Document 1
The geographers in Islam made much use of the Geography of
[Greek geographer and astronomer] Ptolemy, which became the
foundation stone of this science among Muslims. The first noted
Muslim figure in this field was Hisham al-Kalbi, who flourished
early in the . . . ninth century, who is particularly known for his
study of Arabia. He was followed, during the period, which marks
the real beginning of scientific activity among the Muslims, by
several well-known geographers, of whom the earliest is
Muhammad ibn Musa al-Kwarazmi, the famed mathematician and
astronomer . . . In geography, al-Kwarazmi helped lay the
foundation of this science among Muslims with his Shape of the
Earth, which was an improvement upon Ptolemy’s work, in its
tests as well as the maps which it provided.
―Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968
Directions
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1. Who created this source and for what purpose? What is the writer trying to express?2. Annotate the text using the symbols in the table.
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3. What sources helped Muslim geographers?
4. How did Muslim scholars improve the study of geography?
5. How does this document contribute to your understanding of the Islamic Golden Age?
Document 2
Arabic science was probably the most advanced science in the
world, greatly surpassing the West and China. In virtually every
field of endeavor―in astronomy, alchemy, mathematics,
medicine, optics, and so forth―Arabic scientists (that is Middle
Eastern individuals primarily using the Arabic language, but
including Arabs, Iranians, Christians, Jews, and others) were in the
forefront of scientific advance . . .
. . . While the Greek scientific heritage was lost to the
Western world for the centuries between the collapse of the
Roman Empire in the fifth century and the great translation
movement of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Arabs had
virtually full access to that heritage from the eighth century
onward. This occurred because of a momentous translation effort
whereby the great works of Greece and other cultures were
translated into Arabic. While the transmission of these ancient
sciences into Arabic-Islamic civilization was selective, it was
thoroughly representative of Greek scientific and philosophic
thought as a whole. Moreover the Arabic borrowing of the Hindu
numeral system must be accorded high recognition.
―Toby E. Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science, Islam, China, and the
West, 1993
Directions
Read the source with your group members. You may have to read more than once for clarity. Then perform the following tasks:
1. Who created this source and for what purpose? What is the writer trying to express?2. Annotate the text using the symbols in the table.
M Main Idea! Something you find interesting or connect wit? A question you have about part of the passage
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3. In what scientific fields did the Arabs excel?
4. According to the author, what led to the development of advance Arab science?
5. How does this document contribute to your understanding of the Islamic Golden Age?
Document 3
When the Byzantine emperors conquered Syria, the scientific
works of the Greeks were still in existence. Then God brought
Islam, and the Muslims won their remarkable victories,
conquering the Byzantines as well as all other nations. At first, the
Muslims were simple, and did not cultivate learning, but as time
went on and the Muslim dynasty flourished, the Muslims
developed an urban culture which surpassed that of any other
nation.
They began to wish to study the various branches of
philosophy, of whose existence they knew from their contact
with bishops and priests among their Christian subjects. In any
case, man has always had a penchant for intellectual speculation.
The caliph al-Mansur therefore sent an embassy to the Byzantine
emperor, asking him to send him translations of books on
mathematics. The emperor sent him Euclid’s Elements and some
works on physics.
Muslim scholars studied these books, and their desire to
obtain others was whetted. When al-Ma’mun, who had some
scientific knowledge, assumed the caliphate, he wished to do
something to further the progress of science. For that purpose,
he sent ambassadors and translators to the Byzantine empire, in
order to search our works on the Greek sciences and have them
translated into Arabic. As a result of these efforts, a great deal of
material was gathered and preserved
―Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, An Introduction to
History, 1377
Directions
Read the source with your group members. You may have to read more than once for clarity. Then perform the following tasks:
1. Who created this source and for what purpose? What is the writer trying to express?2. Annotate the text using the symbols in the table.
M Main Idea! Something you find interesting or connect wit? A question you have about part of the passage
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3. How did Muslim scholars acquire ancient knowledge of philosophy and mathematics?
4. According to this document, who is credited with beginning the move for ancient scientific knowledge?
5. How does this document contribute to your understanding of the Islamic Golden Age?
Document 4
Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al-Khawarizmi . . . was a
mathematician, astronomer, and geographer. He was perhaps on
of the greatest mathematicians who ever lives, as, in fact, he was
the founder of several branches and basic concepts of
mathematics . . .His work on algebra was outstanding, as he not
only initiated the subject in a systematic form but he also
developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear
and quadratic equations, which established him as the founder of
Algebra. The very name algebra has been derived from his famous
book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. His arithmetic synthesized Greek
and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contributions of
fundamental importance to mathematics and science . . . In
addition to introducing the Indian system of numerals (now
generally known as Arabic numeral), developed at length several
arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions. It was
through his work that the system of numeral was first introduced
to Arabs and later to Europe, through its translations in European
languages.
―M. M. Qurashi and S. S. H. Rizvi, History and Philosophy of Muslim
Contributions to Science and Technology, 1996
Directions
Read the source with your group members. You may have to read more than once for clarity. Then perform the following tasks:
1. Who created this source and for what purpose? What is the writer trying to express?2. Annotate the text using the symbols in the table.
M Main Idea! Something you find interesting or connect wit? A question you have about part of the passage
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3. What contributions did al-Kawarizmi make to mathematics, and what sources helped him make those contributions?
4. How did mathematics evolve thanks to al-Kawarizmi?
5. How does this document contribute to your understanding of the Islamic Golden Age?
Document 5
The institution of the hospital was inherited by Muslims from
both the Persians and the Byzantines. Already, before the rise of
Islam, the hospital at Jundishapur, near the present Persian city of
Ahvaz, was a major medical institution in which, in addition to the
care of patients, medical instruction was carried out on an
extensive basis . . .
Benefiting from the existence of these institutions, the
Muslims soon created their own hospitals. Although al-Walid I is
said to have created the first hospital in Islam in the . . . 7 th
century, the first real hospital with all the required facilities of
that day was established by Harun al-Rashid in Baghdad, during
the . . . 8th century, and the Christian physician Jibra’il ibn
Bukhtishu’ was called from Jundishapur to head it.
―Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study, 1976
Directions
Read the source with your group members. You may have to read more than once for clarity. Then perform the following tasks:
1. Who created this source and for what purpose? What is the writer trying to express?2. Annotate the text using the symbols in the table.
M Main Idea! Something you find interesting or connect wit? A question you have about part of the passage
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3. How might hospitals have been an important advance for Islamic society?
4. From what source did the Muslims adopt the institution of the hospital?
5. How does this document contribute to your understanding of the Islamic Golden Age?
Document 6
The astrolabe was a Greek Invention. Essentially it is a two-
dimensional model of the sky, an analog computer for solving the
problems of spherical astronomy. A typical astrolabe consists of a
series of brass plates nested in a brass matrix known in Arabic as
the umm (meaning “womb”). The uppermost plate, called the
‘ankabut (meaning “spider”) or in Latin the rete, is an open
network of two or three dozen pointers indicating the position of
specific stars. Under the rete are one or two more solid plates,
each engraved with a celestial coordinate system appropriate for
observations at a particular latitude: circles of equal altitude
above the horizon (equivalent to terrestrial latitude lines) and
circles of equal azimuth around the horizon (equivalent to
longitude lines). By rotating the rete about a central pin, which
represents the north celestial pole, the daily motions of the stars
on the celestial sphere can be reproduced.
astronomers, ‘Ali ibn ‘Isa. Later members of the Baghdad school,
notably al-Farghani, also wrote on the astrolabe. Al-Farghani’s
treatise was impressive for the mathematical way he applied the
instrument to problems in astrology, astronomy, and
timekeeping.
―Owen Gingerich, “Islamic Astronomy” in Scientific American, 1986
Directions
Read the source with your group members. You may have to read more than once for clarity. Then perform the following tasks:
1. Who created this source and for what purpose? What is the writer trying to express?2. Annotate the text using the symbols in the table.
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3. What are the origins of the astrolabe?
4. Why was the astrolabe a significant development?
5. How does this document contribute to your understanding of the Islamic Golden Age?
Document 7
Paper was invented by the Chinese who prepared it from the
cocoon of the silk-worm. Some specimens of Chinese paper date
back to the second century [CE]. The first manufacture of the
paper outside China occurred in Samarqyand (757). When
Samarqand was captured by the Muslims, the manufacture of
paper spread over the whole Muslim world including the Maghrib
(Tunis, Morocco, Algiers). By the end of the 12th century there
were four hundred paper mills in Fez alone. In Spain the main
center of manufacture of paper was Shatiba, which remained a
Muslim city until 1239. Cordova was the center of the business of
paper in Spain. The Muslims developed this art. They prepared
paper not only from silk but also from cotton, rags and wood . . .
The manufacture of writing-paper in Spain is one of the most
beneficial cpntributions of Muslims to Europe. Without paper, the
scale on which popular education in Europe developed would not
have been possible. The preparation of paper from silk would
have been impossible in Europe due to the lack of silk production
there. The Muslim method of producing paper from cotton cloth
could only be useful for the Europeans. After Spain the art of
paper-making was established in Italy (1268-76). France owed its
first paper mills to Muslim Spain. From these countries the
industry spread throughout Europe.
―M. M. Qurashi and S. S. H. Rizvi, History and Philosophy of Muslim
Contributions to Science and Technology, 1996
Directions
Read the source with your group members. You may have to read more than once for clarity. Then perform the following tasks:
1. Who created this source and for what purpose? What is the writer trying to express?2. Annotate the text using the symbols in the table.
M Main Idea! Something you find interesting or connect wit? A question you have about part of the passage
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3. How did Muslims learn the art of making paper?
4. What improvements did Muslims make to paper-making, and why were those improvements significant?
5. How does this document contribute to your understanding of the Islamic Golden Age?