double blending: online theory with on-campus practice in photography instruction

Innovations in Education and Teaching InternationalVol. 45, No. 1, February 2008, 3–14

ISSN 1470-3297 print/ISSN 1470-3300 online© 2008 Taylor & FrancisDOI: 10.1080/14703290701757385http://www.informaworld.com

Double blending: online theory with on-campus practice inphotography instruction

Shlomo Lee Abrahmov* and Miky Ronen

School of Design and the Instructional Systems Technologies Department, Holon Instituteof Technology, IsraelTaylor and Francis LtdRIIE_A_275707.sgm

10.1080/14703290701757385Innovations in Education and Teaching International1470-3297 (print)/1470-3300 (online)Original Article2008Taylor & Francis451000000February 2008Shlomo [email protected] This paper presents a blended learning model in which the online component is not used toreplace some of the traditional on-campus activities of a course but to introduce new teachingobjectives that would not have been possible to achieve, because of class time limitations andthe nature of the course. The instructional model was aimed at integrating a theoretical layerof visual literacy in a traditional practical photography course, using various online individualand collaborative activities. The paper presents the model, details the instructional design ofthe web-based elements and their integration with the practical on-campus activity, andsummarises an evaluation study performed with three classes. We suggest that this doubleblending approach combining online theory with on-campus practice could be used to copewith similar instructional challenges in other subject matter domains.

Keywords: Visual literacy; photography instruction; blended learning; web-based teaching

Introduction

Basic photography instruction is traditionally carried out in a purely practical course, in which thestudents learn photographic skills by shooting, developing and printing black and white materials(Sartorius 2000). Newbury (1997) pointed out that the traditional approach to teaching photogra-phy lacks a broader intellectual significance, and argued for the need of such education to achievemore than a set of practical skills. With the advent of photography as a cultural and socialmedium, there are additional challenges to photography education, such as teaching photogra-phers to be visually literate (Goin 2001). Robbins (2000) stressed that photographic educationmust endeavour to redefine itself in order to retain its relevance to contemporary culture. Withthis perspective, photography instruction could be used to introduce the students to the basic skillsof visual literacy which involves both the ‘reading’ and ‘writing’ of images. As a basic course ofintroducing the students to the various aspects of practical photography, the duration of onesemester poses a challenge for the instructor who had many learning outcomes to achieve in alimited period. Our goal was to include a theoretical element in the practical course, which willenable the students to gain the basic skills of ‘reading’ photographs and in doing so introduce theconcept of visual literacy within practical photography instruction.

The challenge

Photography can be compared to writing, a medium that could be used in various levels of mean-ings: to produce a shopping list, a journalistic account or to create an intricate work of literature.

*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

4 S.L. Abrahmov and M. Ronen

The ultimate goal of photography instruction is to teach the ‘literature’ level of photography.Therefore, an effective instruction requires the development of ‘reading’ skills as well as the prac-tice of ‘writing’ skills in which both the reading of images and the making of them are regardedas informed activities. Clarke (1997) claims that instead of looking at photographs, which impliesa passive act of recognition, we should insist on reading them. The act of reading involves anactive and complex comprehension of relationships and the assignation of meanings, as well asthe exploration of the interaction between the reader and the image, in a similar fashion to ouractivity when reading text. Tagg (1993) posited that we should explore the meaning of a photo-graph more like the reading of a complex sentence than the reading of a single word. Trachtenberg(1988) suggests that we should enter the photograph, negotiate its intricate passages and by doingso we can begin to sort out its implications, its explicit intentions and those that remain hidden.

Sayre et al. (1999) described visual language as a silent language which is not easily trans-lated into the verbal, thus, they explained, it can be difficult to discuss, critique, prove or teach.Photography as a visual language is difficult for many people to perceive, because they are usedto photographs as being unary, or transparent windows to the world. If photographs are transpar-ent (Cohen and Meskin 2004; Lopes 2003; Walton 1984), we do not have to look at a photographto get specific insights, or need to engage special reading skills, because transparency means thatthere are no significant differences between the way we perceive photographs and the way weperceive their referents. This factual approach to photographs is common to novice photogra-phers and it creates problems in teaching when we want the students to leave the tangible worldof facts in order to accept the poetic or symbolic quality of the image (Sayre et al. 1999). Thus,the first concern to address is the students’ initial perception of photography, as a medium with afactual level of meaning only. The pedagogy constructed in the theoretical part of this course isaimed at changing this perception of photography and achieving an understanding of photo-graphs as having an additional interpretive level of meaning which is interlinked with theirfactual level. This approach stresses the relation between practical aspects of photographs’creation with how these aspects influence the content of the photographs.

Photography teaching as presented in this article commences the process by which photogra-phers gain the ability to be visually literate. This kind of visual literacy has to do with criticalknowledge that includes awareness of the intentionality of how an image is constructed in orderto offer a particular response or experience (Kellner 2002; Raney 1999). When one talks abouttheory of photography the intention is not theory of optics, films structures etc. but criticaltheory which explores meanings in photographs. This theory is based upon adapting an approachto photographs that explores interrelated levels of meanings. In his Camera Lucida, Barthes(1981) talked about a photograph as being unary when it does not transform the reality of itsorigin in some significant fashion. Conversely, a photograph becomes richer in its implicationswhen it possesses more than one layer of meaning. Barthes, in his essay ‘The PhotographicMessage’ (1977), discussed two kinds of messages in a photograph; one is the denotativemessage and the second is the connotative message. Feinstein (1996) described these two levelsas the literal and the non-literal or metaphoric levels of interpretation. In order to clarify thedistinction between them we can call the first the factual level and the second the interpretivelevel. Barthes’ schema of denotation and connotation offers a simple and powerful method ofreading and interpreting images (Barrett 2003). The theoretical underpinning for this course,then, is based on teaching the students to explore the development of these two layers of mean-ing in photographs.

In addition, the theoretical layer is intended to enhance the use of professional terms and crite-ria that are specific to photography and other visual media. The terms used for reading images,or for basic visual literacy, are developed from the perspective of the visual practitioner inphotography. The idea is to create a similarity between the terms used to create photographs and

Innovations in Education and Teaching International 5

the terms that are used to read them. The use of common criteria is significant because as thedefinition of full visual literacy includes both the ‘reading’ and the ‘writing’ of images, commoncriteria help the students perform in both of these activities. With this perspective, the parallelactivities in this course, one theoretical and the other practical, are intended to enrich each other.It seems that this approach to the enhancement of the use of terms could be applied successfullyin other educational situations where such a challenge is encountered.

Web-based teaching of photography

As in all other subject domains, the web is also used for the teaching of practical photography.Typical examples are the online diploma photography studies described by Hamilton (2003) andthe Virtual Studio (Brown and Cruickshank 2003). While these courses offer a web alternative tothe on-campus teaching, their contents and instructional approach are very similar to the tradi-tional courses, focusing mainly on the practical and technical aspects of photography.

Nowadays, many higher education courses adopt a blended model, which combines onlineand face-to-face instruction. This model usually refers to a hybrid approach in which the onlinecomponent replaces part of the on-campus traditional activities (Dean et al. 2001; McDonald andMcAteer 2003; Murphy 2003; Myint and Atputhasamy 2003; Voos 2003). The incorporation ofonline elements into academic courses offers various ways of implementing traditional instruc-tional methods, as well as the ability to incorporate new strategies made feasible by this medium.Nevertheless, each delivery method should be chosen for what it can deliver best (Zenger andUehlein 2001).

Our goal in using the web was not to replace the traditional activities in this course but tointroduce the new teaching objectives that would not have been possible to achieve because ofclass time limitations and the definition of the course as practical by nature.

The double blending instructional model

The photography course is part of the mandatory core requirements for the Bachelor of Designdegree. The traditional course included lectures, practical class activities and discussions, personalassignments, class critiques of practical assignments, a final project and a peer-evaluation activityof the final project. The new revised course consists of two parallel layers that are performedsimultaneously (Table 1): the on-campus part followed a traditional black and white photography

Table 1. Course activities and assignments.

Practical (‘writing’ skills) – on campus Theoretical (‘reading’ skills) – online

1. Practise manual camera exposure2. Practise use of depth of field3. Development of black and white films4. Printing black and white photographs5. Portrait photography6. Quality of light7. Still life8. Street/on location photography9. ‘Self-portrait as’10. Primary colours – slides film photography11. Model in the studio – artificial lighting12. Final project

1. My personal choice of a photograph2. Focal points3. Observe a portrait4. Peer evaluation of portrait assignment5. The editor’s choice6. Analysis of a photograph

Peer evaluation of the final project


introductory course structure, where the students perform various practical assignments in orderto gain elementary camera and photographic skills; and the web-based activities aimed at offeringthe introduction to critical study and discussion that are necessary in order to develop the basicskills of visual literacy.

The online assignments

The instructional approach we adopted can be described as ‘pragmatic constructivism’ (Perkins1999) allowing students to be active, social and creative learners in various contexts, while theweb-based layer was based on the combination of different modalities of learning for differentpurposes (Carman 2002).

All web-based assignments were individual. Part of the online assignments were openlysubmitted in the course website allowing students to learn from peer examples (Ronen andLangley 2004) while others were performed using a ‘post before viewing’ approach (Duffy,Dueber and Hawley 1998). A group discussion board was available for continuous peer–peer andteacher–students communication and was used to support the theoretical as well as the practical(on-campus) layer of the course.

We shall focus here on the theoretical, web-based activities. Following is a description of theassignments (Table 1), their implementation format and the rationale underlying their instruc-tional design.

1. My personal choice

The students were asked to choose a favourite photograph (from a recommended site or a site oftheir choice) and to explain their selections.

● Implementation format: open submission in a designated discussion group board.● Scaffolding: none.

This first online activity aimed to elicit intuitive reflection on a photograph in writing and tofamiliarise students with the online submission procedures. Students were encouraged, but notrequested, to examine and respond to peers’ selections.

2. Focal points

The students were asked to choose a classical painting (from a recommended website), to markthe main and the secondary focal points and their relation to each other, then to explain how thisarrangement affects and enhances the content of the work.

● Implementation format: open submission as a file attached to a message in a designateddiscussion group board.

● Scaffolding: explanation and examples of the concept of ‘focal points’ was hyperlinked tothe task page, as well as the opportunity to view peer examples.

The activity’s intent was to introduce the concept of ‘focal points’, to develop the ability to iden-tify the main and secondary focal points in an image, to promote awareness of the major role ofthe focal points in forming an effective composition, and to realise the possible connectionbetween factual and interpretive elements in a work of art.

3. Observe a portrait (Figure 1)

The students were asked to choose a portrait (from the Masters of Photography site), then to:


(1) Analyse the factual content according to the following criteria: (a) Quality and direction of light.(b) Composition.(c) Depth of field.(d) Relationship between figure and background.

(2) Express their personal response to the portrait (associations and feelings it elicits).(3) Explain why they chose this particular portrait.

● Implementation format: open submission in a designated discussion group board.● Scaffolding: submission using a template. Explanation and examples of each term are

hyperlinked to the task and template page. The opportunity to view peer examples.

Figure 1. Assignment 3, the template and a sample student response.


Figure 1. Assignment 3, the template and a sample student response.This activity introduces the basic factual terms and concepts which are directly related to practice.It aimed to develop students’ ability to analyse (read) a photograph using these terms as commoncriteria and to promote the awareness of the close connection between factual elements and inter-pretive aspects of a picture. The use of the specific resource (Masters of Photography) was meantto ensure exposure to photographs with a developed second level of meaning. This online activitywas performed in parallel with the practical portrait photography assignment.

4. Peer evaluation of portrait assignment

The students were asked to examine two peer submissions of the portrait assignment and to:

(1) Evaluate the factual analysis and add details, if necessary.(2) Offer their personal response to the portrait.(3) Observe and describe the development of a second level of meaning in this portrait.

● Implementation format: each student examined the two peer submissions following his own(in the group discussion board of assignment 3) and sent his evaluations as responsesthreaded to each of the original messages.

● Scaffolding: explanation and a reference to the second level of meaning in photographswere hyperlinked to the instructions.

The intention of this activity was for the students to learn from their peer examples, to evaluatean analysis of a photograph and to personally reflect and describe the second level of meaning ina photograph.

5. The editor’s choice (Figure 2)

The students were presented with five photographs taken in the same time and place and wereasked to respond to the following question:

As an editor of a newspaper, which of the photographs would you publish? Explain your selection.Figure 2. Assignment 5, the distribution of students’ responses (a class) and sample explanations.

● Implementation format: ‘post before viewing’. Students’ selections and their explanationswere exposed only after all students completed the assignments. The results were used todiscuss the concept of ‘framing’ and the functioning of images in different contexts as wellas the development of a second level of meaning in a particular photograph.

The aim of this activity was to explore the concept of ‘framing’ and its effect on the content ofa photograph. When a photographer lifts a camera and looks through its viewfinder, the firstthing he has to be aware of is how the photograph is to be framed and how it would influencethe creation of the image with regard to its composition, elimination of certain details, and rela-tionship between the subject and the background. These factual considerations can have a criti-cal influence on the creation of a second connotative level of meaning that transcends theparticularity of the photograph’s referent. The example used to demonstrate this issue is thesequence of five frames Dorothea Lange photographed while creating her famous MigrantMother in 1936 (Levine 1988, 16–17). In Lange’s sequence we can observe that the framewhich was published as Migrant Mother removes all references to the environment where thisphotograph was taken, leaving only the mother’s gaze with the children on her shoulders. Suchcropping creates a photograph which is detached from the time and place of its creation andcan thus gain a universal significance and meaning. In addition, this assignment demonstratedhow our attitude towards photographs can be influenced by the contexts in which they are tofunction.


6. Analysis of a photograph (Figure 3)

Each student was assigned a specific photograph from a selection of five different photographsand was asked to analyse its factual and interpretive levels, and to express a personal response tothe photograph.

● Implementation format: ‘post before viewing’. Students’ analyses and responses wereexposed only after all students completed the assignments.

Figure 2. Assignment 5, the distribution of students’ responses (a class) and sample explanations.


Figure 3. Assignment 6, a sample student response (the factual terms used are highlighted).This activity was aimed at summarising all aspects of the theoretical layer of the course: theimplementation of critical approach to observing photographs, the use of terms and commoncriteria in analysing photographs without specific scaffolding, and identifying the connectionbetween the factual and the interpretive levels of meaning.

A content analysis was carried out in order to examine the use of terms and the ability to referthem to the interpretive level of meaning in a photograph.

Peer evaluation of the practical work

For the final project the students had to create a series of four to six printed photographs on acommon underlying theme. The choice of subject for the series was left open for the students to

Figure 3. Assignment 6, a sample student response (the factual terms used are highlighted).


choose according to their personal preference, but it was explained to them that the main goal oftheir project was to create photographs with a developed second level of meaning.

A peer evaluation was carried out during the last on-campus session of the course. Eachstudent was asked to evaluate two peer projects and submit his evaluation in writing. The studentswere not specifically directed how to organise their evaluations. A content analysis of thestudents’ responses was carried out in order to examine the use of factual terms and their abilityto relate to two levels of meaning in a photograph.

Implementation and evaluation

The instructional model was implemented with three courses during the academic years 2004–2005 (second year Interior Design, first year Industrial Design), with 22–24 students in eachcourse. The courses were held on campus and were accompanied by a course website organisedwithin the HighLearn management system.1

The evaluation study focused on examining:

● The efficiency of the web-based component and the instructional design of the onlineactivities.

● The impact of the theoretical web-based layer of the course on the students’ practical work.

Data sources

This evaluation study was based on the analysis of the data extracted from the following sources:

● Students’ online activity and their performance in the theoretical tasks (content analysis).● Students’ performance in the practical final project.● The peer evaluation records of the final project (content analysis).● Students’ reflections as expressed in a questionnaire administered at the end of the course.● Interviews with a sample of students from each class.

In the following sections we shall present a brief summary of the main findings.

The use of factual terms

A detailed content analysis was performed on all students’ written responses in order to identifythe use of factual concepts before, during and at the end of the course. At the beginning of thecourse (assignment 1) about 30% of the students used the term ‘composition’ in their ‘intuitivephoto analysis’ and few students mentioned ‘light direction’ and ‘framing’.

During the course (assignments 2–5) the students became familiar with professional termsused to characterise the factual elements of a photograph. These assignments were structured andscaffolded by templates and additional explanatory materials.

As can be seen from Figure 4, most students were able to use and apply these concepts in anon-scaffolded task (assignment 6). The awareness of the role of the factual aspects and the abil-ity to apply them was evaluated again, in the written peer evaluations of the final project, and bythe reflective questionnaire administered at the end of the course.Figure 4. Use of terms in the course of various activities.It is interesting to note that the term ‘focal points’ was the concept most frequently mentionedby students in the reflective questionnaire, when asked to list the most important aspects ofphotography that they had learned. This can be explained by the fact that the concept of ‘focalpoints’ was revelatory to the students and that they found it most relevant to their design studiesand work. Indeed, many students specifically mentioned this concept when asked about the trans-ferability of the theoretical knowledge to other areas or situations.


The contribution of the ‘reading skills’ to the development of ‘writing skills’

In introductory practical courses students tend to focus mainly on factual factors (such ascomposition, depth of field), as these elements are directly related to their practical work. Ourmajor challenge was to promote the awareness of the connotative level of meaning, and its rela-tion to the factual aspects, in order to foster the understanding and creation of photographs thatexpress additional levels of meanings. Students’ awareness to the connotative level was testedby examining their responses in their open reflection questionnaire; about 60% of the students ineach of the classes mentioned the importance of ‘the second level of meaning’ in a photograph.Furthermore, in the peer evaluation activity, about 60% of the students were looking for asecond (connotative) level of meaning in peers’ work and managed to relate it to the factualelements of the photographs.

The final project emphasis was on the students creating work that has a second level of mean-ing. It is typical for beginning students to initially approach their projects from a documentaryperspective. A personal consultation was carried out during the creation of the final projects. Inthese consultations the students were advised how to approach their projects with a specific intentbeforehand. For example, a student who wanted to create a project which captured the interactionbetween her divorced parents was advised to try to observe and capture the space between themand in doing so reflect on the psychological space between her parents.

Most of the projects achieved the desired result of photographs that go beyond simple docu-mentary photographs, that is, photographs with a developed interpretive level of meaning.

Was the quality of the practical work related to the parallel online study of the theoreticalaspects?

All students reported that the study of theoretical aspects of ‘reading photographs’ hadcontributed to the development of their practical skills, while most (70%) stated that it had asignificant impact on the photographs they have produced. Following are two sample comments:

I could see the difference and the process I went through from the first lesson to the final project, withthe contribution of the analysis I improved my work.

Photography is not only technical. It is based on theoretical aspects that without them it would havebeen impossible to reach a satisfactory level.

Figure 4. Use of terms in the course of various activities.


Furthermore, the detailed analysis revealed that achieving a developed interpretive level in thepractical work was significantly correlated (R = 0.43, p = 0.02) with student’s awareness andknowledge of the theoretical concepts as reflected in their replies to the questionnaire.

These findings demonstrate the beneficial contribution of the theoretical aspects when theyare integrated with practice.

Web-based learning aspects

At the end of the courses students were asked to reflect on various aspects related to the onlineasynchronous activities conducted via the course site. All students reported that the online activ-ities were effective and contributed to their ability to read photographs.

Students were specifically asked to reflect on the open submission approach and their use ofpeer examples. Most students (60%) reported that they had examined peers’ work beforesubmitting their own; 50% reported that they had changed and improved their work as a result ofexamining peer examples; about 25% of the students mentioned events in which they hadprepared their work but postponed submission in order to view more peer examples. These find-ings confirm that ability to view peers’ work provides useful scaffolding to the students whomay need additional help.

Summary and concluding remarks

We have introduced a model in which the blending of face-to-face with online instruction enabledan effective integration of theoretical aspects in the context of a traditional practical course. Thisinstructional model seems to address successfully two concerns. The first is how to include atheoretical layer in the context of a practical course. The second is what would be a simple andrelevant theoretical content both to the practice of photography and to the introduction of basicskills of visual literacy.

The web-based component enabled us to engage the students in individual activity, whereeach student, in his own time, can develop his visual reading skills through a guided and focusedset of activities, while learning from peer examples.

We suggest that this double blending approach of online theory with on-campus practicecould be used to cope with similar instructional challenges of integrating theoretical aspects inpractical courses in other subject matter domains.

Note

1. HighLearn, Britannica Knowledge Systems (http://www.britannica-ks.com).

Notes on contributors

Dr. Shlomo Lee Abrahmov is an artist and lecturer on photography, visual literacy and visual culture in theSchool of Design and the Instructional Systems Technologies Department, Holon Institute of Technology.His research includes theory and practice in photography, and the development of teaching strategies invisual literacy and visual culture.

Prof. Miky Ronen is the chair of the Instructional Systems Technologies Department at the Holon Instituteof Technology. Her research focuses on the instructional design of interactive learning environments and onthe incorporation of technology in the teaching and learning process.

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double blending: online theory with on-campus practice in photography instruction

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