakes
14.4 Code Provisions for Precast and Tilt-Up Buildings14.5 Seismic Evaluation and Rehabilitation of Tilt-Up Buildings
15 Wood Structures J. Daniel Dolan15.1 Introduction
15.2 Wood As a Material
15.3 Seismic Performance of Wood Buildings
15.4 Design Considerations
15.5 Resistance Determination
15.6 Diaphragms
15.7 Shear Walls15.8 Connections
16 Seismic Behavior, Design, and Retrofitting of Masonry Richard E. Klingner16.1 Introduction
16.2 Masonry in the United States
16.3 Performance of Masonry in U.S. Earthquakes
16.4 Fundamental Basis for Seismic Design of Masonry in the United States
16.5 Masonry Design Codes Used in the United States
16.6 Analysis Approaches for Modern U.S. Masonry
16.7 Seismic Retrofitting of Historical Masonry in the United States
17 Base Isolation Yeong-Bin Yang, Kuo-Chun Chang, and Jong-Dar Yau17.1 Introduction
17.2 Philosophy behind Seismic Isolation Systems
17.3 Basic Requirements of Seismic Isolation Systems
17.4 Design Criteria for Isolation Devices
17.5 Design of High Damping Rubber Bearings
17.6 Design of Lead Rubber Bearings
17.7 Design of Friction Pendulum Systems
17.8 Design Examples17.9 Concluding Remarks
2003 by CRC Press LLC
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18 Bridges Lian Duan and Wai-Fah Chen18.1 Introduction
18.2 Earthquake Damages to Bridges
18.3 Seismic Design Philosophies
18.4 Seismic Conceptual Design
18.5 Seismic Performance Criteria
18.6 Seismic Design Approaches
18.7 Seismic Analysis and Modeling
18.8 Seismic Detailing Requirements
19 Structural Control Hirokazu Iemura and Mulyo Harris Pradono19.1 Introduction
19.2 Structural Control Concepts
19.3 Structural Control Hardware and Software
19.4 Examples of the Application of Semiactive Control
19.5 Concluding Remarks
20 Equipment and Systems Gayle S. Johnson20.1 Introduction
20.2 Importance of Equipment Seismic Functionality20.3 Historical Performance
20.4 Design Practices
20.5 Code Provisions
20.6 Assessment of Existing Facilities
20.7 Nonstructural Damage
21 Seismic Vulnerability Keith A. Porter21.1 Introduction
21.2 Method 1: Statistical Approach
21.3 Method 2: Expert Opinion21.4 Analytical Methods: General
21.5 Validation of Vulnerability Functions
21.6 Catalog of Vulnerability Functions
21.7 Uses of Vulnerability Functions
21.8 Closing Remarks
SECTION IV Infrastructure Aspects
22 Lifeline Seismic Risk Ronald T. Eguchi22.1 Introduction
22.2 Brief History of Lifeline Earthquake Engineering in the United States
2003 by CRC Press LLC
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22.3 Nonlinearity of Earthquakes
22.4 Indirect Economic Losses
22.5 Cost-Effective Mitigation Strategies
22.6 Federal and Industry Lifeline Initiatives
22.7 Lifeline Seismic Risk
23 Buried Pipelines Michael J. ORourke23.1 Introduction
23.2 Pipeline Performance in Past Earthquakes
23.3 PGD Hazard Quantification23.4 Wave Propagation Hazard Quantification
23.5 Pipe Failure Modes and Failure Criterion
23.6 Pipeline Response to Faulting
23.7 Pipeline Response to Longitudinal PGD
23.8 Pipeline Response to Transverse PGD
23.9 Pipeline Response to Wave Propagation
23.10 Countermeasures to Mitigate Seismic Damage
24 Water and Wastewater Systems Donald B. Ballantyne
24.1 Introduction24.2 Performance Objectives
24.3 Analysis Overview
24.4 Hazards
24.5 Pipe Vulnerability and Damage Algorithms
24.6 System Component Vulnerability
24.7 System Assessment
24.8 Mitigation Alternatives
24.9 Summary and Conclusions
25 Electrical Power Systems Anschel J. Schiff25.1 Introduction25.2 Historical Response of Electrical Power Systems to Earthquakes
25.3 Code Provision, Standards and Guidelines for Electrical Systems
25.4 Earthquake Preparedness
25.5 Earthquake Hazard and System Vulnerability Evaluation
25.6 Earthquake Preparedness Disaster-Response Planning
25.7 Earthquake Preparedness Earthquake Mitigation
25.8 Earthquake Preparedness Mitigation
25.9 Closing Remarks
26 Dams and Appurtenant Facilities Gilles J. Bureau26.1 Introduction
26.2 Dams and Earthquakes
2003 by CRC Press LLC
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26.3 Seismic Vulnerability of Existing Dams
26.4 Seismic Evaluation of Dams
26.5 Seismic Upgrade of Existing Dams
26.6 Seismic Design of New Dams
26.7 Seismic Instrumentation of Dams
27 Port Structures Susumu Iai27.1 Introduction
27.2 Seismic Response of Port Structures
27.3 Current Seismic Provisions for Port Structures27.4 Seismic Performance-Based Design
27.5 Seismic Performance Evaluation and Analysis
27.6 Methods for Analysis of Retaining/Earth Structures
27.7 Analysis Methods for Open Pile/Frame Structures
SECTION V Special Topics
28 Human Impacts of Earthquakes Hope A. Seligson and Kimberley I. Shoaf28.1 Introduction28.2 Casualties in Historic Earthquakes
28.3 A Standardized Earthquake Injury Classification Scheme
28.4 Casualty Estimation Methodology
28.5 Casualty Mitigation and Prevention
28.6 Public Health Impacts
28.7 Shelter Requirements
28.8 Closing Remarks
29 Fire Following Earthquakes Charles Scawthorn29.1 Introduction29.2 Fires following Selected Earthquakes
29.3 Analysis
29.4 Mitigation
29.5 Conclusion
30 Hazardous Materials: Earthquake-Caused Incidentsand Mitigation Approaches Guna Selvaduray30.1 Introduction and Significance of Earthquake-Caused Hazardous Materials Incidents
30.2 The Loma Prieta Earthquake
30.3 The Northridge Earthquake30.4 The Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake
30.5 Earthquake-Caused HAZMAT Incidents at Educational Institutions and Laboratories
2003 by CRC Press LLC
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30.6 Damage and Corrective Actions at Japanese Petroleum Facilities
30.7 Lessons Learned
30.8 Mitigation Approaches
30.9 Problem Areas That Must Be Addressed
30.10 Conclusions
31 Loss Estimation Mahmoud Khater, Charles Scawthorn and James J. Johnson31.1 Introduction and Overview
31.2 Why Do We Need Loss Estimation?
31.3 History of Loss Estimation31.4 Loss Modeling
31.5 The Hazard Module
31.6 Seismic Vulnerability Models
31.7 Damage and Loss Estimation
31.8 HAZUSEarthquake Loss Estimation Software
31.9 Applications of Loss Estimation
32 Insurance and Financial Risk Transfer Charles Scawthorn, Howard Kunreuther,and Richard Roth, Jr.
32.1 Introduction32.2 Insurance and the Insurance Industry
32.3 Earthquake Insurance
32.4 Earthquake Insurance Risk Assessment
32.5 Government Earthquake Insurance Pools
32.6 Alternative Risk Transfer
32.7 Summary
33 Emergency Planning Charles Scawthorn33.1 Introduction
33.2 Planning for Emergencies33.3 Writing the Emergency Plan
33.4 The Emergency Operations Center (EOC)
33.5 Training and Maintenance of the Emergency Plan
33.6 Summary: Developing an Emergency Plan
Appendix A
Appendix B
34 Developing an Earthquake Mitigation Program Charles Scawthorn34.1 Introduction
34.2 Overview of an Earthquake Mitigation Program34.3 Phase 0: Pre-Program Activities
34.4 Phase 1: Assessing the Problem
34.5 Phase 2: Developing the Program
2003 by CRC Press LLC
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34.6 Phase 3: Implementing the Program
34.7 Maintaining the Program
2003 by CRC Press LLC
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