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Life Cycle
• Fetal Growth and Development• Embryo
• Two to eight weeks• Development of vital
systems• Fetus
• Next seven months• Organs grow to maturity• From less than 1 ounce to
6 ½ to 9 pounds
Pregnancy
• Critical periods are finite periods of intense development and rapid cell division.• Neural Tube Defects
• The critical period is 17-30 days gestation.
• Anencephaly affects brain development.
• Spina bifida can lead to paralysis or meningitis.
Pregnancy
•Weight Gain during Pregnancy
• Recommended Weight Gains• Underweight
<18.5 BMI: 28-40 pounds• Healthy weight 18.5-
24.9 BMI: 25-35 pounds• Overweight 24.9-
29.9 BMI: 15-25 pounds• A Obese ≥30
BMI: 15-pound minimum• pregnant with twins:
35-45 pounds
Maternal Weight
• Weight Gain during Pregnancy• Weight-Gain Patterns
• 3 ½ pounds first trimester
• 1 pound per week thereafter
Maternal Weight
• Weight Gain during Pregnancy• Components of Weight Gain
• Increase in breast size = 2 pounds• Increase in mother’s fluid volume = 4
pounds• Placenta = 1 ½ pounds• Increased blood supply = 4 pounds• Amniotic fluid = 2 pounds• Infant at birth = 7 ½ pounds• Increase uterus and muscles = 2
pounds• Mother’s fat stores = 7 pounds
Maternal Weight
• Energy and Nutrient Needs during Pregnancy
• Energy• Second trimester +340 kcal/day• Third trimester +450 kcal/day
• Protein• + 25 grams/day• Use food, not supplements
• Essential Fatty Acids—especially long-chain omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids
• Folate• B 12• Iron• Zinc
• Ca and Vit D for bone development• Other nutrients support growth,
development and health of mother and fetus
Nutrients for blood and cell growth
• Adequate energy is important.• Should include milk and milk products• Should contain a variety of legumes,
cereals, fruits, and vegetables• Plant-only diets may cause problems during
pregnancy.• Supplements of iron, vitamin B12, calcium,
and vitamin D may be required.
• Vegetarian Diets during Pregnancy and Lactation
• Common Nutrition-Related Concerns of Pregnancy
• Nausea• Morning (anytime) sickness• Ranges from mild queasiness to
debilitating nausea and vomiting• Hormonal changes
• Malnutrition and Pregnancy
• Malnutrition and Fetal Development• Fetal growth retardation• Congenital malformations• Spontaneous abortion and stillbirth• Premature birth• Low infant birthweight
High-Risk Pregnancies
• Food Assistance Programs• Supplemental Nutrition Program for
Women, Infants and Children (WIC)• Nutrition education • Food vouchers for nutritious foods only
High-Risk Pregnancies
• Maternal Health• Preexisting Diabetes
• Proper management is important.
• Risks include infertility, hypoglycemia, hyperglycemia,
spontaneous abortions, and pregnancy-related hypertension.
• Gestational Diabetes• Routine screening • with glucose
tolerance test
High-Risk Pregnancies
• Gestational Diabetes• Risk factors
• Age 25 or older• BMI >25 or excessive
weight gain• Complications in previous
pregnancies• Symptoms of diabetes• Family history of diabetes• Hispanic, African American,
Native American, South or East Asian, Pacific Islander or indigenous Australian
• Consequences• Complications during labor
and delivery• High-birthweight infant
High-Risk Pregnancies
• Maternal Health• Preexisting
Hypertension• Heart attack and
stroke• Low-birthweight infant• Separation of placenta
from wall of uterus resulting in a stillbirth
• Transient Hypertension of Pregnancy• Develops during
second half of pregnancy
• Usually mild• Returns to normal
after birth
High-Risk Pregnancies
• Pre eclampsia • High blood pressure• Protein in the urine• Edema all over the
body• Affects all organs• Retards fetal growth
• Eclampsia• Also known as
Toxemia• Severe stage of pre
eclampsia• Seizures and coma• Maternal death
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Infant Feeding
• First milk – Colostrum• 2-3 days• High antibodies and
white blood cells• Breast Milk
• Lactalbumin – easily digested
• Correct proportions of vitamins and minerals
• Calcium is well absorbed• High bioavailability of
Iron and Zinc
• Benefits of Breastfeeding• For infants
• Appropriate composition and balance of nutrients with high bioavailability
• Hormones that provide physiological development• Improves cognitive development• Protects against infections• May protect against some chronic diseases• Protects against food allergies
Nutrition during Lactation
• For mothers• Contracts the uterus• Delays the return of ovulation,
thus lengthening birth intervals
• Conserves iron stores• May protect against breast
and ovarian cancer• Other benefits
• Cost savings• Environmental savings• Do not have to purchase or prepare formula
Nutrition during Lactation
• Prenatal and
postnatal growth
retardation
• Impairment of brain
and central nervous
system.
• Abnormalities of
face and skull and
birth defects.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome: Symptoms
• Another rapid state of growth occurs during adolescence.
• Nutrient needs rise, and iron and calcium are especially important.
• Busy lifestyles make it challenging to meet nutrient needs and develop healthy habits.
• Peer pressure is significant among adolescents.
• Energy needs vary• Depends on activity• Weight gain possible (esp. females)
• Vitamin and mineral needs increase• Iron deficiency anemia• Calcium and vitamin D
Nutrition during Adolescence
• Physiological Changes• Immune System
• Compromised immune systems can occur with age.
• Incidences of infectious disease increase
• GI Tract• Slower motility
resulting in constipation
The Aging Process
• GI Tract • Atrophic gastritis impairs
digestion and absorption of
nutrients due to:
• stomach inflammation,
• bacterial overgrowth,
• lack of hydrochloric acid
and intrinsic factor.
• Dysphagia is defined as
difficulties in swallowing and
can result in nutritional
deficiencies
• Physiological Changes• Tooth Loss
• Tooth loss and gum disease can interfere with food intake.
• Edentulous is lack of teeth.• Conditions that require
dental care• Dry mouth• Eating difficulty• No dental care in 2 years• Tooth or mouth pain• Altered food selections• Lesions, sores, or lumps
in mouth• Ill-fitting dentures
• Physiological Changes• Sensory Losses
and Other Physical Problems• Vision problems
can make driving and shopping difficult.
• Taste and smell sensitivities may diminish.
• Other Changes• Psychological Changes
• Depression and loss of appetite commonly occur together.
• Support and companionship of family and friends are helpful.
• Economic Changes• Older adults have lower incomes and are at
risk for poverty.• Only 1/3 receive aid from federal assistance
programs.• Social Changes
• Loneliness is directly related to low energy intakes.
• Malnutrition is common.
• Water• Dehydration
increases risks for:• urinary tract
infections, • pneumonia, • pressure ulcers, • confusion and
disorientation.• Fluid needs are not
recognized.• Mobility and bladder
problems
Energy and Nutrient Needs
• Energy and Energy Nutrients• Energy needs decrease.• Protein to protect muscle
mass, boost the immune system, and optimize bone mass
• Carbohydrate for energy• Fiber and water to reduce
constipation• Fat to enhance flavors of
foods and provide valuable nutrients
• Vitamin and minerals to meet needs
Energy and Nutrient Needs
•Food Assistance Programs
•Congregate meals are group settings at community centers.•Meals on Wheels is a home-delivered meal program.•The Senior Farmers Market Nutrition Program allows low-income older adults to exchange coupons for fruits, vegetables, and herbs.
Food Choices and Eating Habits of Older Adults
• Nutrient Needs• Energy – decreased
BMR• Protein – needs to not
decline• Fats – 20 – 35% energy
needs• Fiber• Water – monitor intake
and output• Vitamins B6 and B12,
Vitamin D, • Calcium• Antioxidants – Vitamin
E, C, β-carotene
Nutrition and Aging
• Preventing food insecurity• Economic Limitations
• Programs provide nutrition education• Social Limitations
• loneliness• Physical Limitations
• Limited mobility• Medical Limitations
• Dental problems• Difficulty chewing, dental caries, gum disease
• Changes in sense of taste and smell• Intolerance of food
• Medical conditions• Medical nutrition therapy education
• Prescriptions and over-the-counter drugs• Drug nutrient interaction
Nutrition and Aging
• Federal Older American Act (OAA)• Title III
• Serves at least one meal five days a week to persons 60 years and older
• Congregate meals, faith based organizations
• Nutrition Screening Initiative• National program that
promotes nutritional screening and more attention to nutrition in all health-care and social-service settings that provide for older adults
Nutrition and Aging
• D – Determine• E – Eating poorly• T – Tooth loss or mouth pain• E – Economic Hardship• R – Reduced social support• M – Multiple medicines• I – Involuntary weight loss (or
gain)• N – Needs assistance in self care• E – Elder above age 80
Nutrition and Aging