downhill skiing - outd 1070

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Downhill Skiing

Taylor MacLean

0502609

Andrew Heppner

Lakehead University

OUTD-1070-WB

February 3rd

, 2012


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The purpose of this paper is to understand the social-psychological dimensions of

downhill skiing, in other words, why people participate in this outdoor recreation activity, as

well as the social and environmental impacts of downhill skiing. The paper begins with some of

the reasons people participate in downhill skiing, followed by factors in which individuals do not

participate in this activity, then discusses the weather impacts on the skiing industry, followed by

the benefit this outdoor recreation activity has on tourism, and finally the environmental impacts

of downhill skiing. Downhill skiing has become a large winter tourism industry, especially in

large mountain regions; almost half of Australias tourism industry is based on skiing (Hilscher,

P., Norden, G., Vanreussel, B. & Weiss, O., 1998).

Why people participate in downhill skiing

In Canada, participation rates in downhill skiing have actually declined since its peak in

2001 (Canada Ski Council, 2008 as cited by Hinch, T., Hudson, S., Simpson, B. & Walker, G.,

2010). The Canada Ski Council predicts that there will be a decrease in the skiing industry by

22% due to changing demographics within the next 15 years (Hinch, T., Hudson, S., Simpson, B.

& Walker, G., 2010),. While social class background may be a barrier for some lower social

classes, downhill skiing was found to be a leisure-time physical activity that is performed among

people from higher social classes. Individuals from lower social groups say their lack of interest

is their main reason for non-involvement. Participation was found to be different depending on

gender, age, ethnicity, and income (Scheerder, J., Taks, M. &Vanreusel, B., 2005). Research has

shown that the majority of skiers are younger, have a strong enthusiasm for health and fitness,

while most are males and between the ages of 15 and 34 (Greer 1990; Mintel 1996; Precision

Marketing 1993; Waldron 1989 as cited by Gilbert, D., Hudson, S., 2001). While this is the case,

it has been shown that recently more women have been participating in this activity, as there is


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an increase in number of families that ski. Downhill skiing is sometimes thought of as one of the

few family sports as there are hills of different degrees of difficulty which makes this activity

suitable for the whole family. There are many smaller private clubs such as Alpine Ski Club in

Collingwood, Ontario which are dedicated to making their club a family oriented club. For

example, their mission states Alpine, since its inception, has been a family oriented club

dedicated to two primary goals; providing excellent skiing and snowboarding terrain with state-

of-the-art facilities for our members and to fostering our family atmosphere (Alpine Ski Club).

Knowing this, we can conclude that there are some private ski clubs that are oriented to being a

family club and encourage families no matter what age to participate as a family. Public ski

resorts are seen to be by non-participants as crowded, therefore, they attract fewer families. A

study was done on Greek recreational skiers; 220 questionnaires were handed out and 190 were

collected back, resulting in a response rate of 86.3%. Questionnaires showed that 50.5% of

samples were males, 66.3% individuals were single, and 24% were university graduates. Results

showed 29% of individuals were between the ages of 18 and 25, 47% were between the ages of

26 and 35, 16% were between the ages of 36 and 45, and finally 8% were 46 years or older

(Alexandris, K., Chatzigianni, E., Funk, D. & Kouthouris, C., 2008).

Internal and External Constraints or Barriers

While many people participate in downhill skiing as an outdoor activity, there are many

individuals who do not which can be results of internal or external constraints. There have been

many studies that attempt to understand why some people do not participate in the outdoor

recreation leisure activity of downhill skiing. There are many different theories that attempt to

support the understanding of non-participants of downhill skiing. A survey performed by

Williams and Dossa (1995) examined why Canadian skiers drop out from this activity and the


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most frequent constraints were found to be a combination of having children too young to ski

and facing financial barriers (Gilbert, D., Hudson, S., 2001); On the other hand, it was found that

many skiers returning to skiing after quitting once their children were old enough to ski and had

better financial circumstances. Many common internal constraints include personal skills,

abilities, knowledge, health problems, fear of injury while some external constraints include lack

of time, financial cost, lack of facilities, and transportation problems. Many constraints were also

examined by Crawford et al. (1991) and found that there were two different levels of constraints

(Gilbert, D., Hudson, S., 2001). The first level of constraints was known to be intrapersonal

which can include anything that has an impact on an individuals leisure choice. Intrapersonal

constraints include psychological states such as stress, depression, anxiety, perceived self-skill,

belief that they would be cold and wet, and that skiing is dangerous, and expensive. Nonskiers

believe that skiing is harder to learn then many other sports and might feel self-conscious or

embarrassed learning how to ski. The next level of constraints was known to be interpersonal

which can be a result of interaction or relationships. Interpersonal constraints include the

inability to find a partner or a friend to participate with. Gilbert and Hudson (2000) found that

people who do not participate in skiing have more intrapersonal constraints, such as fear of

injury and lifts, disliking cold and wet conditions, are self-conscious about learning as well as the

physical challenge involved (Gilbert, D., Hudson, S., 2001). Non-skiers believe skiing to be an

activity that is competitive, risk taking, and fashion-focused, while at the same time, many non-

skiers feel financially obligated to attended lessons, to buy equipment or season passes.

However, some main constraints for existing skiers include lack of snow and over-crowding.


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Weather impact on participation

Weather conditions are seen as one of the key variables of skiing. Weather factors such as

maximum and minimum temperatures, snow depth, and wind chill have shown to have a

significant impact on downhill ski lift ticket sales (Holecek, D., Nicholls, S. & Shih, C., 2009).

Successful ski resorts are responsible in managing their geographical forces such as terrain,

temperature, snowfall, and sunshine. Snow reliability on a ski slope depends on factors that

include the altitude, the latitude, and the exposure to wind. Many studies have also shown that

snow conditions are the key variable for skiers when they are making their destination spots

(Richards, 1995 as cited by Clydesdale, G., 2007) while other variables include the scenic

beauty, and the access to social activities. 68% of skiers said they enjoyed a scenic environment,

61% said they enjoy the good social activity, 35% said they enjoyed being able to relax, and 20%

said they enjoy the fitness and competitiveness (Mintel, 1996 as cited by Clydesdale, G., 2007).

Benefit on Tourism

Downhill skiing is one of the classic winter sport tourism activities, and is responsible for

most of the tourism that flows through Europe and North America. Tourism of downhill skiing

has been increasing steadily throughout the past two decades, however, downhill skiing has

supposedly entered a mature phase and in some countries the number of skiers has actually

decreased. In areas such as the Alps, winter sports, in particular downhill skiing is one of the

main tourist attractions. With recent technology including snow machines planning has been

made more certain. As a result, ski resorts are able to advertise opening and closing dates well in

advance, this influences skiers to book their holidays in advance with a greater certainty that they

will be able to ski and that there will be enough snow in order to open the hills. When skiers


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book holidays this means that staff can be employed in order for the resort to run smoothly as

well as having the knowledge as to when their income will begin. On the other hand, hotels and

businesses are able to plan for the season in regards to making arrangements with staff and

potential supplies. Locals who are dependent on the skiing tourism were found to have a more

positive attitude towards the tourism industry than those not dependent on the tourism industry.

Environmental Impacts

Although most locals realize the environmental impacts of downhill skiing, many of them

are dependent on the tourism industry and therefore tourists are not informed of the

environmental problems that are associated with downhill skiing. A study that examined the

environmental impacts of 50 sports concluded that on- and off-run skiing caused the most

damage (Langbein et al., 1995 as cited by Hilscher, P., Norden, G., Vanreussel, B. & Weiss, O.,

1998). 36 individuals were questioned for a study and 54% admitted to skiing off runs, while this

type of skiing damages young shrubs and trees while also destroying animal habitats (Hilscher,

P., Norden, G., Vanreussel, B. & Weiss, O., 1998). Ecological impacts of skiing were first

criticized prior to World War I in Australia because of the trees being cleared, the building of

huts, as well as the marketing of ski-runs (Hilscher, P., Norden, G., Vanreussel, B. & Weiss, O.,

1998). Criticism became bigger in the 1970s and 1980s when the skiing industry was

expanding. This resulted in people becoming aware of the ecological impacts of downhill skiing.

In 1988, Lausanne was the first town to make a bid for the Olympic Games and they rejected the

event on environmental grounds (Hudson, S., 1996). There have been many main problems that

have been identified, these include: increase in traffic, the expansion of built-up areas, the

construction, the preparation and use of ski-runs, waste and sewage, and finally, the production,

use, and disposal of skis (Hilscher, P., Norden, G., Vanreussel, B. & Weiss, O., 1998). Many


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skiers travel by car therefore resulting in bad air quality during the ski season; some areas have

air quality as bad as urban areas. There has been an introduction in limiting access by car and

developing public transportation systems. Building on open land has resulted in small farming

villages rapidly being transformed into tourist centers, including access roads, car parks, shops,

hotels, and restaurants. As these are being constructed, there is a lack of space which has been

resulted in construction in red zones which are areas that have already been threatened by

natural catastrophes such as landslides, flood, and avalanches (Hilscher, P., Norden, G.,

Vanreussel, B. & Weiss, O., 1998). The Alpine environment consist of a very fragile ecosystem

where human impact is felt very strongly as there are no ways to change the damage done as

damage is normally permanent rather than temporary. On the other hand, as farm land is being

replaced, this results in a loss of agriculture, forest land, as well as wildlife; Scenic beauty is also

being destroyed by the construction that is happening. While ski runs are being constructed,

clearing and grading has been known to lead to environmental deterioration. In order to construct

slopes, entire forests, rocks, and earth have to be removed. Snow cats are used to prepare ski

slopes, while these machines are very heavy and have sharp tracks; they cut up the ground and

destroy layers of soil. These are not the only behaviours that cause damage as the edges of skis

can also damage the slopes. In addition, snow making machines require a large amount of energy

and water in order to produce artificial snow. One positive aspect of snow making machines is

that protect the ground from frost and mechanical damage. There has been some debate to

whether or not artificial snow shortens vegetation period. Some lift companies have been alerted

of these damages and have begun cleaning up sites after the winter season and recultivating them

during the summer months. Manufacturing and servicing of ski products produce pollution and

emissions that effect the environment. Each year in Australia alone, 400,000 pairs of skis are


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thrown away (Hilscher, P., Norden, G., Vanreussel, B. & Weiss, O., 1998). Although a large

majority of both tourists and locals are aware that skiing causes ecological damage, they do not

let this change their beliefs and attitudes towards skiing. A large majority of both tourists as well

as locals not involved in tourism felt that they should be more aware of the environmental

problems related to skiing. Locals not involved in tourism are more likely to realize these

negative impacts on the environment then locals involved and dependent on tourism. A majority

of ski tourists (59%) in Austria reported they would pay an environmental tax if something

constructive would be done for the environment, this high degree of willingness to pay this tax

shows that ski tourists are more likely to come from a higher socioeconomic group (Hilscher, P.,

Norden, G., Vanreussel, B. & Weiss, O., 1998). A study has shown that tourists expect an

undamaged courtside along with a cozy and traditional atmosphere (Langer, 1996 as cited by

Hilscher, P., Norden, G., Vanreussel, B. & Weiss, O., 1998). The future of the ski industry

depends on the ability to find an acceptable balance between economic needs and the demands

for a natural environment.

In conclusion, there are many individuals who take part in downhill skiing as an outdoor

recreation leisure activity although many do not realize how many environmental affects this has

on the environment because we have not been educated about these issues. Many locals depend

on winter tourism which is principally based on downhill skiing therefore overlook these

environmental issues. While many individuals who do not participate in downhill skiing face

many inter or intrapersonal barriers or constraints, there are many constraints that can be

overcome. There are many different reasons that skiers participate in this activity although the

industry might have reached a peak and might continue to decrease in numbers. On the other

hand, weather conditions are one of the key variables and while global warming continues to


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occur, there is less and less natural snow and fewer conditions in which snow can be made. Ski

resorts need to take into account all these factors in order to continue their tourism, they must

start making adjustments.


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Hudson, S., (1996), The 'greening' of ski resorts: a necessity for sustainable tourism, or a

marketing opportunity for skiing communities?,Journal of Vacation Marketing, 2 (2), 176-185,

doi: 10.1177/135676679600200207

Scheerder, J., Taks, M. & Vanreusel, B., (2005), Stratification Patterns of Active Sport

Involvement Among Adults: Social Change and Persistence,International Review for the

Sociology of Sport, 40 (2), 139-162, doi: 10.1177/1012690205057191

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