Domestic Violence in Domestic Violence in Developing Countries: Developing Countries: Theory and EvidenceTheory and Evidence

Mukesh Eswaran and Nisha MalhotraMukesh Eswaran and Nisha Malhotra

University of British ColumbiaUniversity of British Columbia

IntroductionIntroduction

Theoretical ModelTheoretical Model Data and StatisticsData and Statistics Econometric RegressionEconometric Regression Empirical ResultsEmpirical Results DiscussDiscuss

Theoretical ModelTheoretical Model

Non cooperative Model

•Two Agents: (Woman and her husband•Two Public goods (x, y)•Domestic violence (v)

Theoretical ModelTheoretical Model

Theoretical ModelTheoretical Model

Theoretical ModelTheoretical Model

Theoretical ModelTheoretical Model

Theoretical ModelTheoretical Model

Theoretical ModelTheoretical Model

EquilibriumEquilibrium

Woman’s Bargaining PowerWoman’s Bargaining Power

EquilibriumEquilibrium

Woman’s Bargaining PowerWoman’s Bargaining Power

Domestic ViolenceDomestic Violence

PropositionsPropositions

Proposition 1 : The equilibrium level of spousal violence a woman endures may be nonmonotonic in her threat utility.

PropositionsPropositions

Proposition 2 : (a)The wife’s autonomy in equilibrium is non-

decreasing in her husband’s threat utility. (b)The extent of spousal violence the

husband perpetrates in equilibrium may decline in his threat utility.

DATADATA

We use the National Family Health Surveys We use the National Family Health Surveys (NFHS-2) data collected in 1998-99.10(NFHS-2) data collected in 1998-99.10

interviewed over 90,000 eligible women, ever-interviewed over 90,000 eligible women, ever-married women between the ages of 15-49, in these married women between the ages of 15-49, in these households.households.

The survey provides state-level estimates of The survey provides state-level estimates of demographic, socioeconomic and health parameters demographic, socioeconomic and health parameters as well as data on women’s autonomy, domestic as well as data on women’s autonomy, domestic violence, and anthropometric measuresviolence, and anthropometric measures

We narrow down our study to eligible women living in We narrow down our study to eligible women living in rural areas who are currently married.rural areas who are currently married.

– sub-sample comprises of over 50,000 eligible womensub-sample comprises of over 50,000 eligible women

Summary Statistics of Outcome Summary Statistics of Outcome VariableVariable

VARIABLE MEAN STD. DEV. Husband Has Beaten Wife (Ever) 0.18 0.38 Husband Has Beaten Wife (Past Year) 0.10 0.31 Decision_Cook 0.86 0.35 Decision _Health 0.50 0.50 Decision –Jewelry 0.52 0.50 Decision_Stay With Family 0.47 0.50 Don’t Need Permission _Market 0.24 0.43 Don’t Need Permission _Visit 0.20 0.40 Allowed_Own Money 0.55 0.50 Decision_Spend Money*i 0.15 0.35 Number of observations: 58,502

Summary statisticsSummary statistics VARIABLE MEAN STD. DEV. Wife Weight-Deviation from Mean 0.00 8.07 Wife Height-Deviation from Mean 0.00 5.75 Woman-Illiterate 0.59 0.49 Woman-Less Than Primary 0.10 0.30 Woman-Primary School 0.08 0.26 Woman-Middle School 0.15 0.35 Woman-High School and above 0.09 0.28 Husband-Illiterate 0.31 0.46 Husband-Less Than Primary 0.12 0.32 Husband-Primary School 0.09 0.28 Husband-Middle School 0.24 0.42 Husband-High School and above 0.25 0.43 length of Marriage 13.62 8.99 Woman's age at First Marriage 16.91 3.07 Unmet Desire for Sons 0.40 0.49 pregnant-Currently or Past Year 0.23 0.42 Support from Mother 0.07 0.26 self-employed 0.05 0.21 Work for family member 0.19 0.39 Work for someone else 0.18 0.38 Nuclear 0.59 0.49 Living in Natal Joint 0.02 0.14 Living in Joint 0.38 0.49 Hindu 0.80 0.40 Muslim 0.10 0.31 Christian 0.05 0.22 Sikh 0.02 0.16 Standard of Living Index-low 0.35 0.48 Standard of Living Index-medium 0.50 0.50 Standard of Living Index- high 0.15 0.36 Schedule Caste 0.18 0.39 Schedule Tribe 0.15 0.35 Other Backward Classes 0.31 0.46

Summary statisticsSummary statistics VARIABLE MEAN STD. DEV. Wife Weight-Deviation from Mean 0.00 8.07 Wife Height-Deviation from Mean 0.00 5.75 Woman-Illiterate 0.59 0.49 Woman-Less Than Primary 0.10 0.30 Woman-Primary School 0.08 0.26 Woman-Middle School 0.15 0.35 Woman-High School and above 0.09 0.28 Husband-Illiterate 0.31 0.46 Husband-Less Than Primary 0.12 0.32 Husband-Primary School 0.09 0.28 Husband-Middle School 0.24 0.42 Husband-High School and above 0.25 0.43 length of Marriage 13.62 8.99 Woman's age at First Marriage 16.91 3.07 Unmet Desire for Sons 0.40 0.49 pregnant-Currently or Past Year 0.23 0.42 Support from Mother 0.07 0.26 self-employed 0.05 0.21 Work for family member 0.19 0.39 Work for someone else 0.18 0.38 Nuclear 0.59 0.49 Living in Natal Joint 0.02 0.14 Living in Joint 0.38 0.49 Hindu 0.80 0.40 Muslim 0.10 0.31 Christian 0.05 0.22 Sikh 0.02 0.16 Standard of Living Index-low 0.35 0.48 Standard of Living Index-medium 0.50 0.50 Standard of Living Index- high 0.15 0.36 Schedule Caste 0.18 0.39 Schedule Tribe 0.15 0.35 Other Backward Classes 0.31 0.46

Summary statisticsSummary statistics VARIABLE MEAN STD. DEV. Wife Weight-Deviation from Mean 0.00 8.07 Wife Height-Deviation from Mean 0.00 5.75 Woman-Illiterate 0.59 0.49 Woman-Less Than Primary 0.10 0.30 Woman-Primary School 0.08 0.26 Woman-Middle School 0.15 0.35 Woman-High School and above 0.09 0.28 Husband-Illiterate 0.31 0.46 Husband-Less Than Primary 0.12 0.32 Husband-Primary School 0.09 0.28 Husband-Middle School 0.24 0.42 Husband-High School and above 0.25 0.43 length of Marriage 13.62 8.99 Woman's age at First Marriage 16.91 3.07 Unmet Desire for Sons 0.40 0.49 pregnant-Currently or Past Year 0.23 0.42 Support from Mother 0.07 0.26 self-employed 0.05 0.21 Work for family member 0.19 0.39 Work for someone else 0.18 0.38 Nuclear 0.59 0.49 Living in Natal Joint 0.02 0.14 Living in Joint 0.38 0.49 Hindu 0.80 0.40 Muslim 0.10 0.31 Christian 0.05 0.22 Sikh 0.02 0.16 Standard of Living Index-low 0.35 0.48 Standard of Living Index-medium 0.50 0.50 Standard of Living Index- high 0.15 0.36 Schedule Caste 0.18 0.39 Schedule Tribe 0.15 0.35 Other Backward Classes 0.31 0.46

Summary statisticsSummary statistics VARIABLE MEAN STD. DEV. Wife Weight-Deviation from Mean 0.00 8.07 Wife Height-Deviation from Mean 0.00 5.75 Woman-Illiterate 0.59 0.49 Woman-Less Than Primary 0.10 0.30 Woman-Primary School 0.08 0.26 Woman-Middle School 0.15 0.35 Woman-High School and above 0.09 0.28 Husband-Illiterate 0.31 0.46 Husband-Less Than Primary 0.12 0.32 Husband-Primary School 0.09 0.28 Husband-Middle School 0.24 0.42 Husband-High School and above 0.25 0.43 length of Marriage 13.62 8.99 Woman's age at First Marriage 16.91 3.07 Unmet Desire for Sons 0.40 0.49 pregnant-Currently or Past Year 0.23 0.42 Support from Mother 0.07 0.26 self-employed 0.05 0.21 Work for family member 0.19 0.39 Work for someone else 0.18 0.38 Nuclear 0.59 0.49 Living in Natal Joint 0.02 0.14 Living in Joint 0.38 0.49 Hindu 0.80 0.40 Muslim 0.10 0.31 Christian 0.05 0.22 Sikh 0.02 0.16 Standard of Living Index-low 0.35 0.48 Standard of Living Index-medium 0.50 0.50 Standard of Living Index- high 0.15 0.36 Schedule Caste 0.18 0.39 Schedule Tribe 0.15 0.35 Other Backward Classes 0.31 0.46

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Domestic Violence by Education and By Socio-Economic Status

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Domestic Violence by Education of Woman & her Husband

mean of hbeat_yr mean of hbeat

0 .1 .2 .3Proportion of cases

Work else

Fami. or Self

Away

Home

Away

Home

(Home or Away from Home ) (Family Self OR Someone Else)Domestic Violence by Work Condition

Estimation StrategyEstimation Strategy

V-Domestic ViolenceV-Domestic Violence

X-Other predictor X-Other predictor variables (threat Utility variables (threat Utility of the woman and her of the woman and her husband)husband)

Dependent Variable: Husband Has Beaten Wife (Past Year))

Significant

Wife Weight-Deviation from Mean (-ve) YesWife Height-Deviation from Mean Woman-Less Than Primary Woman-Primary School (-ve) YesWoman-Middle School (-ve) YesWoman-High School and above (-ve) YesHusband-Less Than Primary Husband-Primary School (-ve) YesHusband-Middle School (-ve) YesHusband-High School and above (-ve) Yeslength of Marriage (-ve) YesWoman's age at First Marriage (-ve) YesUnmet Desire for Sonspregnant-Currently or Past YearSupport from Mother (+ve) Yeswork_self (+ve) Yeswork_family (+ve) Yeswork_else (+ve) YesLiving in Natal Joint (-ve) YesLiving in Joint (-ve) YesMuslimChristianSikh (+ve) YesMedium Social Economic Status (-ve) YesHigh Social Economic Status (-ve) YesSchedule Caste (+ve) YesSchedule TribeOther Backward ClassesObservations 49118

Estimation StrategyEstimation Strategy

D-Decision making D-Decision making autonomyautonomy

V is EndogenousV is Endogenous

0

Decision_Stay With

FamilyDecision -Jewellery

Decision _Health

Decision_Cook

Permission _Visit

Permission _Market

Decision_Spend Money

Husband Has Beaten Wife (Last Year)(-ve) (-ve) (-ve) (-ve) (-ve) (-ve) -49Woman-Less Than Primary (+ve) (+ve)Woman-Primary School (+ve)Woman-Middle School (+ve)Woman-High School and above (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve)Husband-Less Than PrimaryHusband-Primary SchoolHusband-Middle SchoolHusband-High School and above (-ve) (-ve) (-ve)Woman's age at First Marriage (+ve) (+ve) (+ve)Unmet Desire for Sons (-ve) (-ve) (-ve) (-ve)pregnant-Currently or Past YearSupport from Motherwork_self (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve)work_family (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve)work_else (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve) (+ve)Living in Natal Joint (-ve) (-ve)Living in Joint (-ve) (-ve) (-ve) (-ve) (-ve) (-ve) (-ve)Muslim (+ve)Christian (+ve)Sikh (+ve)Medium Social Economic Status (-ve) (-ve) (-ve) (-ve) (-ve)High Social Economic Status (-ve) (-ve) (-ve) (-ve)Schedule Caste (-ve) (-ve) (+ve) (+ve)Schedule Tribe (+ve) (+ve) (+ve)

Results-HighlightsResults-Highlights

Domestic ViolenceDomestic Violence Education (-)Education (-) Age at first Age at first

marriage (-)marriage (-) Work (+)Work (+) Living Index (-)Living Index (-) Joint Family (-)Joint Family (-)

AutonomyAutonomy Domestic violence (-)Domestic violence (-) Education Education

– woman (+)woman (+)– Husband (~ + -)Husband (~ + -)

Age at first marriage Age at first marriage (~)(~)

Work (+)Work (+) Living Index (-)Living Index (-) Joint Family (-)Joint Family (-)

Conclusion and ThoughtsConclusion and Thoughts

We show that domestic violence We show that domestic violence impinges on female autonomyimpinges on female autonomy– feminist theory, domestic violence is an feminist theory, domestic violence is an

outcome that derives from the weak outcome that derives from the weak autonomy and bargaining power of womenautonomy and bargaining power of women

We also show that an increase in the We also show that an increase in the husband's threat utility, in fact, lowers husband's threat utility, in fact, lowers the amount of violence he inflicts on his the amount of violence he inflicts on his wife.wife.

DATADATA

We use the National Family Health Surveys (NFHS-2) data collected in 1998-99.10

interviewed over 90,000 eligible women, ever-married women between the ages of 15-49, in these households.

The survey provides state-level estimates of demographic, socioeconomic and health parameters as well as data on women’s autonomy, domestic violence, and anthropometric measures

We narrow down our study to eligible women living in rural areas who are currently married.

– sub-sample comprises of over 50,000 eligible

Summary Statistics of Summary Statistics of Outcome VariableOutcome Variable

VARIABLE MEAN STD. DEV. Husband Has Beaten Wife (Ever) 0.18 0.38 Husband Has Beaten Wife (Past Year) 0.10 0.31 Decision_Cook 0.86 0.35 Decision _Health 0.50 0.50 Decision –Jewelry 0.52 0.50 Decision_Stay With Family 0.47 0.50 Don’t Need Permission _Market 0.24 0.43 Don’t Need Permission _Visit 0.20 0.40 Allowed_Own Money 0.55 0.50 Decision_Spend Money*i 0.15 0.35 Number of observations: 58,502

Summary statisticsSummary statistics VARIABLE MEAN STD. DEV. Wife Weight-Deviation from Mean 0.00 8.07 Wife Height-Deviation from Mean 0.00 5.75 Woman-Illiterate 0.59 0.49 Woman-Less Than Primary 0.10 0.30 Woman-Primary School 0.08 0.26 Woman-Middle School 0.15 0.35 Woman-High School and above 0.09 0.28 Husband-Illiterate 0.31 0.46 Husband-Less Than Primary 0.12 0.32 Husband-Primary School 0.09 0.28 Husband-Middle School 0.24 0.42 Husband-High School and above 0.25 0.43 length of Marriage 13.62 8.99 Woman's age at First Marriage 16.91 3.07 Unmet Desire for Sons 0.40 0.49 pregnant-Currently or Past Year 0.23 0.42 Support from Mother 0.07 0.26 self-employed 0.05 0.21 Work for family member 0.19 0.39 Work for someone else 0.18 0.38 Nuclear 0.59 0.49 Living in Natal Joint 0.02 0.14 Living in Joint 0.38 0.49 Hindu 0.80 0.40 Muslim 0.10 0.31 Christian 0.05 0.22 Sikh 0.02 0.16 Standard of Living Index-low 0.35 0.48 Standard of Living Index-medium 0.50 0.50 Standard of Living Index- high 0.15 0.36 Schedule Caste 0.18 0.39 Schedule Tribe 0.15 0.35 Other Backward Classes 0.31 0.46

Estimation StrategyEstimation Strategy

V-Domestic ViolenceV-Domestic Violence

X-Other predictor X-Other predictor variables (threat Utility)variables (threat Utility)

D-Decision making D-Decision making autonomyautonomy

V is EndogenousV is Endogenous

Estimation StrategyEstimation Strategy

Instrument Variables: Instrument Variables: WH –weight and height WH –weight and height

index of a womanindex of a woman

First Stage:First Stage: Domestic ViolenceDomestic Violence

Second Stage:Second Stage: Women’s Autonomy Women’s Autonomy

outcomeoutcomePredicted value of Predicted value of

Domestic Violence as a Domestic Violence as a regressor.regressor.

Pair-Wise Correlation Pair-Wise Correlation Coefficients Coefficients

Dependent Variable: Husband Has Beaten Wife (Past Year)

Wife Height-Deviation from Mean

Wife Height-Deviation from Mean

Dependent Variable: Husband Has Beaten Wife (Past Year)

1

Wife Weight-Deviation from Mean -0.0892* 1 Wife Height-Deviation from Mean -0.0581* 0.4122* 1 Wife’s weight in Kgs -0.0916* 0.9885* 0.4074* Wife’s Height in cms -0.0561* 0.4107* 0.9966*

Table 4: Domestic Violence

Dependent Variable: Husband Has Beaten Wife (Past Year)

OLS Logit (Odds Ratio)

Wife Weight-Deviation from Mean -0.001 (6.37)** 0.983 (6.21)** Wife Height-Deviation from Mean 0 -0.76 1 -0.1 Woman-Less Than Primary 0.005 -0.76 1.065 -1.03 Woman-Primary School -0.02 (3.25)** 0.81 (2.86)** Woman-Middle School -0.02 (3.52)** 0.781 (3.51)** Woman-High School & above -0.023 (3.21)** 0.674 (3.54)** Husband-Less Than Primary -0.002 -0.29 1.016 -0.27 Husband-Primary School -0.019 (2.69)** 0.861 (2.27)* Husband-Middle School -0.014 (2.76)** 0.91 (2.04)* Husband-HighSchool & above -0.031 (5.78)** 0.741 (5.25)** length of Marriage -0.002 (6.01)** 0.985 (6.02)** Woman's age at First Marriage -0.003 (4.74)** 0.965 (4.54)** Unmet Desire for Sons 0 -0.06 0.995 -0.12 pregnant-Current or Past Year 0.001 -0.26 1.013 -0.29 Support from Mother 0.02 (2.98)** 1.211 (3.14)** work_self 0.034 (3.43)** 1.371 (3.67)** work_family 0.027 (4.91)** 1.303 (4.74)** work_else 0.042 (6.65)** 1.43 (6.58)** Living in Natal Joint -0.047 (4.13)** 0.636 (3.45)** Living in Joint -0.035 (9.13)** 0.709 (8.71)** Muslim 0.016 (1.89)+ 1.183 (2.05)* Christian 0.012 -0.75 1.101 -0.62 Sikh 0.021 (2.27)* 1.353 (2.13)* Med. Social liv index -0.024 (5.39)** 0.832 (4.57)** High . Social liv index -0.037 (6.26)** 0.541 (6.87)** Schedule Caste 0.02 (3.44)** 1.193 (3.11)** Schedule Tribe 0.002 -0.3 1.06 -0.78 Other Backward Classes -0.004 -0.82 0.994 -0.1 Observations 49118 49118

R-squared 0.05

Absolute value of t statistics in parentheses; + significant at 10%; * significant at 5%; ** significant at 1% ; Coefficients for state dummy variables not shown

Table 5: Women’s Autonomy- Involved in decision making

Decision_Stay With Family

Decision -Jewellery

Decision _Health

Decision_ Cook

Husband Has Beaten Wife (Last Year)

-1.281 (4.37)** -1.404 (4.21)** -0.615 (2.74)** -0.525 (2.98)**

Woman-Less Than Primary 0.012 -1.08 0.023 (1.87)+ 0.027 (2.26)* 0.004 -0.63 Woman-Primary School 0.001 -0.07 0.002 -0.12 -0.005 -0.44 -0.014 -1.6 Woman-Middle School 0.005 -0.39 0.001 -0.1 0.014 -1.22 -0.009 -1.37 Woman-High School & above 0.042 (2.71)** 0.052 (2.94)** 0.047 (2.60)** 0.007 -0.56 Husband-Less Than Primary -0.01 -0.69 -0.008 -0.6 0.005 -0.42 -0.001 -0.18 Husband-Primary School -0.008 -0.49 -0.006 -0.38 0.002 -0.19 -0.008 -0.82 Husband-Middle School -0.028 (2.12)* -0.028 (2.31)* -0.013 -1.45 -0.015 (2.54)* Husband-HighSchool & above -0.045 (2.86)** -0.047 (2.84)** -0.02 -1.6 -0.028 (2.85)** length of Marriage -0.00 -0.34 0.00 -0.44 0.002 (4.38)** 0.005 (11.57)** Woman's age at First Marriage -0.001 -0.54 -0.002 -1.07 0.004 (2.20)* 0.001 -0.51 Unmet Desire for Sons -0.02 (2.55)* -0.026 (3.04)** -0.024 (3.89)** -0.012 (2.59)* pregnant-Current or Past Year -0.008 -0.88 -0.01 -1.1 -0.007 -0.92 0.001 -0.21 Support from Mother -0.001 -0.08 -0.002 -0.13 0 -0.03 -0.004 -0.49 work_self 0.091 (4.34)** 0.124 (5.66)** 0.077 (4.37)** 0.023 (1.97)+ work_family 0.052 (3.56)** 0.049 (3.22)** 0.022 (2.33)* 0.018 (2.11)* work_else 0.09 (5.49)** 0.097 (4.93)** 0.081 (6.21)** 0.038 (3.93)** Living in Natal Joint -0.007 -0.26 -0.065 (2.13)* -0.041 (1.90)+ -0.142 (7.64)** Living in Joint -0.043 (3.11)** -0.068 (4.48)** -0.024 (2.22)* -0.161 (19.66)** Muslim -0.013 -0.77 -0.011 -0.64 0.006 -0.44 -0.011 -1.15 Christian 0.043 (1.71)+ 0.042 -1.35 -0.004 -0.15 0.014 -0.96 Sikh 0.069 (1.90)+ 0.058 -1.48 0.009 -0.27 0.031 (2.29)* Med. Social liv index -0.015 -1.19 -0.029 (2.24)* -0.009 -1 -0.026 (3.98)** High . Social liv index -0.029 -1.43 -0.043 (2.19)* -0.022 -1.31 -0.064 (5.77)** Schedule Caste 0.036 (2.83)** 0.032 (2.19)* -0.002 -0.24 0.005 -0.6 Schedule Tribe 0.037 (2.31)* 0.026 -1.6 0.022 -1.61 0.003 -0.3 Other Backward Classes -0.003 -0.25 -0.005 -0.43 -0.007 -0.87 -0.008 -1.21 Observations 49118 49118 49118 49118

Absolute value of t statistics in parentheses; + significant at 10%; * significant at 5%; ** significant at 1%; Coefficients for state dummy variables not shown.

Table 5: Women’s Autonomy- Involved in decision making

Decision_Stay With Family

Decision -Jewellery

Decision _Health

Decision_ Cook

Husband Has Beaten Wife (Last Year)

-1.281 (4.37)** -1.404 (4.21)** -0.615 (2.74)** -0.525 (2.98)**

Woman-Less Than Primary 0.012 -1.08 0.023 (1.87)+ 0.027 (2.26)* 0.004 -0.63 Woman-Primary School 0.001 -0.07 0.002 -0.12 -0.005 -0.44 -0.014 -1.6 Woman-Middle School 0.005 -0.39 0.001 -0.1 0.014 -1.22 -0.009 -1.37 Woman-High School & above 0.042 (2.71)** 0.052 (2.94)** 0.047 (2.60)** 0.007 -0.56 Husband-Less Than Primary -0.01 -0.69 -0.008 -0.6 0.005 -0.42 -0.001 -0.18 Husband-Primary School -0.008 -0.49 -0.006 -0.38 0.002 -0.19 -0.008 -0.82 Husband-Middle School -0.028 (2.12)* -0.028 (2.31)* -0.013 -1.45 -0.015 (2.54)* Husband-HighSchool & above -0.045 (2.86)** -0.047 (2.84)** -0.02 -1.6 -0.028 (2.85)** length of Marriage -0.00 -0.34 0.00 -0.44 0.002 (4.38)** 0.005 (11.57)** Woman's age at First Marriage -0.001 -0.54 -0.002 -1.07 0.004 (2.20)* 0.001 -0.51 Unmet Desire for Sons -0.02 (2.55)* -0.026 (3.04)** -0.024 (3.89)** -0.012 (2.59)* pregnant-Current or Past Year -0.008 -0.88 -0.01 -1.1 -0.007 -0.92 0.001 -0.21 Support from Mother -0.001 -0.08 -0.002 -0.13 0 -0.03 -0.004 -0.49 work_self 0.091 (4.34)** 0.124 (5.66)** 0.077 (4.37)** 0.023 (1.97)+ work_family 0.052 (3.56)** 0.049 (3.22)** 0.022 (2.33)* 0.018 (2.11)* work_else 0.09 (5.49)** 0.097 (4.93)** 0.081 (6.21)** 0.038 (3.93)** Living in Natal Joint -0.007 -0.26 -0.065 (2.13)* -0.041 (1.90)+ -0.142 (7.64)** Living in Joint -0.043 (3.11)** -0.068 (4.48)** -0.024 (2.22)* -0.161 (19.66)** Muslim -0.013 -0.77 -0.011 -0.64 0.006 -0.44 -0.011 -1.15 Christian 0.043 (1.71)+ 0.042 -1.35 -0.004 -0.15 0.014 -0.96 Sikh 0.069 (1.90)+ 0.058 -1.48 0.009 -0.27 0.031 (2.29)* Med. Social liv index -0.015 -1.19 -0.029 (2.24)* -0.009 -1 -0.026 (3.98)** High . Social liv index -0.029 -1.43 -0.043 (2.19)* -0.022 -1.31 -0.064 (5.77)** Schedule Caste 0.036 (2.83)** 0.032 (2.19)* -0.002 -0.24 0.005 -0.6 Schedule Tribe 0.037 (2.31)* 0.026 -1.6 0.022 -1.61 0.003 -0.3 Other Backward Classes -0.003 -0.25 -0.005 -0.43 -0.007 -0.87 -0.008 -1.21 Observations 49118 49118 49118 49118

Absolute value of t statistics in parentheses; + significant at 10%; * significant at 5%; ** significant at 1%; Coefficients for state dummy variables not shown.

Table 6: women Autonomy- Does not Need Permission

Permission _Visit Permission _Market Husband Has Beaten Wife (Last Year) -0.584 (2.39)* -0.69 (2.81)** Woman-Less Than Primary 0.005 -0.59 0.004 -0.44 Woman-Primary School 0.008 -0.77 0.013 -1.19 Woman-Middle School 0.004 -0.43 0.018 (1.85)+ Woman-High School & above 0.04 (3.25)** 0.061 (4.90)** Husband-Less Than Primary -0.001 -0.12 -0.004 -0.51 Husband-Primary School -0.008 -0.75 -0.011 -1.08 Husband-Middle School -0.004 -0.57 -0.003 -0.32 Husband-HighSchool & above -0.006 -0.64 -0.007 -0.67 length of Marriage 0.003 (7.21)** 0.004 (8.28)** Woman's age at First Marriage 0.001 -0.89 0.004 (2.68)** Unmet Desire for Sons -0.005 -1.03 -0.002 -0.36 pregnant-Current or Past Year -0.005 -0.92 -0.005 -0.88 Support from Mother -0.016 (1.66)+ 0.002 -0.2 work_self 0.067 (4.60)** 0.069 (4.84)** work_family 0.037 (3.39)** 0.032 (2.88)** work_else 0.052 (3.55)** 0.062 (3.91)** Living in Natal Joint -0.019 -0.81 -0.029 -1.23 Living in Joint -0.06 (5.34)** -0.083 (7.27)** Muslim 0 -0.04 -0.016 -1.39 Christian 0.015 -0.78 0.014 -0.67 Sikh -0.01 -0.43 -0.005 -0.14 Med. Social liv index -0.019 (2.46)* -0.021 (2.39)* High . Social liv index -0.025 (1.82)+ -0.042 (2.99)** Schedule Caste 0.027 (3.14)** 0.032 (3.05)** Schedule Tribe 0.052 (4.56)** 0.064 (5.59)** Other Backward Classes 0.008 -1.02 0.011 -1.28 Observations 49118 49118

Absolute value of t statistics in parentheses; + significant at 10%; * significant at 5%; ** significant at 1%; Coefficients for state dummy variables not shown.

Table 6: women Autonomy- Does not Need Permission

Permission _Visit Permission _Market Husband Has Beaten Wife (Last Year) -0.584 (2.39)* -0.69 (2.81)** Woman-Less Than Primary 0.005 -0.59 0.004 -0.44 Woman-Primary School 0.008 -0.77 0.013 -1.19 Woman-Middle School 0.004 -0.43 0.018 (1.85)+ Woman-High School & above 0.04 (3.25)** 0.061 (4.90)** Husband-Less Than Primary -0.001 -0.12 -0.004 -0.51 Husband-Primary School -0.008 -0.75 -0.011 -1.08 Husband-Middle School -0.004 -0.57 -0.003 -0.32 Husband-HighSchool & above -0.006 -0.64 -0.007 -0.67 length of Marriage 0.003 (7.21)** 0.004 (8.28)** Woman's age at First Marriage 0.001 -0.89 0.004 (2.68)** Unmet Desire for Sons -0.005 -1.03 -0.002 -0.36 pregnant-Current or Past Year -0.005 -0.92 -0.005 -0.88 Support from Mother -0.016 (1.66)+ 0.002 -0.2 work_self 0.067 (4.60)** 0.069 (4.84)** work_family 0.037 (3.39)** 0.032 (2.88)** work_else 0.052 (3.55)** 0.062 (3.91)** Living in Natal Joint -0.019 -0.81 -0.029 -1.23 Living in Joint -0.06 (5.34)** -0.083 (7.27)** Muslim 0 -0.04 -0.016 -1.39 Christian 0.015 -0.78 0.014 -0.67 Sikh -0.01 -0.43 -0.005 -0.14 Med. Social liv index -0.019 (2.46)* -0.021 (2.39)* High . Social liv index -0.025 (1.82)+ -0.042 (2.99)** Schedule Caste 0.027 (3.14)** 0.032 (3.05)** Schedule Tribe 0.052 (4.56)** 0.064 (5.59)** Other Backward Classes 0.008 -1.02 0.011 -1.28 Observations 49118 49118

Absolute value of t statistics in parentheses; + significant at 10%; * significant at 5%; ** significant at 1%; Coefficients for state dummy variables not shown.

Table 7: Women’s Autonomy – Money Money Money

Decision_Spend Money Allowed_Own Money Husband Has Beaten Wife (Last Year) -0.049 -0.38 -1.727 (4.90)** Woman-Less Than Primary 0.014 (2.13)* 0.03 (2.00)* Woman-Primary School 0.018 (3.02)** 0.025 -1.36 Woman-Middle School 0.016 (2.55)* 0.046 (3.11)** Woman-High School & above 0.052 (6.57)** 0.126 (6.50)** Husband-Less Than Primary -0.003 -0.45 0.004 -0.28 Husband-Primary School 0.005 -0.7 -0.016 -0.9 Husband-Middle School 0 -0.02 0 -0.03 Husband-HighSchool & above -0.001 -0.23 -0.003 -0.2 length of Marriage 0.001 (5.18)** 0.002 (2.02)* Woman's age at First Marriage 0.002 (2.17)* -0.001 -0.5 Unmet Desire for Sons -0.004 -1.31 -0.012 -1.26 pregnant-Current or Past Year -0.003 -0.89 -0.005 -0.49 Support from Mother -0.015 (2.11)* 0.029 -1.58 work_self 0.592 (39.09)** 0.131 (5.59)** work_family 0.131 (16.70)** 0.045 (3.18)** work_else 0.569 (54.25)** 0.131 (6.20)** Living in Natal Joint 0.003 -0.23 -0.089 (2.83)** Living in Joint -0.017 (2.75)** -0.114 (7.06)** Muslim 0.01 (2.06)* 0.013 -0.58 Christian 0.032 (2.13)* 0.034 -1.09 Sikh 0.012 -1.12 0.012 -0.48 Med. Social liv index -0.025 (4.76)** -0.004 -0.27 High . Social liv index -0.027 (3.40)** 0.026 -1.24 Schedule Caste 0.009 -1.52 0.037 (2.09)* Schedule Tribe -0.01 -1.15 0.022 -1.14 Other Backward Classes 0.004 -0.94 0.022 (1.78)+ Observations 49118 48999 R-squared 0.42

Absolute value of t statistics in parentheses; + significant at 10%; * significant at 5%; ** significant at 1%; Coefficients for state dummy variables not shown.