i

THE ROLE OF PCCB IN ERADICATING CORRUPTION IN TANZANIA

By

Seneth Brown Olesuya

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree

of Master of Public Administration (MPA) of

Mzumbe University.

2018

ii

CERTIFICATION

We, the undersigned, certify that we have read and hereby recommend for acceptance by

the Mzumbe University, a dissertation entitled; Effectiveness of PCCB in Eradicating

Corruption in Tanzania in partial fulfilment for the degree of Master of Public

Administration of Mzumbe University.

……………………………Main Supervisor

…………………………….

Internal Examiner

Accepted for the Board of

………………………………………………

SCHOOL DEAN/DIRECTORATE

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DECLARATION

AND

COPYRIGHT

I Seneth Brown Olesuya declare that this dissertation is my own original work and that

it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other University for a similar or

any other degree award.

Signature.......................................

Date……………………………..

©2018

This dissertation is a copy right material protected under the Berne Convection, the

Copyright Act 1999 and other international and national enactments, on that behalf, on

intellectual property. It may not be reproduced by any means in full or in except for short

extracts in fair dealings, for research or private study, critical scholarly review or

discourse with an acknowledgement, without the written permission of Mzumbe

University, on behalf of the author.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Even though this study is my personal work, I could not have accomplished it without

support, guidance and assistance from some people. First and foremost, I thank the

Almighty God for the strength he gave me throughout this study.

My heart-felt gratitude goes to Dr. Andrew Sulle, my supervisor, for his tireless

guidance, patience, positive criticism and understanding from the primary phase of

writing the proposal to the completion of this research report. His contributions towards

this study are highly appreciated.

My sincere gratitude goes to my parents whom I shall remain greatly indebted to for their

unconditional love, prayers, moral guidance, encouragement and support throughout this

study. They have sponsored me tirelessly from kindergarten up to this level. My heart-felt

appreciation also goes to my dear family for its moral support while pursuing graduate

studies. God bless you abundantly.

My gratitude also goes to PCCB officials, staff members and all respondents for their

cooperation during data collection. It is not possible to mention everyone, but I would

humbly wish to express my sincere thanks to my colleagues, Master of Public

Administration of Mzumbe University who assisted me in one way while undertaking

this noble task. They truly deserve accolades for company and encouragement.

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DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my parents and family.

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ACS Anti Corruption Squad

BPI Business Process Initiatives

CPA Criminal Procedure Act

MTEF Medium Term Expenditure Framework

NSGRP National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (MKUKUTA)

MTSPBM Medium Term Strategy Planning and Budgeting Manual

NACSAP National Anti-Corruption Strategy and Action Plan

PCA Prevention of Corruption Act

PCB Prevention of Corruption Bureau

PCCA Prevention and Combating of Corruption Act

PCCB Prevention and Combating of Corruption Bureau

PCO Prevention of Corruption Ordinance

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ABSTRACT

This study aimed at assessing the effectiveness of Prevention and Combating of

Corruption Bureau (PCCB) in eradicating corruption in Tanzania. The study was guided

by three specific objectives which generated research questions. The study employed

exploratory design through facts generation from the new source. It was conducted in the

headquarters of the organization and other subsidiary offices directed by the organization

participants to access respondents. Information to fill the knowledge gap were gathered

using interviews and questionnaires from the respondents selected as the sample size.

Collected information using questionnaires were computed in SPSS data sheet to

generate statistical measurements to present data. Descriptive statistics were used to

present the results of all details collected using questionnaires. Data gathered through

interviews were analyzed using content analysis and then presented using themes and

narrations. Findings indicated that the entity is well capacitated legally and institutionally

on eradicating corruption in Tanzania. Also, the study indicated several ways which show

the effectiveness of the organization in eradicating corruption in Tanzania such as: the

autonomy, legal mandate, organization and individual controls. In addition to that,

several challenges bedeviling the organisation include: evidencing, witnessing,

government interference, and information tampering. Therefore, the implication of the

findings is that PCCB is an effective tool that entrusted with powers to fight against graft

though notwithstanding the challenges it faces in executing its duties. The study

recommends the government to invest heavily in supporting by pushing for its efficiency

and effectiveness.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATION .............................................................................................................. ii

DECLARATION ............................................................................................................... iii

AND ................................................................................................................................... iii

COPYRIGHT ..................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................. iv

DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... v

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................. viii

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ xii

LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... xiii

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY .......................................... 1

1.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Background to the Problem ....................................................................................... 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem .......................................................................................... 3

1.3 Research Objectives .................................................................................................. 4

1.3.1 Main Objective ....................................................................................................... 4

1.3.2 Specific Objectives ................................................................................................. 4

1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................... 5

1.5 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................... 5

1.6 Structure of the Study ................................................................................................ 6

1.7 Scope of the Study..................................................................................................... 6

CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 7

LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................... 7

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2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 7

2.1 An Overview of the Fighting and Combating Corruption ........................................ 7

2.2 Drive to the Creations of PCCB and the Rationale ................................................. 10

2.3 Factors Impeding and Enhancing Effective Functioning of PCCB ........................ 17

2.4Theoretical Reviews ................................................................................................. 19

2.4.1 Public Choice Theory ........................................................................................... 19

2.4.2 Institutional Theory .............................................................................................. 20

2.5 Empirical Literature ................................................................................................ 21

2.5.1 Strategies to Curb Unethical Behavior, Corruption, and the Culture of Impunity23

2.5.2 Effective Corruption Control as a Key Element of Good Governance ................ 25

2.5.3 Good Governance Architecture ............................................................................ 26

2.6 Research Gap........................................................................................................... 28

2.7 Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 29

2.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 30

CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 31

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...................................................................................... 31

3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 31

3.1`Research Design...................................................................................................... 31

3.2 Study area ................................................................................................................ 32

3.3 Population................................................................................................................ 32

3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures ........................................................................... 32

3.4.1 Sample Size .......................................................................................................... 32

3.4.2 Sampling Procedures ............................................................................................ 33

3.4.2.1 Probability Sampling ......................................................................................... 33

3.4.2.2 Non-probability Sampling ................................................................................. 33

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3.5 Sources of Data Collection ...................................................................................... 34

3.5.1 Primary Data ........................................................................................................ 34

3.5.2 Secondary Data .................................................................................................... 34

3.5.3 Documentary Review ........................................................................................... 34

3.6 Data collection method and instruments ................................................................. 35

3.6.1 Interview............................................................................................................... 35

3.6.2 Questionnaire ....................................................................................................... 35

3.7 Study Validity and Reliability ................................................................................. 35

3.8 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................... 36

3.9 Ethical Consideration .............................................................................................. 36

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 37

STUDY RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ................................................... 37

4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 37

4.2 Respondents Profile................................................................................................. 37

4.2.1 Age ....................................................................................................................... 37

4.2.2 Gender .................................................................................................................. 38

4.2.3 Education Level.................................................................................................... 38

4.3 Legal and Institutional Capacity of PCCB in Eradicating Corruption in Tanzania 39

4.4 How effective is PCCB in Eradicating Corruption in Tanzania ............................. 42

4.5 Factors Hindering PCCB in Eradicating Corruption in Tanzania ........................... 46

CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 50

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................... 50

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 50

5.2 Summary ................................................................................................................. 50

5.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 51

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5.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 51

5.5 Areas for Further Studies ........................................................................................ 51

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 53

LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................... 55

QUESTIONNAIRES .................................................................................................... 55

INTERVIEW GUIDE ....................................................................................................... 58

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Age of Respondents ........................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table 4.2:Gender of Respondents ................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

Table 4.3:Education Level of Respondents .................. Error! Bookmark not defined.9

Table 4.4. Effectiveness of PCCB in curbing corruption in TanzaniaError! Bookmark

not defined.4

Table 4.5:Factors hindering PCCB in eradicating corruption in Tanzania .............. Error!

Bookmark not defined.7

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2. 1: Conceptual Frame Work on the role of PCCB in eradicating corruption in

Tanzania ...................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

xiv

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

1.0 Introduction

Basically this chapter describes the overview of the study. It assess the effectiveness of

Prevention and Combating of Corruption Bureau (PCCB). The overview is well

described by expounding the background to the problem, statement of the problem,

research objectives and questions, significance and the scope of the study alongside

structure of the study. The chapter is described as follows:

1.1 Background to the Problem

Corruption has been recognized as a destructive factor for development since many years

back (Elliot, 1997). This has been the issue of concern since corruption cases have been

in place since mankind existed in different time and space; as well as levels and actors for

(Morris, 1991). The practice has been done by individuals in various settings, including

in governments and various institutions at different time and space (Senior, 2006).

The outcomes of the corruption practices all over the globe have always been negative

and destructive in all levels and sections mostly in government sectors (Kaufmann &

Vicente, 2005). This is due to the fact that it has been resulting into embezzlement of

public resources and goods, misuse of public properties and investment for personal gains

(Hamilton, 2017). Graft has been a reason to poor service delivery pattern in the

government and its entities as well as decline in total legitimacy of the government(s)

(Belohlavek, 2017).

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With that, several measures have been employed by governments and states all over the

globe in combating corruption and other practices of the same style for assuring

performance and delivery in public settings (Alt, 2015). For instance, China has legally

imposed capital punishment for anyone giving and receiving bribes indicted for

corruption (Alcazar & Andrade, 2001). Despite that, several ombudsman entities have

been established in various countries specifically to fight against corruption practices

(Znoj, 2009).

Tanzania in particular has been affected severely by the corrupt practices and behavior in

its political setting both in central and local government within entities and the individual

practitioners (Harper, 2014). The situation has been highly severe. For many years the

empirical reality pattern as the ability of the government to deliver goods to the people

has been very poor (Mosha, 2017). This was evident since several sectors of the

government such as health, water, education, agriculture, manufacturing,

industrialization, trade and others were highly stagnated over fraud (Skinner, 2014).

Corruption is the major issue of concern because the legitimacy of the government had

deteriorated alongside the plummeting trust for civil servants (Pritchett, 2017). This

necessitated the need to employ measures to fight against corruption to push for adequate

public service delivery and boosting of citizen morale and trust on the government and

the system at large (Muganda, 2014). In that case, the government of Tanzania has

committed itself in fighting corruption in all its forms.

Several measures have been in place since the first regime in power to the current ones in

terms of policies, institutional arrangements and others (Wairagala, 2004). However, one

of the strategies employed is the establishment of the Ombudsman entity in Tanzania;

whereas first in 1974 Anti-Corruption Squad was established (Wairagala, 2004). In 1991,

the entity was rebranded to Prevention of Corruption Bureau (PCB) which was under the

President’s office. Thereafter, in 2007 after several undertakings the entity was reformed

again and transformed into Prevention and Combating of Corruption Bureau (PCCB)

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which exist to date with the mandate to fight corruption within the Tanzania mainland as

the non-union matter (Skinner, 2014).

In that regard, therefore, the entity has been in place and operational entrusted with

powers of preventing and combating corruption in Tanzania. Since its existence several

corrupt practices have been taking place with significant effect in the country, the public

and individuals at large which necessitates the need to assess its effectiveness. This is

important since several studies have been conducted on the entity such as Ndeoya (2018)

conducted a study assessing legal challenges affecting the implementation of e-

government in the prevention and combating of corruption bureau (PCCB) in Tanzania.

Despite that, Shimba (2015) also puts an intellectual effort to inquiry on assessing the

role of information communication technology (ICT) application on fighting corruption

in public service delivery by prevention of combating corruption bureau (PCCB). This

entails the fact that little or less has been conducted on effectiveness of Prevention and

Combating Corruption Bureau (PCCB) in Tanzania. There is a gap to be filled by this

study regarding the role of the tools entrusted with powers to fight against this vice.

Therefore, this study is conducted to assess the effectiveness of Prevention of Combating

Corruption Bureau (PCCB) in eradicating corruption in Tanzania.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Corruption has been a major disaster in Tanzania especially in the public organizations

and entities something that resulted to massive embezzlement of public funds and

resources (Harper, 2014). It has also caused massive deterioration and stagnation of all

sectors of the economy, social welfare including agriculture, mining, education, health,

manufacturing, trade, and several others (Skinner, 2014). This has been attributed to the

fact that corruption has enabled the government not being able to deliver services, since

most resources were misused and benefited few individuals.

This has further resulted into the loss of legitimacy of the government (Mosha, 2017).

Since that is the case, the government has had incorporated Ombudsman institution

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specifically to prevent and combat corruption in Tanzania whereas after series of reforms

at the moment the government constituted the Prevention and Combating of Corruption

Bureau (PCCB) as the entity in place which has been operational since 2007 to date

(Heale & Wong, 2010).

Despite the presence and operation of the entity there have been several corruption

practices in Tanzania both in central and local governments, which were highly

destructive to the country and the economy (Pritchett, 2017). The glaring scenario

prompts the need to assess the effectiveness of the entity since its existence and operation

to date. Several studies on the prevention and combating of corruption bureau (PCCB)

have been conducted. This is evident since Ndeoya (2018) waged a study on assessing

legal challenges affecting the implementation of e-government in the prevention and

combating of corruption bureau (PCCB) in Tanzania.

In addition to that, Shimba (2015) waged an inquiry assessing the role of information

communication technology (ICT) application on fighting corruption in public service

delivery by prevention and combating of corruption bureau (PCCB) in Tanzania. Thus

being the case, little has been done to assess the effectiveness of the entity which entails a

significant gap set to be bridged.

This study therefore, aims at assessing the role of Prevention and Combating of

Corruption Bureau (PCCB) in eradicating corruption in Tanzania with the view to

ascertain whether the institution has done enough to meet the public expectations.

1.3 Research Objectives

1.3.1 Main Objective

The main objective of the study was to assess and examine the role of the Prevention and

Combating of Corruption Bureau (PCCB) in eradicating corruption in Tanzania.

1.3.2 Specific Objectives

i. To assess the effectiveness of PCCB in combating corruption in Tanzania.

ii. To determine the legal and institutional capacity of PCCB in dealing with

corruption in Tanzania.

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iii. To determine factors that impede and enhance the effective function of PCCB

in dealing with corruption in Tanzania

1.4 Research Questions

This study was guided by the following research questions;

i. How effective is PCCB in combating corruption in Tanzania?

ii. What is the legal and institutional capacity of PCCB in eradicating corruption

in Tanzania?

iii. What are the factors impede and enhance the effective function of PCCB in

dealing with corruption in Tanzania?

1.5 Significance of the Study

The result of this study informed proper ways which PCCB undergo in educating and

creating awareness to the Tanzanians and foreigners on all matters pertaining to

corruption and its effects within the Bureau mandate, and also providing direct and

indirect procedures that PCCB undertakes in preventive measures against unethical and

corrupt practices, as the society voices against corruption is increasingly recognized as an

important tool in the prevention and detection of corruption and other malpractice caused

by corruption in the society.

Each corruption Act is prevented by citizens and fortified civil society and thereby

enhancing democracy and the establishment of a more caring and just society.

Nevertheless, the study findings serve as a stepping stone that could inspire and arouse

other researchers’ curiosity to conduct large scale studies on role of PCCB in eradicating

corruption in Tanzania. Also, the findings of the study acts as a challenge that inspire and

arouse interests of other researchers on the subject and thus furthering inquiry into the

subject.

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1.6 Structure of the Study

The study has five chapters whereas the first one shows the overview of the whole study

and the setting of the problem. The second chapter consists of the literature review. The

third chapter consists of the research methodology. The fourth chapter consists of the

results of the study, the analysis and the discussion of results. The last chapter presents

the summary of the study, the conclusion and recommendations.

1.7 Scope of the Study

The study is well confined within the Ombudsman entity operating in Tanzania prior to

its role. The knowledge expected to be gathered and filled on the identified gap fits

within the parameters of the entity in place prior to its effectiveness and efficiency.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

The chapter describes literature review of the study which comprises: theoretical reviews,

showing the views of others in line with the study; followed by the empirical reviews

showing the gaps existing in the literature for suitable justification in the study. Finally,

the research gap of the study is well elucidated. Therefore, the chapter is described as

follows:

2.1 An Overview of the Fighting and Combating Corruption

Corruption is a practice and a concept that lacks a universally or a globally accepted

definition (Ikibaje, 2010). Corruption is considered as a global problem which does not

concentrate in a single geographical unit but rather facing all countries across the global.

Myint (2000) argues that, “there is the realization that corruption can hamper socio-

economic growth of a certain country”. The impact of corruption is considered as

profound especially in developing countries including African countries. Corruption is

said to have impacts towards the overall social, political and economic development of a

particular country.

The term fighting and combating corruption conjures images of an enemy that can be

defeated. Some scholars believe corruption cannot be eradicated. For instance, Yeh

(1987) argued that; “the sharing of bribes among cadres and colleagues at different levels

of responsibility has made it hopeless to fight corruption in China”. Despite that

corruption has currently being impossible to eradicate, one cannot say that it cannot be

controlled. There have been several efforts among international and local organizations in

trying to fight against corruption. According to World Bank (WB) institutional

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strengthening is a key part of a country in the anticorruption strategy. That means the

public servants must be selected and promoted in response to their merits and not

patronage.

The concept of corruption is prominent in both developed and developing countries and

its effect is tremendous to the economic growth in many countries around the World. In

Wales, the government review police corruption scandal, corrupt cases and taking

payoffs (Police Integrity Commission, 2002). Furthermore, the fight against corruption is

now a global concern and has been reduced in many countries. Even though corruption

has been reduced, there are examples of re-corruption (Dininio, 2005).

In Africa, several countries have formulated different programs and policies to fight

against corruption (Ikubaje, 2010). The policies formulated are both financial, political

and even public policies but they have not been effectively implemented something

which has brought difficulties in addressing the problem. African countries began to

implement policies aiming at increasing transparency and accountability as part of

control measures against corruption. These policies emerged as a result of donation from

western countries.

Hanson (2009) describes anti-corruption policies and strategies as, “activities in which

the government has put into action to fight, combat and tackle corruption”. African

governments, including Tanzania have formulated, drafted and implemented various

policies and strategies with the aim of addressing corruption as a challenge in the

respective countries. The policies and strategies range from the legal, financial and public

(Mauro, 2011).

However, in Tanzania, one of the strategies employed is the establishment of the

Ombudsman entity in Tanzania; whereas first in 1974 Anti-Corruption Squad which was

established (Wairagala, 2004). In 1991, the entity was reformed and re-structured such

that it was changed into Prevention of Corruption Bureau (PCB) which was placed under

the President’s office. Thereafter, in 2007 after several undertakings, the entity was

reformed again and transformed into Prevention and Combating of Corruption Bureau

9

(PCCB) which exist to date with the mandate within the mainland as the non-union

matter (Skinner, 2014).

Martini (2012) claimed that Auditor General Office is one among the institutions which

are vital and crucial in fighting against corruption. However, many institutions in

developing countries are accused of being vulnerable to political influence as such has

been seen as the problem rather than seen as solution to the war against corruption

(Martini, 2012). Many countries in Africa have perceived corruption as tradition, thus

even those institutions that are formulated to control corruption in these countries are

accused of embracing the vice.

The legal framework which is considered as the international framework for combating

corruption is the United Nations Convention on Corruption (UNCAC). Brandolino and

Luna (2006) argues that; “UNCAC appreciates that the war against corruption demands a

concerted effort on several fronts”. Multilateral agreements signed among countries have

put forward several issues as part of efforts to address corruption. These issues include

enforcement of laws especially through recognizing impartial investigatory, prosecutorial

as well as judicial authority as the keys towards prosecution of public corruption. The

second issue that these agreements address is that of public sector prevention.

Brandolino and Luna (2006), explain that; “public sector prevention encourages

governments to take a wide range of initiatives to stop corruption”. Hanna, et al. (2011)

argues that; “these initiatives are: the maintenance of high standards of conduct of public

officials, the protection of whistleblowers, the demand that public officials declare

personal wealth and the establishment of transparent financial management system and

public procurement”. Other initiatives are like creation of clear procedures towards

maintaining accountability in the government, creation of effective institutions for

addressing corruption and also, increasing access to government information by the

general public (Transparency International, 2008).

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Private sector prevention has also been part of the agreements met in preventing

corruption (Brandolino & Luna, 2006). The international agreements demand that

governments must ensure that effective mechanisms are created which will also include

private sectors. One of the mechanisms of which governments must create is ensuring

that there are regulations which prevent unethical conducts such as bribing and hiding of

illicit payments. Mauro (2011) argues that, “other mechanisms include the prohibition

against deductibility of bribes as well as corporate fraud”. There are frequent follow-ups

made by the international agreements in order to determine whether these mechanisms

are effectively implemented.

2.2 Drive to the Creations of PCCB and the Rationale

The fight against corruption remains high on the agenda of scholars and practitioners

working in the field of development research and cooperation. Corruption is correlated

with underdevelopment as it is detrimental to economic growth, damaging to the

functioning of political institutions and threatening to human security. Winning the war

against corruption has been the key issue in development cooperation, as recent

agreement on aid effectiveness reflect.

As a result of existence of many meanings of corruption such as both legal, linguistic as

well as moral meanings, it has been difficult to study the issue of corruption (Noonan,

1984). Corruption has a generic meaning: that is, the abuse of a position of trust to gain

an unfair advantage. Transparency International -TI (2006), the leading non-

governmental organisation (NGO), describes corruption as; “the use of entrusted power

for private gain”. It can be denoted as; “bribery, which involves the payment of illegal

compensation to a public official or a private person”. There has been no difference

between corruption taking place in public sector and that one taking place in private

sector currently despite that it was previously said that corruption arise as a result of poor

payments among public servants (Noonan, 1984).

.

11

The reasons why corruption in the first place is rampant is that it generates enormous

profits for those involved in it and the countries have yet enacted an international law to

tackle the vice.1 The law of the land is accused of being so weak that it crates rooms for

paying lip service to the investigation and prosecution of some ‘sacred cows’ or high

placed persons in the society.

Lack of a culture of honesty and openness are reasons behind escalating cases of

corruption (Albrecht, C et.al. p.12). 2 In order to curb Corruption, the following actions

can be considered in an organizational setting, including formation of a national fraud

strategy. This could be modeled on the ‘Consumer Prevention Months’ in Australia

which embarks on sensitization and education on the fight against fraud and corruption.

Creating a Centre for Reporting. This could be effective if victims are educated and

encouraged to come forward and to report (Smith, R.C, p. 293). Gathering intelligence

and sharing of data between interested parties and agencies. 3 Investigating, prosecuting

and penalizing detected frauds and corruptions send the message that fraud and

corruption are taken seriously and that perpetrators would not walk scot free. Despite

several efforts to overcome corruption; it has been perceived by several scholars that it is

often difficult to deal with the vice. Some other sources of corruption were regarded to

be: moral indecency, poor leadership, and lack of effective corruption reporting system

alongside poor law enforcement or punishment of people charged with corruption.

This is evident within in some countries in which, for example, corruption and impunity

are pervasive in the Tanzanian police force (HRR 2015). Foreign companies have

identified petty corruption among traffic police as an obstacle to investment (ICS 2016).

Furthermore, Tanzania is considered to perform below the expectations of policies which

aim at controlling the issue of corruption (GCR 2015-2016). The results of the survey

carried out revealed that half of households believed that the police is corruption. There

12

were also published reports which indicted that police departments committed unethical

conduct of corruption in the year 2015(GCB 2015, HRR 2015). Various legal

mechanisms have been put into practice in order to control corruption among police

officers but the problem has continued to exists as a result of poor implementation of

those mechanisms. (HRR 2015).

Bureaucratic procedures such as those related to permit and licenses provisions are very

prone to corruption simply because they are burdensome and consume a lot of time.

Administrations are also unable to control corruption due to several factors which reduce

their effectiveness. These factors include lack of well-trained staff, inadequate resources,

political interference and existence of weak capacities (BTI 2016). Also, the payments of

public servants are said to be insufficient for them to meet their demands and thus

increasing probability for corruptions (BTI 2016). Corruption related acts such as gifts

and other bribes have currently dominated most of public services provision areas (ES

2013, GCR 2015-2016). It is argued that, “the prevalence of irregular payments and

bribes within public utilities in Tanzania is one of the worse in the world” (GCR 2015-

2016). This is an indication that corruption is a common problem in Tanzania particularly

in public sector.

In addition to that, it is reported that corruption acts exist in tax collection as officials

responsible for collecting taxes are also engaged in solicit bribes. Tanzania is still

considered to have a worst situation in case of corruptions especially due to irregular

payments and bribes during payments for annual taxes (GCR 2015-2016). Tax rates was

considered to be the second worst place to invest followed by the tax administration

which was ranked third (Tanzania Private Sector Foundation 2015).

The Tanzania Revenue Authority (TRA) has currently engaged itself in controlling

corruption especially through introducing strict and practical controls measures aiming at

increasing efficiency and effectiveness in revenue collection as well as services delivery

(Daily News, Mar. 2015). In the year 2014, there was an introduction of an excise duty on

money transfers of which its introduction increased complications in tax paying among

companies (DB, 2015). The requirements for payments of taxes in Tanzania are that;

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“one to pay 49 levies and takes 179 hours per year on average; which is almost half the

regional average” (DB, 2016).

One of the sectors in Tanzania which is also said to be prone to corruption acts is mining

sector especially due to the factor that it deals with natural resources. Investigations

which are conducted by PCCB focus o various issues but also address government

participation in mining and energy sector. The effectiveness of the regulations in mining

sector which aim at controlling corruption is reduced by interference from state

functionaries especially as the result of their involvement in seeking for market in the

external market (HRR 2015).

Furthermore, it is reported that there is inadequate transparency in the confidential

mining development agreements signed between the government of Tanzania and foreign

countries. There were two former ministers who were said to have engaged in corruption

through signing fake gold-contracts something which led to loss of about USD 5.2

Million of government funds. They were subjected to legal consequences and finally

sentenced to three years imprisonment (Fit, 2016). This is an indication that corruption

also takes place in the mining sector.

There is poor enforcement of legal frameworks for combating corruption. There are

several issues which are not allowed b the Anti-Money Laundering Act which include

capital fight as well as terrorism activities financing. PCCA provides that; “ attempted

corruption, extortion, passive and active bribery, money laundering and bribery of a

foreign official are all crimes”. Corruption is considered as an offence against the

economy of which its legal consequences are imprisonment though there are no financial

penalties except for assets recovery. Other regulatory frameworks which put much

emphasis on control of corruption include the National Elections Act, the Political Parties

Act, the Public Finance Act and the Election Expenses Act.

The Public Leaders Code of Ethics Act and the Economic and Organized Crime Control

Act attempt to curb abuse of power by public officials. Government officials are required

14

to disclose their assets upon assuming and leaving office and annually while in office

(HRR 2015). It is reported that, Tanzania has no right to information something which

reduces access to information of government among public members does (HRR 2015).

The requirements of the Public Services Act are that; “every institution must make

enforceable codes of conduct for its employees” (LHRC 2011).

Furthermore, the constitution of Tanzania provides freedom of speech but has failed to

make provisions which call for freedom of press (FitW 2016). Existing laws are reducing

the effectiveness and efficiency functioning of media something which reduces reporting

of corruption acts (FotP 2016). There are mistreatments of journalists who try to make

investigations upon very sensitive issues (HRR 2015). It is also revealed that some of

reporters are engaged in unethical acts of accepting bribes in order to publish false

information or sometimes ignoring certain sensitive issues. The difference existing

between the mainland media and those of Zanzibar is that, mainland media are active

while those of Zanzibar are under the arm of the government (HRR 2015).

Tanzania is considered among the counties to have put much efforts in fighting against

corruption. The efforts to control corruption began as soon as after independence of 1961.

In the first phase of 1961-1985 which was under the leadership of the late Mwalimu J. K.

Nyerere, the efforts to combat corruption were not effective simply because, public

official continued to engage in corruption acts especially grand and petty corruptions.

Leadership codes and social norms were initiated in order to combat the problem but the

efforts vanished in vain as corruption acts continued to exist.

The second phase witnessed President Ali Hassan Mwinyi taking control in the years

1985-1995. During this period, the issue of corruption grew much as most of government

officials were said to engage in corruptions. The period witnessed donors withdrawing

their aids to Tanzania especially after realizing that some of government officials

engaged in non-payment of taxes among businessmen. As the situation continued to be

worse, the late president Nyerere declared the country as “reeked corruption”

15

The third phase witnessed President Benjamin Mkapa taking control of the country in the

yeas 1995-2995. There were some efforts made in order to combat corruption including

appointment of a commission which was provided with an authority to assess the

situation of corruption in the country and propose possible measures in 1996. This

commission was known as the Presidential Commission against Corruption (PCAC),

commonly known as the Warioba Commission.

A report prepared by the commission which was entitled “Warioba Report” was

published which gave rise to adoption of a comprehensive National Anti-Corruption

Strategy and Action Plan (NACSAP) in 1999 and action plans for the 2005-2006 periods.

These plans had measures in them which aimed at, “removing in power all corrupt

leaders, strengthening the existing Prevention of Corruption Bureau, the appointment of a

Minister of Good Governance and the establishment of a Commission of Ethics”. Up to

2000, almost all ministries of the government had established various mechanisms which

could be useful in avoiding all leading factors to corruption in the sectors operating under

those ministries. There were also other efforts made in order to ensure that government

institutions become strong and able to combat corruption. One of the efforts was

disclosure of assets of public officials which was a provision in the Public Leadership

Code of Ethics.

The forth phase of the fight against corruption in Tanzania was during the era of

President Jakaya Kiwete (2005) who increased further the commitment of the country

towards fight against corruption. National Anti-Corruption Strategy and Action Plan II

(NACSAP-II) were launched covering the period 2006-2010. These had their focus

towards increasing engagement of LGAs, civil societies and private sectors in the war

against an evil act of corruption. There was also establishment of Triangulation

Partnership Programme in the year 2005 which was established in order increase

integration of civil society, government and the private sectors.

.

16

Considering the efforts in these phases, it can be concluded that Tanzania has tried much

to fight against corruption also increasing efficiency in management of public finances.

Even though the country has its commitment towards controlling corruption, there are

still challenges which reduce the effectiveness of the measures initiated. The challenges

are in different areas including public procurement, revenue collection as well as money

auditing money transfer. These phases reveal that the country has witnessed various

corruption scandals which specifically faced government officials.

The current president of Tanzania Hon. John Pombe Magufuli became in power in 2015.

Ever since he came into power, there has been positive perception among Tanzanians that

improvements have been seen in case of the fight against corruption. Despite of the

perception of Tanzanians, still the international organizations which are responsible for

overlooking progress in corruption fight say that nothing has changed. A May

2017 survey by Afrobarometer shows that; “over 70% of Tanzanians believe corruption

in the country had decreased “somewhat” or “a lot” in the previous year”. This is quietly

different from the reports of 2014 as it was shown that 13% of Tanzanians believed that

there was decrease in corruption acts.

During the year 2014, there was resignations and firings of government officials in top

posts are a result of economic scandals which were associated with corruptions. The fifth

president Magufuli began his movements against corruption. One of the efforts made by

him was sacking of public servants who forged their certificates and also arresting of two

key participants in the economic scandals. These efforts acted as a light in the darkness

and thus perceived by most of people as the root towards combating corruption in the

country.

Local perceptions among Tanzanians are insufficient to meet with the estimations made

by international organizations responsible for overlooking corruption acts in countries.

According to Transparency International’s (2016) corruption perception index, “Tanzania

ranked 117th out of 175 countries in 2013; in 2016, it came in at 116 of 176”. The

measurement of corruption was on the basis of assessment and surveying which were

made by different organizations responsible for monitoring of proper governance in

17

different countries across the world. The results had shown that Tanzania’s scores in

reduction of corruption fell from 33 to 32.

2.3 Factors Impeding and Enhancing Effective Functioning of PCCB

Since early 1990s, Tanzania had been having strong economic base and is of late

predicted to be one of the fastest growing countries in the World in the foreseeable

decades (Cooksey and Kelsall, 2012). However, according to some analysts, this growth

may not translate into poverty reduction if corruption will not be nipped in the bud

(Cooksey, 2012).

Bertelsmann Foundation (2014) revealed that; “Tanzania is also a resource-rich country.

Over the last decade, Tanzania has been experiencing a rapid extraction for minerals, oils

and gas. Due to being rich in resources, the country has decided to enact various

strategies to avoid any harm and misbehavior in both public and private organizations.

The country started to fight and combat corruption back in the year 1968 with the

creation of the one oldest anti-corruption commissions in Africa”. This entails that the

fight against corruption increased as a result of availability of natural resources in the

country.

Despite of the efforts which were put in place in order to combat corruption in Tanzania,

the country still faced cases of corruption. This is why corruption has been viewed as an

obstacle towards effectiveness in business in the country (World Economic Forum,

2013). Corruption acts have also been responsible in affective the image of the ruling

party in the country. There has been no conviction of high-profile leaders of the ruling

party despite that there are ministers who have been sacked (ISS Africa, 2012). An

example is in the report of Auditor general which revealed that, “millions of dollars in

public funds from several ministries could not be accounted for, which led to the firing of

six cabinet ministers” (Freedom House 2013).

Existence of Complex laws and lack of administrative capacity are responsible in creating

conducive environment for corruption. The report published by Transparency

International (2013) revealed that, 56% of respondents stated they had paid a bribe for

18

public sector services and 85% of respondents perceived the public sector to be corrupt”.

This proves that corruption in the country still exists despite of the presence of laws.

Another issue that provides an opportunity for corruption practices is the issue of dealing

with permits and licenses which are associated with a lot of procedures to be adhered.

Executives surveyed in the 2013-2014 Global Competitiveness Report list inefficient

government bureaucracy as one of the most problematic factors for doing business

(World Economic Forum 2013). Furthermore, it is reported that the main obstacles

towards importation of goods by foreign importers are Tanzania Port Authority and the

Tanzania Revenue Authority (US Department of State 2013).

In in 2012 the speaker of the National Assembly in Tanzania disbanded the parliamentary

committee on energy and minerals over corruption allegations, charging that some

members of parliament were soliciting bribes from the ministry in order to approve the

ministry’s budget and that some members of the committee had conflicts of interest with

the Tanzanian Electric Supply Company (Legal and Human Rights Centre 2013).

Literatures have also shown that the major issue which leads to corruption in Tanzania is

dominance of Tanzania executive in different matters. It is argued that political

interference interferes the fight against corruption.

Business Anti-Corruption Portal 2013 reports that; “appointments to law enforcement

agencies are often based on nonprofessional criteria, and party loyalties or personal

relationships are often a decisive factor. Law enforcement officials, most often high-level

ones, can allegedly enjoy protection from criminal investigations”. Also, Babeiva (2011)

argues that, “elections supervisory boards have been blamed for being too partial in

support of the ruling party due to limited operational autonomy from the ruling party”.

According to the literature, PPPs have become a popular investment strategy in the

developing world since the 1980s (Demuijnck and Ngnodjom 2011). In terms of the

regulatory framework, the government of Tanzania has long recognized PPPs to be an

important instrument for attracting private investment and improving public services

19

(CoST Tanzania 2013). Despite of the acknowledgement of PPP, there are still

challenges which reduce effectiveness of PPP in the country. These include insufficient

capacity in regulations and management, inadequate risk-sharing mechanisms that often

lead to the public sector carrying the full risk, and inadequate mechanisms for recovery of

private investors’ capital (PPP in Infrastructure Resource Center 2009).

PPP policy was initiated in the year 2009 in order to address all challenges which reduced

effectiveness of PPP. Also, there was initiation of PPP Act in the year 2010 and PPP

regulations which were initiated in the year 2011. Also, the Ministry of Finance created

Finance Unit with the aim of ensuring proper management of public finances and

monitoring of all risks of corruption. There was also establishment of Coordination Unit

in order to deal with all matters related to PPP and ensure effectiveness of PPP in

addressing corruption related acts.

2.4Theoretical Reviews

2.4.1 Public Choice Theory

This theory perceives governments as both bureaucrats and politicians. Problems in the

field of political science are addressed by this theory through adoption of various

economic tools. This theory was developed by scholars such as James Buchanan, Gordon

Tullock, and Mancur Olson. James Buchanan and Gordon Tullock coauthored the

Calculus of Consent: Logical Foundations of Constitutional Democracy (1962).

Scholars who developed the theory began by viewing the government as an agent outside

the scope of economic theory who dependent much on various considerations for his

actions and thus making a difference between the consideration of the government and

those driving economic agents. As per the views from this theory, “the actions of

politicians, government officials and voters are behavior of mostly self-interested agents

who use rational choice (the cost-benefit analysis) and have scarce resources to achieve

their goals”. One of the problems addressed by the theory was on the issue of the extent

to which individual political decision-making results in policy that conflicts with the

20

overall desires of the general public. Non-economic forces, such as desire of power and

respect, also affect government economic policy.

One of the conclusions generated by the theory is that, “people lack incentives to vote

and are largely ignorant of political issues. Such ignorance is rational since an

individual’s vote rarely decides the outcome of an election, but the process of gathering

relevant information necessary for a well-informed decision takes a great time and effort.

Consequentially, spending considerable effort is not personally worthwhile for an

average voter”.

2.4.2 Institutional Theory

Institutional theory is a theory on the deeper and more resilient aspects of social structure.

It considers the processes by which structures including rules, norms and routines

become established as authoritative guidelines for social behavior. According to Scott

(2008), “institutional theory is a widely accepted theoretical posture that emphasizes

rational myths, isomorphism and legitimacy”. Also, Kraft’s Public Policy (2007) views

institutional theory as, “a policy making that emphasizes the formal and legal aspects of

government structures”. The theory has emerged to be a popular and powerful

explanation for both individual and organizational action. Oliver (1992) and Scott (2001)

argued that; “much of the emphasis in the institutional theory literature has been on

organizational construction and on convergent change process”.

Fawcett, Gillian, and Mark Wadman (2008). Argies that; “a range of tools, systems, and

conditions militate against undesirable conduct in public life, providing incentives that

foster professionalism and higher standards of conduct in public service”. The Ethics

Infrastructure provides control, guidance, and management of ethical conduct. Ethics

infrastructure is important in public life and public service because the discretionary

powers of officials must be checked, and they factor into creating and maintaining

confidence in government and its institutions. The infrastructure provides the basis for

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testing practices, conventions, and conduct generally, and checks and balances against

arbitrary use of power.

These two theories are useful in this study since it shows the rationale in which the

mandate and those in powers might influence corruption basing on the decision making.

The theories explore the political behavior which seems as the one factor which hampers

the economic growth in a certain country. The interference between the political leaders

and their voters may influence corruption when it happens the voters not ready to cast for

the next voting.

2.5 Empirical Literature

McArthur & Teal (2002) investigated the extent of corruption as a determinant of firm

productivity. The findings from their study revealed that corruption has adverse impact

towards the productivity of firms both local firms and global firms. Furthermore,

Claessens et al (2008) investigated the existing association between contributions made

by firms and the overall wellbeing of those firms in the future. The findings from their

study revealed that there was positive relationship between financial contributions made

by the firms and their future wellbeing. This was because, the firms that provided

financial support in campaigns gained access to finance from financial institutions.

Athanasouli et al (2012) examined the existing relationship between corruption and

performance of firms. The indicators of performance used were annual sales and sales

growth. The sample used in the study was Greek firms and the results had shown that

corruption was a business barrier which affected performance of firms negatively. The

study by Ayaydın & Hayaloglu (2014) had its focus on examining the effects of

corruption towards the growth of firms. A sample of 41 manufacturing firms in Turkey

was used. As per the findings from the study, it was revealed that there was a positive

relationship between increased growth of private forms and corruption.

22

De Rosa et al. (2010) investigated the impact of corruption towards the rate of

productivity of firms. The study used Bank Business Environment Performance Survey

(BEEPS) data of 11,000 firms from 28 transition and developed countries. The findings

from their study revealed that bribe tax had negative impact to productivity level of firms

different from time tax which was found to be statistically insignificant. Faruq et al

(2013) investigated the impact of corruption while using different kinds of corruptions

such as; “bribes, excessive patronage, nepotism, secret party funding, job reservations”

The findings had shown that these kinds of corruptions created a great linkage between

political and business matters.

Furthermore, William et al (2016) conducted a study with the aim of determining an

existing association between bribery and financial performance of firms. The sample used

was 231 developing countries particularly in the period ranging from 2006-2014. The

findings from the study revealed that bribery led to improvement in performance of firms

especially using performance indicators such as sales growth, annual employment growth

and annual productivity. The study further revealed that 25% of firms considered much

paying bribes and providing officials with gifts as the major mechanisms to ensure

effectiveness of works of firms.

La Rocca et al. (2017) examined the moderating role of country-level corruption on the

relationship between cash holdings and financial performance of the firm. The study was

conducted at the context of Italy where bureaucratic red tape is high and hinders the

economic development of the country. The authors argue that, “in presence of high-level

country corruption, the cash holdings have negative impact on firm performance”. The

authors support the view that; “management may prefer to keep high level of cash stock

to pay corrupt activities, having high discretionary power and opportunistic sovereignty,

instead of shareholders’ wealth”. As from this study, it can be concluded that

management members may decide to exploit resources of the firm when there exists poor

governance of firms.

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2.5.1 Strategies to Curb Unethical Behavior, Corruption, and the Culture of

Impunity

For any strategy aiming at combating corruption and other unethical conducts to be

successful, there must be effective measures to address the issue of good governance as it

is considered as the heart for effective control of corruption. It must also focus much on

economic and institution reforms of which these would lead to reduction of corruption

acts a among officials. The institutions in Tanzania and Africa at larger are still

ineffective to ring an end to the problem of corruption. This is why they need to be

developed further in order to make them more efficient in dealing with issues related to

corruption.

Before development of ant-corruption institutions, there is a need for ensuring that there

are trainings provided to the workforce, codes of ethics which are effectively enforced as

these would be helpful in increasing the degree of compliance and efficacy. The

developing zone which is consisted of countries with pre-mature democracy and high

degree of dependency economy has weak institutions for addressing corruption. This is

why corruption acts still exist in these countries.

For strategies established in these countries on combating unethical behaviour and

corruption to be successful, there is a need for these strategies to make a deep analysis of

the problem in order to come up with an effective approach to solve the problems.

Another approach which can be helpful is through generation of visible strategies which

can be helpful in preventing and making enforcements against corruption. These

strategies include; “Enlist and foster public support in combating corruption practices,

advising public, private and parastatals bodies on ways and means of preventing

corruption practice, and on changes in method of work or procedure of such public,

private and parastatal bodies compatible with the effective performance of their duties,

which the Bureau considers necessary to reduce corruption practices. Also, cooperate and

collaborate with other international institutions agencies or organizations in the fight

against corruption”.

24

In case of addressing economic and institutional reforms, there is a need for dealing with

discretional powers of public officials for the purpose of reducing monopoly and

discretion. Also, a focus should be on increasing accountability and transparency among

public officials. When designing strategies, it is important to ensure that there are

effective administrative rules and procedures and also proper clarification of levels of

authority in terms of reporting lines. Existence of monopoly and unchecked powers leads

to existence of unnecessary tariffs which are considered as barriers towards effective

trade.

The environment of doing business is costly; There have been no clear policies and rules

which could assist in ensuring consistence among officials during interpretation of those

rules. Poor implementation of regulatory frameworks such as rules, regulations as well as

procedures has led to increased unethical conducts and corruption among officials. These

unethical conducts and corruptions can be avoided by increasing accountability, making

clear penalties for those who are found guilty of giving or receiving bribes and also

making public aware on the risks of engaging in corruption.

On prevention strategies: The effectiveness of these strategies requires an effective

participation of stakeholders in the fight against unethical conducts and also corruption.

The roles of various bodies including the civil society, the media, the private sector and

the public must be clearly documented. Relying on a single actor in combating corruption

cannot bring an end to corruption acts among people. This is why these a need for joining

powers and allocating responsibilities to each actor.

On enforcement: During enforcement of regulatory frameworks, each country must

ensure that all bodies responsible for combating corruption are provided with power and

mandate to carry out their activities without being subjected to any kind of interferences.

Those who are provided with the duty of enforcing laws must be ensured of their

protection during the course of discharging their duties especially security stipulated in

the country constitution. Political will is necessary in ensuring that there are positive

results of the implementation of regulatory frameworks something which would at the

end meet the expectations of stakeholders.

25

Therefore, activities that PCCB does to eradicate poverty includes; “Enlist and foster

public support in combating corruption practices”. PCCB has to; “advising public, private

and parastatals bodies on ways and means of preventing corruption practice, and on

changes in method of work or procedure of such public, private and parastatal bodies

compatible with the effective performance of their duties, which the Bureau considers

necessary to reduce corruption practices”. Another important activity that PCCB does is;

“cooperating and collaborating with other international institutions agencies or

organizations in the fight against corruption”. There is also a need for PCCB to examine

and advice the practices and procedures of public, parastatal and private organizations, in

order to facilitate the detection of corruption and secure the revision of methods of work

or procedures which appear to add to the efficiency and transparency of the institution

concerned.

2.5.2 Effective Corruption Control as a Key Element of Good Governance

There exists a broad consensus among economists about the detrimental effects of

corruption on price stability, capital productivity, foreign trade, foreign investments and

economic growth in general. Moreover, it is obvious that corruption leads to a reduction

of financial resources, which are needed for the government to fund infrastructure

development and public services (health, education). This inevitably results in an increase

of income equality and poverty.

Empirical studies provide evidence that developing countries are more affected by

corruption than industrialized countries, even though the causation of corruption and

development remains subject to scientific debate. It is nevertheless very likely that the

causality between corruption and development does not only run in one direction, since

poorer countries also have fewer resources for the costly fight against corruption. Both

donor countries and recipient countries are more concerned with reducing corruption in

developing world, while the national government have the duty of ensuring that there are

effective measures towards the effects of corruption in socio-economic development of

countries. Also, development partners are currently having an interest towards

26

safeguarding their funds which are used in areas which are prone to corruption.

Combating corruption has grown to be both an objective of and a condition for

development assistance.

2.5.3 Good Governance Architecture

Good governance architecture is the key towards successful control of corruption and

other unethical conducts. It has its own pillars which must be adhered by any effective

strategy which aim at totally controlling corruption and other related unethical conducts.

One of these pillars is political will. Political leaders are said to have no will to fight

corruption but rather only seem o be interested much in appearing in ant-corruption

movements. Their actions are quietly different from their words. Political will calls for

presence of ethical leaders and honest ones whose actions will have a clear relationship

with their words. These leaders must act in a forthright and truthful manner while

showing high degree of integrity.

Political will can be met when there exist leaders who avoid conflicts of interests and the

ones who declare their interests before and during decision making process. The

International Code of Conduct must be adhered especially in the provisions which call for

avoidance of conflict of interest. The codes state that; “public officials shall not use their

official authority for the improper advancement of their own or their family's personal or

financial interest. They shall not engage in any transaction, acquire any position or

function or have any financial, commercial or other comparable interest that is

incompatible with their office, functions and duties or the discharge thereof”.

Having a clear vision on where a country is heading is also an important aspect towards

effective leadership. A clear vision increases focus among leaders on how to positively

affect the prosperity of people. The strategies to fight against corruption must ensure that;

“there is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct is personally and socially or

collectively desirable and enforceable”. Existence of this will leads to increase public

confidence and trust upon the elected leaders of the government. Bureaucrats are

ethically obliged to act in response to values of people.

27

A leader is considered as a person who has high degree of Integrity which is regarded as;

“having a coherent set of principles and values which are in line with a moral filter”. The

principles which lay on the issue of integrity include; “wholeness, incorruptibility, quality

of acting in accordance with laws and codes and exemplary moral behaviour”.

Experience shows that a clean government is that one whose leaders do not engage in

business when in offices. Leadership means; “being intolerant of corruption, even when

a leader's closest friends and family are involved: hard decisions have to be made”.

There should be growing demonstration of courage by Parliament, Judiciary and

Executive in dealing with high-level corruption. This is the only thing which can change

the negative perception of the public towards their government. The second pillar is

transparency. Governments must ensure that all citizens in their respective countries are

provided with information on all matters taking place which in one way or another affect

their lives, their freedoms, and their liberties. A progressive and reproductive society is

that one which has clear channels of communication between the government and society

members. Transparency can be achieved by having legislation which call for right to

information. Secrecy in matters which have impact towards the general public is regarded

as breach of principle of good governance.

The third pillar is accountability. This can simply be defined as;” the ability of those who

provide services to the people to account for the use of public resources and public office

for public good”. Any person who has been provided with a certain mandate is supposed

to act in response to the agreed terms. The culture of holding people accountable

especially in matters of public interest has led to development of responsible government.

Within this pillar, there is a greater influence of the Parliament and other bodies in

ensuring that the interests of the public are protected.

The fourth pillar is the people's participation. It is very important that people participate

in various activities which are related to protection of the resources of the country, policy

and legislation. Provision of freedom of provision of views is an effective procedure

towards development of democracy. Having a society which participate in matters of the

state leads to production of good leader simpler because, people will have freedom to

28

provide their views when a leader shows the characters of being a bad leader. Media has

an important role to play in informing the general public on all matters taking place in

management of the country. Thus, it is very important to ensure that there is right to

freedom for good governance to be achieved.

The fifth pillar is the rule of law. Rule of law is about three eyes of the judiciary and the

related tribunals that dispense justice. These eyes are fairness, impartiality, and integrity.

The rule of low is evident in societies in which there is accessibility of justice even to

minority citizens who cannot afford a lawyer. The doctrine of ultra vires in action

conformity to laws, rules, regulations, and procedures in the discharge of public duty and

for the appointment of judges who are credible and dispense justice. The doctrine has

been helpful in increasing confidence of the public and their trust in their temple of

justice. The rule of law is the one which will lead to increased investment especially

when investors are assured of fair and credible business.

The final pillar is democratic space. The current environment does not deny the

democratic right of people. There is growing evidence on existence of the freedom of

voting an electing leader of peoples’ choices, the increased right to life and other rights

which are stipulated in the Bill of Rights. Good governance can be achieved when

democracy in put in practice.

2.6 Research Gap

The review of literature has shown that the topic of effectiveness of PCCB in combating

corruption has been widely studied by various scholars. Many studies have indicated

what PCCB are, functions and visions of PCCB, causes of corruption, factors that cause

corruption and some coping currently strategies plan 2017/18 to 2021/22 established by

the government which assesses the current situation, review challenges and incorporates

management’s thinking and aspiration on how best to achieve the organization’s legal

mandate on ending corruption. However, the review of literature has shown that little has

been documented about the efforts or role of government in the fighting’s against

corruption. Therefore, this study is intended to add to the existing literature about

government with regards to their role in the total ending of corruption.

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2.7 Conceptual Framework

Kothari (2006) explains that; “conceptual framework, explains either graphically or

narrative form, the main things to be studied, key factors constructs, or variables and

presumed relationships between the variables”. The conceptual framework in the figure

2.1 shows the relationship between independent and dependent variables. According to

the conceptual framework. The independent variables include: anti-corruption

workshops, anti-corruption rallies, special supplements, human chain and public

awareness and education on corruption. On the other hand the dependent variable is

eradication of corruption in Tanzania.

Independent Variables Dependent Variables

PCCB ROLE

Preventing and Combating

Corruption

Enlist and foster public

support in combating corrupt

practices.

Cooperate and collaborate

with international institutions,

agencies or organizations in

the fight against corruption.

Advise public, private and

parastatal bodies on ways and

means of preventing corrupt

practices, and on changes in

methods of work or

procedures.

Investigate any alleged or

suspected offence, conspiracy

to commit an offence and

conduct of a public official

which apparently involves

corruption under this Act.

Eradication of Corruption

in Tanzania

30

Source: Developed by the researcher from literature review (2018)

2.8 Conclusion

There is no specific strategy which can be considered effective for a particular country to

adopt in order to control the acts of corruption, unethical behaviours as well as culture of

impunity. However, the above discussion has produced elements of best practices which

can be adopted by any body responsible in fighting against corruption and other unethical

conducts. The study has also provided a framework in which leaders and observers might

consider and contextualize these concerns, with flexibility allowed for the local

environment. It has been revealed that the most important pillar which can be helpful in

controlling corruption and other unethical conducts is political will. The virtues of a

strong leader include; “Honesty, Selflessness, Objectivity, Openness, Accountability,

Quality Service, and Public Interest”.

However, it will never be possible to counter 100% fraud and corruption in either the

private or public sectors but businesses and government can take several steps such as

education, training, auditing and other preventives actions to make fraud and corruption

much less attractive to commit. Implementing prevention plans requires commitment.

Organizations are better off if they build deterrents, established good controls and making

employees to realize that the survival of the business or country depends on their honesty

which can help counter private sector fraud and corruption

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CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

The chapter presents the research procedures and methods that was used in the study. The

chapter includes the research approach, research design, study area, population, sample

and sampling techniques, source of data, data collection methods, study validity and

reliability, and data analysis.

Research methodology is; “a systematic way of solving the research problem. It may be

understood as a science of studying how the research is done scientifically”. Kothari

(2004) defines methodology as; “the way in which a discipline selects its field of study,

the way you organize and you interpret the phenomena in that field, identify problems

attempt to solve them and the criteria by which he or she decides when a problem has

been solved and make sure that it does not reemerge”.

3.1`Research Design

Research design is considered as structure of the research. The ‘pivot’ that holds all

elements together in the research. Brown (2006) says; “research design gives the clue to

getting the research answers; it is a framework design in finding answers to questions”.

Nduguru (2007) viewed research design as; “an assemblage of conditions for specifying

relationships among variables in a study, operationalizing them and controlling their

extraneous effects and plan for selecting the sources and types of information to be used

in answering the research question(s)”.

In supporting this view, Kothari (2004) defines a research design as; “an arrangement

condition for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance

to the research purpose with economy in procedure”. On the other hand, Aker et al (2002)

as cited in Adam and Kamuzora (2008) defined a research design as; “a detailed blue

32

print used to guide towards its objectives”. According to this definition research design is

a detailed plan of work to be done to achieve research objectives. Similarly, it is a

conceptual structure with which research is conducted; it constitutes the blue print for the

collections, measurement and analysis of data (Kothari 2004:31). The study used

exploratory study design whereas it helps determine the best research design, data

collection method and selection of subject.

3.2 Study area

The study was conducted at PCCB –Dar e s salaam Head Quarters. This is attributed by

the fact it is the government entity dealing with corruption in Tanzania pertaining to

prevention and combating strategy such that it is the entity useful to assure the generation

of adequate and reliable data for filling the study gap. The area has high population with

diverse characteristics; therefore, the study area was good representative sample of a

larger community area.

3.3 Population

Kothari (2004) defines population as; “all items or subjects in any field of inquiry”.

Population is also defined as; “the entire group of individual, firms, plants or things that

have one or more characteristics in common that are of interest to the study” Best and

Khan (1998). On the other hand Adam and Kamuzora (2008) argues that; “the population

is the totality of objects under investigation”. The targeted population included the 50

staff members of PCCB who were competent to provide valid information pertaining the

research work and the key stakeholders who were involved in the study were individual

citizens, residents, public and private sector institutions, and non-governmental

organizations who made a total population to be 100.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Procedures

3.4.1 Sample Size

Sample size is the exactly number of items selected from population to constitute a

sample (Adam and Kamuzora 2008:124). It is recommended to use large sample size to

be able to generalize the findings, this is because the larger the sample size, the lower the

33

likely error in generalizing to the population, but in this study, a researcher used 60

respondents.

3.4.2 Sampling Procedures

Sampling technique is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the population.

According to Kothari (2003), sampling techniques refer to; “the procedures the researcher

would adopt in selecting items for the sample”. In this study both probability and non-

probability sampling were used to select sample from the population.

3.4.2.1 Probability Sampling

Probability sampling is a type of sampling where every member of the population has an

equal chance of being selected to form a sample (Somaray, 2010). Probability sampling is

commonly associated with survey-based research where researcher needs to make

inferences from the sample about population to answer the question or meet research

objectives. In probability sampling, sampling elements are selected randomly and the

probability of being selected is determined ahead of the time by the researcher.

If properly done, probability sampling ensures that the sample is representative. For the

purpose of this study simple random sampling was applied as type of probability

sampling and 80 members participated. Some of the respondents were selected randomly.

The motives of opting simple random sampling is because it ensured equal chance to

respondents for being selected as it is not bias to any member of the population.

3.4.2.2 Non-probability Sampling

According to Somaray (2010), “non-probability sampling is a type of sampling which

does not guarantee basis for every member of the population to be selected to constitute a

sample”. Non-probability sampling provides a range of alternative techniques based on

researchers’ subjective judgment. In non-probability sampling the selection of the

elements for the sample is not necessarily made with the aim of statistical representation

of the population. In this study, purposive sampling has been selected by the researcher

and believed to be useful in selecting the relevant sample from the population. The major

criteria for including a person in a sample are possession of expertise or experience about

the problem under investigation. The motives for choosing purposive sampling is that the

34

researcher believed some respondents and stakeholders had desirable attributes,

characteristics, experience and expertise about the phenomena.

3.5 Sources of Data Collection

According to Adam and Kamuzora (2008:124) and Majhi (2011) states that, there are

two types of source of data, namely, primary and secondary data.

3.5.1 Primary Data

The Primary data are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus

happen to be original in character (Kothari, 2004). They were collected from the field as

fresh hand information specifically to fill the knowledge gap of the study. These are

considered first hand data because are gathered direct from the respondents by the

researcher.

3.5.2 Secondary Data

Secondary Data are those data which have already been collected by someone else and

which have been passed through the statistical process. (Kothari 2004, Kombo, and

Tromp, 2006) state that, “secondary data are data neither collected directly by the user

nor specifically for the user. It involves gathering data that already been collected by

someone else”. They were obtained in several reading sources which will be used to

complement primary data in the discussion of the study findings.

3.5.3 Documentary Review

Researcher reviewed different International, National and Regional annual reports,

International and National Directives, International and National Strategic Plans and

other anti- corruption initiatives available which are related to the topic under study.

Reports publications (published and unpublished), Information regarding the effects of

corruption, magnitude of corruption, effort taken by community to minimize the problem,

population of the area and other important data to support the study will be reviewed

from the local government office and elsewhere.

35

3.6 Data collection method and instruments

The following data collection methods and instruments were used:

3.6.1 Interview

The interview as method of collecting primary data involves presentation of oral verbal

stimuli and reply in term of oral verbal responses. This method can be used through

personal interviews and, if possible through telephone interviews. Usually the method

can be carried out in a structured or unstructured ways (Kothari, 2004:97). Also, Adam

and Kamuzola (2008:146) argues that, under this technique of data collection there is a

direct contact between a researcher and respondents.

That means the interviewer (researcher) and interviewee (respondents) were engaged in

oral question or discussion. The word face to face here does not only mean face to face

interaction between individuals, it also means interaction through telephone and other

modern means of information technology like video conferencing email and so on. In this

study 30 respondents were involved in interview method of data collection from the 80

population frame.

3.6.2 Questionnaire

According to Minerva (2009) questionnaires as the instrument consisting list of questions

that a number of people are asked so as to collect information about something. This is a

sequence or series of questions which a respondent is expected to answer. The Researcher

employed this method of data collection as it secures to standardize results, can be

tabulated and treated statistically. Although there are limitations of data collection; still

its advantages are stronger than the disadvantages. There are advantages in terms of

anonymity and this can encourage the respondents to fill them. Also there are positive

aspects that the respondents can give the questions serious thoughts because they

complete questionnaires in their own time and not in a pressurized environment such as

interview method. Thus, 50 respondents filled the distributed questionnaires.

3.7 Study Validity and Reliability

According to Bailey (1994) validity is the degree in which a test measures what is

opposed to be measures. It is about the measure of accuracy and whether the instrument

36

of measurement actually measuring what was intended to be measured. Wood and Haber

(2002) reliability is the consistence in which the tool measures the trait is supposed to

measure. For the purpose of the study, the pretest was conducted by the researcher to

determine the relevance of the objectives. The use of simple random helped the

researcher to avoid biasness whereby each respondent had equal chance of being

selected. Moreover, the researcher provided awareness to the interviewees to increase

confidence in answering the structured interview questions.

3.8 Data Analysis

The data collected were clustered into qualitative and quantitative information in which

the data obtained by using questionnaires were analyzed by using Statistical Package for

the Social Science (SPSS) whereby tables, pie chart and graphs were used to represents

the key findings of the study. Descriptive statistics were used to describe and present the

study findings. Information obtained by using interviews were analyzed using content

analysis whereas the information were narrative presented with themes to support the

results. The study is qualitative supported with descriptive statistics.

3.9 Ethical Consideration

Ethics was observed in the study as the study has been done consistently with the

university regulations. The original data were collected after the permission granted by

the university. Henceforth confidentiality was guaranteed and respected between the

researcher and respondents.

37

CHAPTER FOUR

STUDY RESULTS, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

The chapter describes the study results consisting of the primary information collected

from the field in correspondence with research questions guiding the study. The chapter

is further complemented by using relevant analysis and discussion in line with the

research questions to fill the study gap. In that case, therefore, the chapter consists of the

following synopsis:

4.2 Respondents Profile

This section describes the profile of the respondents by providing insight of the

employees in the Prevention of Combating Corruption Bureau (PCCB) in age, education

level and gender variables.

4.2.1 Age

Participants in the study had to disclose their information on age whereas table and figure

presents the findings.

Table 4.1 Age

\

Source: Field Work,

2018

Results in table 4.1 show findings on age of respondents that 17 respondents (34%) were

18-35 years; 21 respondents (42%) were 36-50 years; and 12 (24%) respondents were

Age

Frequenc

y Percent

Valid 18-35 17 34.0

36-50 21 42.0

50+ 12 24.0

Total 50 100.0

38

above 50 years. This implies that the organization consist of employees in all age groups

in good and sufficient ratio essential for positive outcomes. The assertion is

complemented by Alt (2015) who points out that ombudsman entities all over the globe

with the nature of the tasks and operations consist of employees in all age groups and

categories since they all have significant role to play in accomplishing the tasks.

4.2.2 Gender

Respondents revealed the information on gender in table 4.2 as follows:

Table 4.2 Gender

Gender

Frequency Percent

Valid Male 32 64.0

Female 18 36.0

Total 50 100.0

Source: Field Work, 2018

Findings in table 4.2 indicate information on gender of respondents, which that male

respondents were 32 (64%) while female respondents were 18 (36%). This implies that

the PCCB considers gender parity when recruiting new staffs and indeed the institution is

gender-balanced. The claim is complemented by Pritchett (2017) suggesting that the

PCCB comprises of employees both men and women in undertaking its tasks. The

recruitment is fair and provides equal chances for all.

4.2.3 Education Level

The study prompted respondents to state their levels of education with table and figure

4.3 illustrating the findings.

39

Table 4.3 Education Level

Education

Frequency Percent

Valid Diploma 20 40.0

Bachelor Degree 19 38.0

Masters 5 10.0

Certificate 4 8.0

Secondary

Education 2 4.0

Total 50 100.0

Source: Field Work, 2018

Figure 4.3 Education Level

The study results in table 4.3 shows facts on education level which are certain that 20

(40%) respondents held diploma; 19 (38%) respondents had bachelor’s degree; 5 (10%)

respondents had masters’ qualifications; 4 (8%) had certificates and 2 (4%) were

secondary education leavers. This implies that ombudsman entity in Tanzania comprise

of employees in all levels of education from the higher levels to the least ones for the

accomplishment of the tasks required to be attained. The statement is in line with Znoj

(2009) suggesting that all entities dealing with investigations, including ombudsman

usually consist of employees in different levels of education and understanding for the

purpose of fulfilling their duties well without blockades and severe boundaries.

4.3 Legal and Institutional Capacity of PCCB in Eradicating Corruption in

Tanzania

The Prevention and Combating of Corruption Bureau (PCCB) was established under the

Prevention and Combating of Corruption Act No. 11 of 2007. This Act came after the

repeal of the Prevention of Corruption Act (PCA) Cap 329 (RE 2002) when the

Parliament of the United Republic of Tanzania passed the Prevention and Combating of

Corruption Bill of 2007 on April 16, 2007. The former President of the United Republic

of Tanzania, Jakaya Kikwete, assented the bill on June 11, 2007 to make it an Act of and

40

came into force on July 1, 2007. The PCCA No. 11/2007 was made to provide promote

the enhancement of good governance and eradication of corruption.

PCCB has three major mandates, which are: Prevention, Community Education and

Enforcement as stipulated in the PCCA, No. 11 of 2007. The Bureau is established under

section 5 of the Act as an independent public body. Section 7 of the Act sets out the

functions of the Bureau as to take necessary measures for the prevention and combating

of corruption in the public, Parastatal and private sectors. In this regard the Bureau is

empowered to do the following:

1. Examine and advice on the practices and procedures of public, Parastatal and

private organizations in order to facilitate the detection of corruption or

prevent corruption and secure the revision of methods of work or procedures

which appear to add to the efficiency and transparency of the institution

concerned;

2. Enlist and foster public support in combating corrupt practices;

3. Advise public, private and Parastatal bodies on ways and means of preventing

corrupt practices, and on changes in methods of work or procedures of such

public, private and Parastatal bodies compatible with the effective

performance of their duties, which the Bureau considers necessary to reduce

the incidence of corrupt practices;

4. Cooperate and collaborate with international institutions, agencies or

organizations in the fight against corruption;

5. Investigate and subject to the directions of the Director of Public Prosecutions,

prosecute offences under this Act and other offences involving corruption;

6. Investigate any alleged or suspected offence, conspiracy to commit an

offence and conduct of a public official which apparently involves corruption

under this Act.

The study revealed facts on the legal and institutional capacity of the organization in

eradicating corruption in Tanzania using key respondents as those residing in the

management and key responsibilities knowledgeable on the issue that the organization is

41

highly capacitated and strong enough in eradicating corruption in the country since first

Prevention and Combating of Corruption Bureau (PCCB) has the mandate to exist and

operate in eradicating corruption under the Prevention and Combating of Corruption Act

after the abolishment of the former act in 2007.

The legal settings have empowered the entity to exercise its jurisdictions and activities in

combating corruption in Tanzania mainland since it falls under non-union matter. The

entity operates in Tanzania mainland alone whereas in Zanzibar corruption is investigated

by the police under the direction and command of the Attorney General. In that case, the

entity has legal clearance and recognition to operate in the country specifically in the

mainland. This is supported by the respondent views that;

“The organization is well mandated legally to operate in Tanzania mainland under

Prevention and Combating of Corruption Act 2007 such that it is allowed to operate in

dealings pertaining to the eradication of corruption in mainland Tanzania since the

operation of the organization fall under the category of non-union matter.”

Despite that, the organization has sufficient human capital and establishments

countrywide with resources supplied by the government to enable the commencement of

the tasks for that matter. With that, in terms of capacity is highly adequate and effective

in assuring that the functions tasked to be performed are well executed in the manner

which assures sufficient response to the demands. The view is also supported by the

respondent that:

“The entity also constitutes of adequate manpower and sufficient resource supply for the

tasks to be undertaken as well as sufficient establishments countrywide because it has

been in existence since 1974 in another name but functions and duties are similar as

ombudsman entities. Therefore, on the efficiency pattern, the organization is deemed

effective in legal and institutional capacity in assuring that in useful in eradicating

corruption.”

42

The implication of the results is that effectiveness of the entity in any country especially

the government entities regardless of the operations in place must first possess strong and

clear juridical recognition and setups which has been well undertaken in all procedures

including being ratified by act(s) of parliament. The view is well acknowledged by Heale

and Wong (2010) suggesting that in Tanzania any government entity becomes

operational and gets to have absolute mandate to exercise all that is supposed to execute

provided that it is well ratified by the act of parliament and gets to be recognized on legal

requirements.

4.4 How effective is PCCB in Eradicating Corruption in Tanzania

The government of Tanzania has stepped up its game against corruption under PCCB,

with greater publication of anti-corruption efforts, shared up law enforcement, increased

judiciary budgets and expedited adjudication of corruption cases (John, 2016; Daily

News, 2017; Citizen, 2016; The Guardian, 2017).

Since 2014, high-profile arrests and charges have targeted members of the ruling elite and

top public officials, including the successful 2015 prosecution of two former senior

cabinet ministers on corruption-related abuse-of-office charges (Tanzanian Affairs, 2017;

Citizen, 2015). The PCCB has played a crucial role to ensure everyone who engaged in

corruption is arraigned for the benefit of the country.

Such noises are not new in Tanzania, which has seen too many false dawns in the past

(Gray, 2015; Machira, 2013). Yet the current drive shows no signs of abating. In 2016

came the indictments of key actors in the infamous Tegeta Escrow scandal, as well as of

the head of the Tanzania Revenue Authority (Tanzanian Affairs, 2017). The drive has

also focused on petty corruption, with the suspension or dismissal of public officials and

changes in key personnel in most law enforcement agencies. In addition to launching

Phase III (2017-2022) of its National Anti-Corruption Strategy and Action Plan (United

Republic of Tanzania, 2017), the government has established the Economic, Corruption

and Organised Crime Division of the High Court (John, 2016) and the Prevention and

43

Combating of Corruption Bureau (PCCB) recently reported recovering some US$ 26.9

million in public monies during the past two financial years (Xinhua, 2017).

These efforts which have been put in place in Tanzania have started to pay dividends in

public opinion, Afrobarometer's most recent survey suggests that; “improvements in the

government’s handling of corruption in public office appear to have reduced citizens’

perceptions of institutional corruption in key public agencies”. Still, fighting public

corruption remains a challenge in Tanzania, in part due to fear of retaliation against

people who report it. The survey results suggest that; “government efforts against

corruption have produced notable gains, but more needs to be done to promote the

participation of the public in the fight against corruption”.

The study has revealed the ways which the Prevention and Combating of Corruption

Bureau (PCCB) is effective in eradicating the vice in Tanzania by using the respondents.

The employees in the ordinary category indicated that first the organization is legally

mandated to eradicating corruption as its sole primary objective with all the authorities

and powers in assuring that the goal is attained on behalf of the government in all

government entities and the general public at large.

Despite that, the organization is an independent body stipulated under section 5 of the

Prevention and Combating for Corruption Act (PCCA) such that it is not interfered with

anyone and any institution in the government and the private sector to exercise its powers

without any form of delays and interferences. This automatically guarantees effectiveness

since it is not affected by the affairs of any organization in undertaking its duties in

preventing and eradicating corruption in the country. Basing on the study and surveying

the organization work under pressure in both internally and externally thus hinder the

operations in eradicating corruption in Tanzania. The organization lack a value of trustful

and many complaints and doubt are many on the operation activities of PCCB in

eradicating corruption in Tanzania.

44

Despite the perspective of being weak, the organization has the power to enter into any

organization and request any information(s) and granted with immediate and quick

response where it has been noted to have an existing form of irregularities in line with

corruption and practices of that kind including money laundering for that matter. This

assures effectiveness since the entity has empowered to enter in any office and request

any information with immediate response upon delivery.

Furthermore, the organization has the mandate to question any individual in the country

including to detain provided that it is convinced that the person is a threat pertaining to

corruption and corrupt practices. This fosters efficiency in eradicating corruption because

it is certain the organization is able to exercise its authority for the purpose of achieving

the desired goals and objectives PCCB is an government entity or institution operating in

Tanzania as a tool and apparatus specifically for preventing and combating corruption

practices in all public settings and environment in all grounds (Skinner, 2014).

Therefore, Table 4.4 illustrate the how effective is PCCB in eradicating corruption in

Tanzania.

Table 4.4 How Effective is PCCB in Eradicating Corruption in Tanzania

Ways

Frequency Percent

Valid Legal mandate 21 42.0

Autonomy 19 38.0

Organizations

interventions 5 10.0

Individuals intervention 5 10.0

Total 50 100.0

Source: Field Work, 2018

A finding in table 4.4 shows how effective PCCB is in eradicating corruption in

Tanzania. The implication of the results is that any government entity is deemed effective

in undertaking its duties and required tasks provided that it is well granted the required

authority and autonomy to exercise the powers vested to it. The view is supported by

Hamilton (2017) suggesting any government organization including ombudsman is only

45

effective and efficient provided that it is legally equipped with the authority and the

autonomy to exercise its powers.

Key respondents on the other hand provides that PCCB is effective in eradicating

corruption because it has autonomy to operate diligently with no interferences from any

other organizations. PCCB is a law enforcement institution to prevent corruption, educate

the society and enforce the law against corruption (PCCB Report, 2009). This enables the

operations being commenced based on fairness and professionalism and not nepotism and

favoritism as a result of any affiliations. The statement is well acknowledged by the

respondent H stating that;

“The organization is autonomous though it is a government entity per se.

The autonomy fosters the operations of the entity in line with fairness

which assures that it performs in manner which corresponds with equality

and justice for all.”

Despite that, the organization has been granted clear authority through PCCA Act

whereas it is free to operate in Tanzania mainland with power and authority to request

any information from any organization whether public or private; as well as retaining

anyone suspected or verified as a threat to corruption for that matter. In that case, the

views are supported by the respondent that;

“PCCB is clearly mandated legally with authority to operate in mainland

Tanzania with power to enter in any organization and seek for any

information of vital interests in line with the eradication of corruption; as

well as detaining anyone who is suspected or verified as the target for

corruption issues. This implies effectiveness since the entity has clear

authority for the tasks”.

This implies that the existence of sufficient authority and power towards government

organization in pursuit of the tasks automatically assures effectiveness in the undertaking

required to be achieved for that matter. The statement is acknowledged by Senior (2006)

that power and the authority once they are well vested to the entity particularly

46

government one automatically becomes effective and efficient though sometimes for

several occurrences some practitioners may tend to behave otherwise and subject the

entities being perceived as ineffective. Therefore, the PCCB operations are short of

resources. It is observed that one among the weaknesses of the entity is the incompetence

of financial and human resources despite its availability. On the other hand, lack of trust

bedevil the mandate and effectiveness of PCCB in eradicating corruption in Tanzania.

4.5 Factors Hindering PCCB in Eradicating Corruption in Tanzania

The study indicated several factors hindering PCCB in fulfilling its required objectives

in Tanzania. The employees in the ordinary category revealed various issues of concern

such as factors whereas the first one is evidences because the country legal system is

bound to liberal democracy with adherence to the rule of law stating that no one shall be

held guilty until the law proves otherwise beyond reasonable doubt. With that, evidences

to implicate someone on corruption charges to cater for proof beyond doubt are hard to

find and most people do not use electronic transactions in handling illegal cash.

Also, most of the written documents which may serve as evidences have either been

removed or destroyed. This has been difficult to capture proof on several counts to the

extent that several cases ended up being cold due to lack of sufficient evidence to

implicate someone even if it is known that the person has committed such wrongful acts.

This has been and still is the main issue of concern as the problem pertaining to assuring

efficiency in eradicating corruption in Tanzania.

The other challenge is witnessing the case that some of the cases requires some

individuals to testify against others for the purpose of establishing material grounds. This

depends upon the willingness of the individual to accept to become a witness in cross

examinations. It has been a challenge since many people are reluctant especially when

they have been working together or engaged in close hook ups like friendships,

colleagues and others. It also automatically impact on the efficiency in eradicating

corruption since evidence compromises the means of implicating the accused.

47

Apart from that, information tampering deliberately by some entities has been a challenge

because it affects the evidence. This has been the case since once information are

requested it is noted that some issues are missing which automatically distorts the case

causing the entity to be questioned on its competencies. This has been and still is

hindering factor pertaining to smooth operations of the organization.

Moreover, government interference the entity though it is autonomous in responding to

the governing body. In that case, in certain pursuits the governing body may restrict the

entity to pursue the case which automatically becomes an order and the case goes cold.

This has been also affecting the organization effectiveness on several grounds since it

shows the incompetence of the entity. Therefore, the results are clearly described in table

4.5.

Table 4.5 Factors

Factors

Frequency Percent

Valid

Percent

Cumulative

Percent

Valid Evidences 8 16.0 16.0 16.0

Witnessing 2 4.0 4.0 20.0

Information tampering 3 6.0 6.0 26.0

Government

interference 37 74.0 74.0 100.0

Total 50 100.0 100.0

Source: Field Data

Table 4.5 shows the findings on the factors hindering eradication of corruption by PCCB.

This implies that legal requirements are highly demanding to the extent that they tend to

generate challenges on their own provisions which affect the entity’s performance. The

view is supported by Alt (2015) that ombudsman entities all over the world are highly

affected by legal requirements towards efficiency because the requirements of evidences

which serve as proof beyond reasonable doubts is difficult and sometimes impossible to

gather which automatically affects the performance of the entities in their quest of

fighting against corruption.

48

Key informants on the other hand suggest that evidences required have been the cause of

PCCB to underperform in fighting against corruption since the ones required in courts are

difficult to find. Individuals as victims are such clever that that tamper with evidences

and documents thus making it difficult to establish grounds for charges. This is supported

by the views from the respondent that:

“Evidences required by the courts have been the source of underperformance of the

entity on eradicating corruption in Tanzania because they are hard and sometimes

impossible to find. This is attributed by the fact that they are also tampered and some

destroyed by the victims who are clever and aware of the implications once they are

caught”.

Despite that, witnessing has been another bottleneck since in cross examinations

sometimes witnesses may be required whereas in most cases among many people

compliance has been highly poor to the extent that it has been difficult to establish strong

evidences, since most witnesses decline to testify against others. This is complemented

by respondent F that;

“Courts sometimes in gathering evidences for the ruling to be stated usually requires

witnesses to testify which has been difficult to gather them because most people among

Tanzanians are less willing on testifying against others in court. This has been the issue

of concern causing most evidences to be difficult being collected and affect the entire

modalities of the cases”.

Moreover, in certain occasions the government restricts the entity to proceed with

allegations which makes the case to automatically go cold. This affects the reputation of

the organization since it is known that the organization has engaged itself in pursuit of the

case. The view is supported by respondent ‘D’ that:

“Sometimes there are encounters whereas the government tend to have direct interest on

certain cases whereas it occurs the government orders the entity to stop pursuing the

case for that matter.”

49

This implies that legal requirements in pursuit of cases are difficult to be complied by the

organization which is difficult to perform well. The view is supported by Alt (2015)

providing that legal requirements to several ombudsman entities have been a challenge to

carter for total compliance which has been difficult to perform effectively because some

requirements especially evidences are difficult and sometimes impossible and unrealistic

to gather leading to the law breakers leaving court room free. This has made some cases

difficult to pursue where the organization to be perceived as ineffective and automatically

distorts the whole idea behind the entities. This is evident with PCCB because in some

instances it has been difficult to gather some evidence thus affecting the performance of

the organization.

50

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

The chapter provides the summary of the entire work and the conclusion of the study;

with recommendations for improving the shortcomings identified. Therefore, it is certain

that the description of the chapter is in line with the objectives of the study which is

illustrated in the following manner:

5.2 Summary

The study aimed at assessing the effectiveness of Prevention and Combating of

Corruption Bureau (PCCB) in eradicating corruption in Tanzania. The thesis was guided

by three specific objectives which generated research questions. The study adopted

exploratory research design in obtaining data from respondents. The research work was

conducted in the headquarters of the organization and its subsidiaries. Information to fill

the knowledge gap were gathered using interviews and questionnaires from respondents

selected as the sample size.

Collected information using questionnaires were computed in SPSS data sheet to

generate statistical measurements to present the data. Descriptive statistics were used to

present the results of all details collected using questionnaires. Data gathered collected

through interviews were analyzed by content analysis and presented in themes and

narrations. Findings indicated that the entity is well capacitated legally and institutionally

on eradicating corruption in Tanzania.

Also, the study indicated several ways which show the effectiveness of the organization

in eradicating corruption in Tanzania such a: having the autonomy, legal mandate,

organization and individual controls. In addition to that, several challenges cause the

entity to underperform, including evidencing, witnessing, government interference, and

51

information tampering. Therefore, the implication of the findings is that PCCB is an

effective entity though it is constrained by certain challenges for that matter.

5.3 Conclusion

It is the fact that Prevention and Combating of Corruption Bureau (PCCB) as an

organization is highly effective and efficient in eradicating graft in Tanzania since all

juridical aspects and requirements are certain and positive and have powers and

autonomy to execute duties without interferences. This, therefore prompts the fact that

shortcomings have been identified, including challenges which adversely affect the entity

to deliver to the expectations in line with organizational targets. In that case, drastic

measures must be employed to ensure the corruption control and prevention body is

effective:

5.4 Recommendations

Since the reality on the ground is certain that the entity needs to perform effectively and

efficiently in eradicating corruption in Tanzania, the study recommends that: first the

evidences that may be required by the courts be assessed first and to determine their

relevance. It has been of late noted that some evidences are highly unrealistic, some are

considered minor despite being proved and verified.

The study, in the same vein, recommends that the witnesses must set mechanisms to

assure their total protections, since some prefer to be unanimous following their

relationships with the accused. The researcher calls on the entity and courts to design

measures to ensure witnesses testify even in the absence of the victims by protecting

them. The move may push for efficiency in a fight against graft.

5.5 Areas for Further Studies

Various other gaps can be derived from the study to facilitate the undertaking of other

studies whereas first the study assessed the effectiveness of PCCB in eradicating

corruption in Tanzania. However, another study may be conducted to assess public

perception on the relevance of PCCB in fighting corruption in Tanzania. In addition to

52

that, the study adopted exploratory design whereas another study may be performed using

descriptive design based on causal relationship approach.

53

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Mosha, A. C. (2017). The Planning of the New Capital of Tanzania: Dodoma, an

Unfulfilled Dream. University of Botswana.

Mosha, A. C. (2017). The Planning of the New Capital of Tanzania: Dodoma, an

Unfulfilled Dream. University of Botswana.

Muganda, A. (2014). Tanzania's Economic Reforms and Lessons Learned. Routledge

Publishers.

Pritchett, B. (2017). Tanzania in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books.

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Senior, L. (2006). The Organizational Ombudsman: Origins, Roles and Operations, a

Legal Guide, ABA.

Skinner, A. (2014). Tanzania. Etymology Publishers.

Wairagala, W. (2004). Tanzania. Gareth Stevens Publisher.

Znoj, A. (2009). OSCE Handbook on Combating Corruption. Vienna: Organization for

Security and Co-operation in Europe.

55

LIST OF APPENDICES

QUESTIONNAIRE

This is a questionnaire on the study titled “The Role of PCCB in Eradicating

Corruption in Tanzania”.

Dear Respondent;

Thank you in advance for devoting your time to participate in this study. Basically, the

study is for academic purposes and for partial fulfillment of the award of a Masters in

Public Administration at Mzumbe University Dar es Salaam Campus. I request that you

participate in this study with free will and high degree of honest and openness. This is

key towards achieving the intended goal of the study. No names of individuals or entities

are required and strict confidentiality will be maintained in handling your responses.

Individual responses will not be identified in the analysis and report of the study.

Part I: General Information

1. Gender?

a. Male

b. Female

2. Age?

a. 18-35

b. 36-50

c. Above 50

3. Education Level

a. Bachelor Degree

b. Masters and Above

c. Diploma

d. Certificate

e. Secondary Education

f. Primary Education

g. No Formal Education

h. Other (specify) ………………………………….

4. Marital Status

56

a. Single

b. Married

c. Living with a partner

d. Widow

e. Divorced

f. Widower

Part II: Study Questions

5. Is PCCB effective and efficient in preventing and combating corruption in Tanzania?

Yes ……………. No ………………..

If yes, how effective is the entity in fighting against corruption in Tanzania?

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

6. Are there legal and institutional setups guaranteeing the proper functioning of the

entity?

Yes ……………….. No ………………….

If yes, what are they?

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

57

7. How effective are the legal provisions and setups in assuring PCCB performance?

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

8. What are concerns/factors fostering the performance of the organization in fighting

and preventing corruption in Tanzania?

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

9. What are challenges affecting the proper functioning of PCCB in preventing and

combating corruption?

……………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………

THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION

58

INTERVIEW GUIDE

This is a guide on the study titled “The Role of PCCB in Eradicating Corruption in

Tanzania”.

1. How effective is PCCB in fighting against corruption in Tanzania?

2. How effective are the legal provisions and setups in assuring PCCB performance?

3. What are concerns/factors fostering the performance of the organization in

fighting and preventing corruption in Tanzania?

4. What are challenges affecting the proper functioning of PCCB in preventing and

combating corruption?

5. What can be done to mitigate the identified and observed challenges?

59