Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia

Does an Islamic Architecture Exist? Author(s): Abdullah Al-Jasmi and Michael H. Mitias Reviewed work(s): Source: Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia, T. 60, Fasc. 1, Histria da Filosofia & Outros Ensaios (Jan. - Mar., 2004), pp. 197-214 Published by: Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40338415 . Accessed: 29/11/2011 10:39Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

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Does an IslamicArchitecture Exist?Abdullah Al-Jasmi* Michael H. Mitias*that there nota system visualsymbols Islamic was in Abstract: OlegGrabarhas argued of an it to that if exists; is, culture; consequently is difficult holdthat Islamicarchitecture and try experience aesthetically see what to it or kind a we weretostand before mosque In it it paper we argue ofbuilding is we wouldnotbe able tosay that is a mosque. this a s this Second,we We, present brief analysis Grabar' view. of against proposition. first, how as we this evaluate view. Third, explicate themosque an architectural type critically We this Islamicsymbols. shall illustrate pointbyan analysis one embodies of uniquely we is there basic Islamic are Thethesis defend that the basic Islamicsymbol: Mihrab. It lendscredibility inhere themosque. is this in and these factthat symbols symbols that exists. an to theclaimthat Islamicarchitecture Key Words:Aesthetics; Architecture; Decoration;Grabar, Oleg; Islam; Islamicculture; Symbolism, Koran;Mihrab;Minaret; Mosque; Prayer;Representation; visuaisna um de a Resumo: OlegGrabardefendeu tesede que ndoexiste sistema simbolos a de e dificil cultura isldmica; defender existencia umaarquitectura consequentemente, e diantede uma mesquita tentdssemos isldmica;ou seja, se estivessemos fazer uma se ndo seriamos da estetica mesmaou analisarque tipode edificio trata, experiencia No os de artigo, autores argumencapazesde dizerque se trata umamesquita. presente os autorescomeqam Em tamcontraesta proposiqdo. primeiro por apresentar lugar, Em avaliamcriticamente de andlisedo ponto vistade Grabar. segundo umabreve lugar, como tipo ate estaposiqdo.Em terceiro explicar que pontoa mesquita lugartentam este simbolosisldmicos.Os autoresexemplificam apenas incorpora arquitectonico o O bdsicosdo Islamismo: Mihrab. artigo a mediante andlisede umdos simbolos ponto bdsicose de que estessimsimbolos isldmicos a defende, portanto, tesede que existem este Ora e precisamente factoque dd credibilidade na bolosestdo presentes mesquita. dita. isldmica umaarquitectura de a afirmaqdo que existe propriamente CulturaIsldmica;Decoraqao; Estetica;GraPalavras-Chave: Alcordo;Arquitectura; Simbolismo. bar,Oleg; Isldo; Mesquita;Mihrab;Minarete;Oraqdo;Representaqao;

* Philosophy Kuwait (Kuwait). University Department,

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Introduction his insightful, provocative yet study,"Symbols and Signs in Islamic Architecture," Grabararguesthat"therewas no coherent, consistent, Oleg of visually perceived symbols" in reasonablypan-Islamic acceptance "there no clearly was identifiable considered to architecture; sense,even,offorms be one's own,culturally discrete. may,therefore, possibleto proposethat It be traditional Islamicarchitecture itself meansother thanvisual: identified through thesoundsof thecity, call to prayer, Wordof theRevelation notits the but the the of This is tantamount saying thatwe to forms, memories menand events."1 cannotdiscovera system, a set,of visuallyperceptible or Islamic symbols in traditional Islamicarchitecture. does notmeanthat no Moslemsignsor This are "buttheyexistin the memories men and events:theplace where of symbols, took place or someone did something."2 Thus what makes an something architectural Islamicis notwhether workitself somewaypossesses work the in certain butthefactthatit is a place whereMoslemsperform definite symbols functions: Koranic instruction, for the poor and the sick, or prayer, caring the and of We administering political social affairs thecommunity. knowwhether a building a mosque, example, observing functionsperforms, the is for it not the by itpossesses. symbolic qualities Buttheclaimthat in there nota system visualsymbols Islamicculture was of entails denialof theexistence Islamicarchitecture; is, ifI wereto stand a of that before mosqueandtry experience aesthetically see what a to it kind building of or it is I wouldnotbe able to say that is a mosque.The mosquewouldnotin this it case proclaim religious its becauseit cannotspeak,and it cannot identity speak becauseitdoes notpossessa symbolic of it language means which can speakto by us. Thus since the different in a buildings whichMoslems prayand perform of are in architectural or it diversity functions differenttheir design style wouldbe difficult assert existence an Islamicarchitecture. thispaper to the of In extremely we shallargue this that wholelineofreasoning erroneous. shall, is We first, present a brief of evaluate thisview. analysis Grabar'sview.Second,we shallcritically Third,we shall explicatehow the mosque as an architectural embodies type this uniquelyIslamic symbols.The thesis thatwe shall defendthroughout discussion that is there basic Islamicsymbols that are and thesesymbols in inhere themosque.It is thisfactwhichlendscredibility theclaim thatan Islamic to architecture exists.

1Oleg Grabar, and Architecture Commuand "Symbols Signsin IslamicArchitecture," in The for nity Building theIslamicWorld Today, AghaKhanAward Architecture (published a of Inc. New byAperture,division SilverFoundation, Milerton, York,1983),p. 29. 2 Ibid.,p. 28.

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of Analysis Grabar's View Grabar of was nota pan-Islamic beginshis discussion thethesisthatthere visualsystem symbols of withthefollowing whatis thepertinence of question: Islamto architecture, andin thepast?3 emphasis this now The in is question on the betweenbasic symbolicqualities- values and meanings- and relationship An architecture. Islamicwork an when embodies it these acquires Islamiccharacter and are it to qualities, whensuchqualities absent wouldbe impossible characterize that itas Islamic.Thisis basedon theassumption we cannot attributesymbolic, a to unlessthequality to oranyaesthetic For quality, a building belongs thebuilding. is example,I cannotsay the paper on whichI am now writing whiteunless I somehowbelongsto the paper.Similarly, cannotsay Kamal is "whiteness" inheres hischaracter. in unlesscourage somehow we Likewise, cannot courageous work this possessesthequality saythat architectural is Islamicunlessit somehow of being Islamic. Thus Grabarasks: "Is therean Islamic systemof visually is and and symbols signs?How universal sucha system whatare its perceptible the or Whatare thesourcesof thesystem, revealedand theologically variants? of or of statement thefaith, theevolution visualforms over developed pietistically and how successfully were signsand hundred fourteen years?In whatfashion forms?"4 Grabar that universal a into transformed building argues system symbols findsucha system theKoranor in does notexist.We cannot of visualsymbols on Hadith or in the works of the theoreticians art. We cannot,moreover, in works which the sucha system thearchitectural discover punctuate empirically hundred the an mosaicof Islamicculture years. during pastfourteen Accordingly entails absenceofIslamic an of of absence a system signsandsymbols necessarily establish validity thisconclusion? the of How architecture. does Grabar in this relieson three To beginwith, Grabar arguments defending conclusion. in Two literature symbolism Islamicculture. on the he examines existing First, are studies done in thisarea,one by Rudi Paretand theother Jacques by major Both of these studiesare unsatisfactory. They lack scientific Waardenburg.5 Moreover, theydo not sufficiently explorethe Islamic precisionand clarity. "has tried identify to an No of Islamicculture. one,Grabar observes, component in anyserious with partial the of visualsignIslamic way, exception symbol system is One reason forthis deficiency the an Iranianand Sufi-oriented system."6 reasonlies in "Islam'shistorical of Another of this underdevelopment field study. of it Islaminherited richtradition symbols, preserved a How? Although destiny." becauseit rejected all symbols, mainly non-religious onlysomeof it,especially3 ibid.p. 26. 4 Ibid.p. 26. 5 /fc/d.26. p. 6 /ta/. 27. p.

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of in the of has types representationart.Butthisrejection restricted development religious symbols. is that the does notstopherein defending conclusion there nota But Grabar to whathe calls threeapproaches the of visual symbols. considers He system on focuses of symbolism Islamicarchitecture. The first in (A) approach question on Grabardiscussesthreemajortypesof theory the questionof puretheory. and the Islamicsymbolism thephilosophical, semiological, theanthropological a of throws light understanding No theory within these three approaches approach. of for on theidentity Islamicarchitecture two reasons.First, theyare abstract. fail of worksof art,they to are based on theobservation certain they Although an do notprovide of an unstudied Islamicwork architecture. Second,they explain in of account of Islamic symbolism, how symbolsoriginated the adequate of historical process Islamicarchitecture. classicaltexts, evidence: focuses Islamicwritten on (B) The secondapproach of a treatises. theKoranand Hadith, literary mathematical and and First, survey classicaltexts written thinkers suchas Muqaddasi,Ibn Nadim,Ibn Khaldun, by of is and Ibn Fadlan would readilyshowthatthere "no symbolic iconography in as to from Islamicarchitecturebe derived texts, there forinstance, Christian is, that out architecture."7 this However, does notmean,as we pointed earlier, there but admits suchsymbols that areno Islamicsymbols, Al-Ka'ba. Grabar exist, e.g., in the memories and actionsof the Moslem people. We do notperceivesuch or in Grabar works.8 Second,is there, asks,a "Koranic early symbols architectural A of Hadithsymbolic withvisualassociation?"9 discussion thisquestion, system "is Grabarcontends, difficult because it is difficult developan appropriate to methodof dealing with it."10 There are in the Koran several architectural the (Cf. inscriptions II, 256; VII, 52; LXII, 1-5;XXIV, 35-8) whichmayexplain "these of whether but elements, it is questionable meaning some architectural architectural in the are meanings inherent theKoranic passageor that monuments served represent otherwise to or theHolyWrit."11is more It reasonable, symbolize forGrabar, holdthat to "thesymbolic iconographic oftheKoranin Islamic or use artnearly need. the of or "always followed development a symbolic iconographic ormeanings werediscovered theKoran in at as but, leastas far the Symbols, signs, artsareconcerned, notactively do it."12 the nor derive from neither literary Third, themathematical treatises forus by Islamicauthors left the from eighth century onwardrevealthe existenceof an Islamic system visual symbols. Written of1 1bid. 28. p. s Ibid.p. 26. 9 Ibid.p. 27. Ibid.p. 28. "Ibid. p. 29. 12 /fc/d. 29. p.

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in in havenotprovided indication such sources Islamicarchitecturegeneral of any Whattheyhave provided, Grabarthinks, (1) a religiousartistic is: a system. of whichexplains meaning manyaspectsof visualform the and (2) vocabulary on of "judgments standards taste."13 on An of focuses monuments. examination architectu(C) The third approach willshowthat theIslamicworld these works notexhibit do a works ral throughout whichpersisted thelong span of in of visual symbols Islamicsystem uniquely there many are architectural for reasons. Islamicarchitecture four First, although ofthese is the monuments in monuments theIslamicworld, symbolic significance of That is, the depthand intensity theirsymbolic not synchronic, diachronic. time. but was Theyshonefora periodof time, meaning in timeand notthrough in none their Accordingly, of the meaning changed theprocessof time. symbolic works suchas Taj Mahal,Dome oftheRock,ortheGrand monumental Mosqueof Damascus became architectural types even thoughtheywere, and remain, calls whatGrabar and Second,we can identify important. historically religiously in for the cultural "restricted mosquethat spread example, hypostylic continuity,"14 the the the and theFertile Arabia, theMoslemWest, Iranian, Anatolian, Crescent, of Butthesymbolic and Indian, theOttoman configurationsthesetypes mosques. an ofmosquewereculturally determined; didnotexemplify Islamicmosque. they to werenotintrinsic theIslamicmosqueas such.An Ottoman In other words, they and or "canbecomea national romantic for symbol thebuilding mosque, example, a tradition."15 is of continuingregional mosqueinTunisia merely today a hypostyle " thatare forms Third,"thereare,"Grabarpointsout, veryfew architectural He three architectural of of indicative thepresence Islam."16 mentions consistently and the Gate. But all theseforms the forms: Mihrab,theMinaret, performed and So functions and different regionally temporally. it would practical symbolic in elements of an to be difficult discover Islamicsystem visualsymbols thevarious we the constitute mosqueas a religious that Fourth, shouldlook foran building. Grabar holds!But in not of Islamicsystem visualsymbols decoration, architecture, and one to one variesfrom culture another from periodto evenheredecoration of to is decoration notintrinsic thestructure thearchitectural another. Moreover, and the work;it is added to it forthe sake of beautification, frequently same to formapplied indifferently different decorative e.g., the typesof building, that wants underscore to The Grabar or the mosque, madrassa, caravanserai. point in is of is that"thesymbolism thedecoration notinherent thedesignbutis the in action thebuilding."17 of result man'sprescribed13ibid. p. 29. 14Ibid. p. 30. !5 Ibid. p. 30. 16Ibid. p. 30. v Ibid. p. 31.

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CriticalEvaluation We have discussedGrabar'sview in some detailbecause it is, so faras we the recent and of know, most analysis Islamicsymbolism comprehensive scholarly in architecture. basic concernof this analysisis the identity Islamic The of has the architecture: Islam developeda system visual symbolsduring past of Islamic fourteen hundred of thatdistinguish years?Is therea system symbols from in architecture other answers thesequestions Grabar typesof architecture? thenegative. lookedforsucha system theworks anthropologists, He in of philomonuarchitectural historians, mathematicians, sophers, semiologists, existing and No a delivered pan-Islamic ments, theKoranandHadith. one ofthesesources of a we system visualsymbols. Accordingly wouldnotbe able toidentifymosque, forexample, an Islamicworkof architecture, a place where as as Moslemspray, it the architectural by perceiving withour bodies, and by examining different and that becausethis relations, elements makeup its structure, qualities, mainly a that Islamic.We mayidentify mosquedoes notpossessanyfeature is uniquely as but identification is basedmore behavioral, on habitual, building a mosque, this or In the thanon perceptual historical, customary qualitiesor factors. short, fundamental character which Islamicis absent makesan act,a person, a thing or from architecture theIslamicworld. the of We areinclined think thepreceding ofreasoning to that in line offered Grabar of his viewis defective twomainreasons:(1) themethod usedfor for he support the or of of establishing existence, non-existence,an Islamicsystem visualsymbols in architectureinadequate; it is reasonable arguethat is to there genuinely are (2) Islamicsymbols embodied what generally in in is known thehistory architecture of as "Islamicarchitecture" thatthepresence thesesymbols thebasis of and of is Islamicarchitecture. shallnow discussthesetwopropositions We in identifying somedetail. The focusin thisdiscussion be on themosque, will becauseit mainly is themostimportant of representativeIslamicarchitecture. should lookforvisualsymbols Islamicarchitecture? we in We How,or where, haveomitted thisquestion word"system" in the whichGrabar used consistently his of in His throughout discussion Islamicsymbolism architecture. questin this has a of But a study beena questfor system visualsymbols. is thequestfor system or Is of necessary warranted? the existenceof a system symbolsa necessary condition establishing existence an Islamicarchitecture? think for the of We that for a methodological forGrabar assumes that bias, looking sucha system implies we cannotspeakof theexistence an Islamicarchitecture of unlesswe somehow discover articulatesystem visualsymbols. we think is an erroneous or a of But this What matters any attempt determine in to whether Islamic an assumption. architecture is toestablish presence oneormore exists the of fundamental symbols that (1) essential all Islamicmosquesand(2) express essential are to the character, orspirit, Islamas a religion. mayask:what of We makesan action, person, law, a a

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is of It Islamic?Or,what thedefining oran institution quality "Islamic"? seemsto the of in or us that presence sucha quality a building anyobjectofIslamicculture is what makes thatobject Islamic. Such a quality becomes a principleof what we a explanation,criterion, relyon in identifying is Islamicas such. fora system visual symbols of the Grabar's Next, putsthecartbefore quest it also implies where lookforit.How to that system a foritimplies exists; horse, do we knowsuch a system exists,or shouldexist,in thefirst place? It is this in to look fora system Islamicsymbols literary, of that assumption led Grabar But thesesourcesare and sources. mathematical, religious historical, religious, How to of external theactuality themosqueas a cultural phenomenon. cantreatises be in theseareas of scholarship sourcesin thefirst place? Whatif one of these the Does thisipsofactoestablish existence a of contains system symbols? sources us the Of of an Islamicarchitecture? coursenot!Grabar mayremind that purpose Islamic buildersdesignedtheir thesesourceswas to see whether of studying Islamicprinciples mosque of or to mosquesaccording authoritative established in there was a Sugeror a Procopius Islamicculture. to construction, see whether or on a Butevenifwe discover manualor a treatise Islamicsymbolism, a Suger, of the wouldnothelp in establishing existence an Islamic stillsucha discovery for of system visualsymbols twomainreasons. Whatmakes it work an architectural is nota mere First, building; is a creation. or it to is architecturetheextent which expresses, embodies, a building meaning. on and to be work An architectural cannot designed built according rulesimposed structure not but of to Thismayapply theconstruction thephysical outside. itfrom and the as tothework architecture. Accordingly cultural, inourcase thereligious, of or of themosque,is discovered a critical aesthetic perception the by identity or aestheticqualities it embodies.These qualities, kind of meaning, values, An basis of its cultural are identity. architectural including symbols, theultimate as or Chinese inasmuch the aesthetic workis, forexample,Egyptian, Greek, values of the cultural or it possessesexpressthe spirit thedistinctive qualities is This mode of expression exactlywhat or Chineseculture. Greek, Egyptian, of and Art from one distinguishes kindofarchitecture another. critics philosophers The to Sigfried Giedeonhave acceptedthisprinciple. from architecture Hegel the point,which meritsemphasis here is that symbols,and consequently fromthe spiritof a people, not fromsymbols architectural work,originate or on Consequently authority.18 externally imposed it by somereligious political in of be cannot discovered theworks scholars of theidentity Islamicarchitecture should which Thusthequestion, of butinthefabric Islamicculture. guideus inthe18Sigfried Press,1967); Giedeon,Space, Timeand Architecture (Harvard University The Karsten (MIT Press,1997); Louis Sullivan* Harries, EthicalFunction Architecture of The Chatsand Other 1979):Frank LloydWright, Essays(DoverPublications, Kindergarten Towards NewArchitecture Press,1920). a Le Future Architecture, Corbusiera (MIT of

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of in do is: study symbolism Islamicarchitecture, to whatextent themosques, or the which existin thevarious of embody, express, spirit parts theIslamicworld, of Islamicculture? in a Letus suppose thesakeofdiscussion we havediscovered Suger the for that of or of Islamic architecture, is a theoretician a philosopher the that history willthis insure existence an Islamicsystem visualsymbols? of of the Yes, mosque, in in if(1) sucha theoretician philosopher succeeded capturing hisor or has only in hercreative the imagination soulofIslamand(2) ifthissoulwas embodied the for is various of theIslamicworld. But thissupposition unrealistic two mosques architectural showsthat mainreasons. a of of First, study thehistory architecture in ethnicor religious,did not come into being suddenly, one act, or types, in but to rules or dictated a person an institution, evolved time. according certain by This itseemsto us,appliesto all theliving traditions. evolution architectural This, of has always beeninfluenced thedevelopment a people'ssocial,technological, by of and spiritual The degree and sophistication this three-fold development. and determines a great to extent designof a building itscapacity the development from Writers architecture on to expresscertain or cultural meanings. religious Vitruvius the ancientperiodto Albertiand Palladio in the Renaissanceto in Le to and century finally Wright, Corbusier, LaugierandLodoli in theeighteenth consists three of and Jencks thetwentieth in that architecture century recognized and mainelements: utilitas convenience), (technic, (function, fermitas durability), venustas (form,human beauty).19 elementsprovide the basic These three and We or for of principles, criteria, theconstruction good buildings. cannot, shouldnot,viewthem isolation; in each one of them influences dynamically and interacts theothers theprocessof designand construction. morewe with in The advancein technology themeansofconstruction more or human we the functions can serve themore and inthedesign ourbuildings. But we of meaning can express theprogress technology of and itself on moral, dependsin turn theintellectual, social development a people.The capacity an artform typeto express of of or human is of bothin form meaning an on-going processof development, growing andcontent, becausethemeansof designandconstruction in constant are mainly and Thus with "system" difficult contend to a growth development. itis extremely of symbols to Islamicor anyother of adequateenough identify type architecture. wereto articulate system visualsymbols that a of Again,evenifa cultural genius or this this not meanthat maybe accepted a society a culture should necessarily by is or it of to system complete final. Accordingly is notuseful look fora system as for the of symbols a condition establishing existence an Islamicarchitecture.19MarcusVitruvius, Ten Books on Architecture, By M.H. Morgan(Dover The Tr. On Publications, 1960), Leon Alberti, Painting Press, 1966); Charles (Yale University ModernMovements Architecture in and Jencks, Press,1973); 'Architecture the (Anchor Problemof Symbolism," 1976; The Language of Post-Modern Japan Architecture, Architecture (Rizzoli,1977).

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of of Second,thearticulation an Islamicsystem visualsymbols a religious by is an or task. this leader an architect practically insurmountable In principle applies A of she a to all typesof architecture. thinker, regardless whether is an artist, or is a critic a reformer, alwaysthechildof the philosopher, social or political cultural feels,hopesand makes periodshe livesin (Hegel). The way she thinks, aboutthemeaning human of the decisions; waysheconsiders questions important and of features capacities human the lifeanddestiny; wayshelooksattheessential of or nature; thewayshefacestheproblems lifein dailyliving all theseaspects the and othersrelatedto themreflect moral,religious,social, political,and the of self. in the that aesthetic values, short, culture nourished substance hervery of there alwaysthedimension personal is to In addition thissortof influence, or or weakness, bias, genius,philosophical ideologicalcommitment, peculiar Even thecelebrated AbbotSuger,to whom of existential reality. understanding or from thesecultural is Grabar refers, notexempt shortcomings, peculiarities, Dame - that a was credited designing cathedral Notre by idiosyncrasies. Suger and beliefs of the European the reflected metaphysical visions, principles, of the in world that a wayrepresented Kingdom Heaven(or Cityof and medieval an this on earth. was believedthatin designing cathedral It Sugercreated God) the of architectural (the GothicChurch)thatdefined substance the archetype and rejected the But thisbeliefwas severely Church. Christian by questioned of the and ofart architects, historians architecture critics, part during latter majority in discussed somedepth This ofthetwentieth by century. wholeissuewas recently on but We of a number scholars.20 neednotdwellon it here, we touch it,though for to of or the briefly, to spotlight difficulty discovering appealing a thinker only of a system visualsymbols. identifying of is to claim,there nota Christian Moreover, system visual contrary Grabar's An critical Church. empirical, the by symbols whichwe can identify Christian and of surveyof the multitude churchesin the Catholic,EasternOrthodox, would show thatthese churchesdo not exhibita denominations Protestant is in Church an of consistent Symbolism theChristian system visual symbols. and controversial, recondite topic.No one can do it even a complex, unusually into excursus one.Butwe shallmakea brief like in of measure justice an article this beena consciously there never has the it onlyto stress factthat planfor designed not Christian for of of theadoption a system symbolism theso-called Church, only to of refers a diversity religious is Church" a namethat "Christian becausetheterm in of becausetheactuality symbolism but and beliefs, practices especially outlooks, This not is world one ofdiversity, uniformity. of churches theChristian thevarious in of a discover "system" visualsymbols we that cannot to is tantamount saying20MichaelH. Mitias, Norman and Architecture Civilization (Rodopi,1999),pp. 60 ff.; Vol. TheYaleJournal Architecture, 2, "Architectural K. Smith, of Perspecta: Authenticity," 1983.

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Christian that in the architecture; is, we cannot on a setofsymbols identifying rely of of the Church. we shallpresently As identity theChristian argue, presence a of of of is roadtothedeterminationtheidentity system visualsymbols notthehigh or A in Christian churches. careful of Italy, Germany, study thechurches France, or or Lebanon, Syria; Greece, Spain;Russia,Bulgaria, Georgia, Romania; Egypt, or to Canada,theUnitedStates, Norway, Finland, mention a fewprominent just will showan amazing survives leastto somedegree, at places where Christianity of in as Consider, an obvious diversity visualsymbolism thesechurches. example, theiconostasis. is essential Eastern It to in and but Orthodoxy absent theCatholic Protestant churches. domeis central mostOrthodox The but to churches notto the Protestant Catholic and in churches. and Moreover, general simplicity absenceof is whilesymbolic decoration churches representationprevalent amongProtestant and representation important Orthodox Catholic The are to and churches. spireis absentfromOrthodox churches but centralin Catholic and most Protestant insteadof thespirewe see thebell towerin theOrthodox churches. churches; the in Moreover, basic designof the churchis not uniform all the Christian churches. the or to on Perhaps cross, placedas a crucifix thechurch building next in is common Coulditbe it,orincorporateditsphysical structure,themost symbol. that crossis themostimportant If the in Church? thisis the symbol theChristian if was a to that case, it wouldbe hasty, notwrong, holdat leastimplicitly, there of or a architecturea conscious effort adopt system to Sugerinthehistory Christian ofvisualsymbols building Christian in the churches. commitment thesearchfora consistent to of in Next, system visualsymbols Islamicarchitecture we think, whathindered a Grabar from fruitful is, investigationof Islamicmonuments themainplace forthediscovery truly as of Islamic The focuson themonuments, forthesakeofthisstudy mosque, and the symbols. should have been the exclusivesubjectof inquiry the analysisof Islamic in for which Grabar us symbolism, thecentral question placedbefore fordiscussion is whether can identify Islamicarchitecture: there we an are visualsymbols by which can identify mosqueas a religious we the in building all theIslamicworld from Moroccoto Bangladeshand theother partsof southEast Asia? The real is there a recognized is or of question notwhether system, theory, manual religious symbols howdo we knowthat certain but a in of building anypart theIslamic worldis a mosque? An answerto thisquestioncannot,as we arguedin the be from written the of sources Islamicculture bya but section, derived preceding of critical,and we should say aesthetic, investigation the mosque. We say "aesthetic" becausethemosqueis notsimply building performs certain a that a it is feature its of function; is a religiousbuilding.Religiosity the defining character. physicalstructure, The whichwe experience whenwe perceivethe withour body,embodiesa stratum aesthetic of The religious building qualities. dimension the mosque lies in thisstratum. of This dimension the locus of is Islamicsymbols. particular

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in Now whatmethodshouldwe adoptin the studyof symbolism Islamic or Grabar notclearon this is monuments, themosquein particular? Unfortunately is for ascertain our whether study yet question, suchan answer urgent, we cannot in the we it unlesswe aresurethat method employ conducting enables is adequate of in and inherent themosque. the us to explore structure richness thesymbols of on that bases his discussion Islamicmonuments observation, Grabar Although the he method inquiry, brandof empiricism adoptedis of is, on theempirical on side of the his attention thephysical naive.He focused investigative painfully In he or not on itsoutside, on itscontent meaning. other words, lookedat symbol, not to senseobservation, from as the themosquefrom outside itappears ordinary This and religioussensibility. theinsideas it appearsto aesthetic imagination Islamic Grabar classified is obviousin twoways.First, methodological approach He and as Indian, Ottoman. characterized Anatolian, Iranian, mosques hypostylic, the and He these reflected taste in terms "type". heldthat of these types categories Thesetypes in weredeveloped. cultures which of material means thedifferent they whichthey have becausethespecific haveendured cultures, represent, endured. as to this is of The diversity thesetypes whatled Grabar characterize endurance historical cultural and to "specific their He restricted. attributed symbolic qualities That valuesin themosquesthemselves. is, themosque not conditions, to intrinsic Thus Islamicqualities. does not,in each of thesetypes, itself possess uniquely forms these of and sincethesymbolic are sincethere different of mosques, types of the to it are determined,wouldbe difficult assert existence an types regionally forms the saw that somearchitectural Grabar Islamicmosque.Second,although in mosquesin general and themihrab, thegate- areconsistently minaret, present as and in as theseforms symbolic character therefore a basis for he dismissed the First themosqueas an Islamicworkof architecture. he dismissed identifying withthe various as minaret an Islamic symbolbecause he was dissatisfied on the of moreover, Koranic inscriptions theminarets explanations itsappearances; the offered of But to building. regardless whether explanations from building vary on the or of fortheappearance theminaret thefactthat Koranic inscriptions the was unableto Grabar to it one minarets from building another, is clearthat vary becausehe lookedat itfrom form this treat architectural as a symbol, outside, i.e., to He or as historical physicalstructure. did not make any effort exploreits of in for. or by meaning whatit stands He was limited thisendeavor his method on thedifferent that sincetheKoranic He observation. ineffect inscriptions argued is the therefore minaret nota symbol. to one minarets from minaret another, vary No. what of But is thepresence theKoranicinscriptions makesit a symbol? We thethrust our of is an knowwhether artform a religious by symbol directing may whichsucha as to thedomainof thereligious such,to thesourcefrom inquiry or and its derives meaning theplace thisquality form or occupiesin quality form of source thereligious is as we shallargue, theultimate Thisdomain, domain. this us observation on penetrating necessarily prevents from Relying sensuous symbol. it around butdoes notenableus itkeepsus hovering of thestructure thesymbol;Revista Portuguesa de Filosofia[207] 60-2004

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of to moveto itsinteriority: forms the Thus we cannot study symbolic meaning. of a themosque unlesswe proceedin thisstudyfrom genuineperception the how comesintobeingis irrelevant of religious spirit Islam.Moreover, an artform but to howithas become symbol. Christianity crossis a symbol, thecross a In the cameintobeinglongbefore advent Christianity. symbols adopted the Some are of are by convention (e.g., moon),whilestillothers (e.g., theflag),others natural Thisapplies evolve(e.g.,wedding of evolved. religions ring). Manysymbols world to theminaret. the Let us consider more form canbe usedas a basisfor one art that identifying the as an Islamicreligious themihrab. Grabar dismissed mihrab mosque building: in element as we as a religious Andyetthisarchitectural is, symbol one sentence! in in shallexplain thelastpart this of themost important symbol themosque paper, and can by itselfbe the basis of establishing existenceof an Islamic the but of architecture. Grabar are of writes: "there themihrabs sanctuaries, course, in their witha fewexceptions some Fatimid is, (Cordoba, symbolism examples rather an obvious becameautomatically functional andtheobjectitself one, Cairo), thanemotionally intellectually did or Thoughobvious,Grabar not symbolic."21 added evenone word, what mihrab the stoodforas a symbol quickly but mention, that "object" but the becamefunctional rather symbolic. was a symbol later than It on lost its symbolic to How can we account Grabar's for inability significance! It is whatthemihrab it before becamea functional explain object? symbolized difficult givea finalanswer thisquestion to to becauseGrabar extremely simply didnotsupport discussion themihrab a symbol his of as with arguments. This any is an unpardonable shortshrift treatment an indispensable of elementof the to that to as failure see themihrab mosque.We tend think thereasonforGrabar's a symbol hisadamant is adherence naiveempiricism. limited scopeofhis to He the to in observation coulddeliver hisstudy themosque, of viz., inquiry what ordinary written sensuousperception, the socio-religious and of function the sources, modesofexperience notdisclosethesignification symbol do of mosque.Butthese or thespiritual dimension theobjectunder of consideration. us nowconsider Let someof thedifficulties vitiate that Grabar's of and analysis the(1) classification elements themosque. of (2) symbolic To beginwith, Grabar's classification thedifferent ofmosquerests of on types confusion between and "style".This confusion revealsGrabar'smetho"type" are not dologicalbias. The typesof mosqueto whichhe refers in fact"styles", A is an It sui as it types. type a model, original. is a creation generis; such, is nota else, but otherobjects or eventsmay be copies of it. For copy of something Adamis a modeland therestof human of example, beingsareinstantiations this model.Moreover, refers thecommon to ofa class ofthings. These "type" qualities constitute essential the nature themembers theclass.Their of of qualities identity,21"Symbols Signin Islamic and Architecture,"30. p.

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In or what an words, objectis whatit are, they is defined thesequalities. other by is in virtue thesequalities, ifit happens possessother of and to it qualities would or on be a different ofobject, a different kind refers hand, thing. "Style", theother in socialbehavior, anykind human or manner expression art, of of tothedistinctive of It artifact. consistsof the recurrence certainforms, elements, qualitiesor of conduct. defining The character "style" thehowof is in relations artor human artists also to a groupor but This idea appliesnotonlyto individual expression. a feeling, experience, an an or We evena society. can,e.g.,saythat artist expresses his or a or its in his personality andthrough style that group, a society, expresses its in aesthetic, social, and politicalvalues,in short spirit and moral, religious, to We maylisten a piece of musicand say,"This is a a particular style. through or the Mozart!"without knowing author thetitleof thepiece. We are able to that pieceexpresses, thewaytheartist a piecebythegeneral by quality the identify we work. is of the has organized totality hismusical Similarly, can saythisartifact it We whomadeit or whether is an imitation. are able without knowing Egyptian in that haveexperienced we its to identify cultural quality by identity thegeneral of manifests personality an the civilization. of works Egyptian thevarious Style or a artist, society, a culture. intothedifference between excursus We have made theforegoing typeand did that type. style onlyto stress Grabar notdiscussthemosqueas an architectural nature He did notask,whatmakesa mosquea mosque?Or,whatis theessential he of themosqueas an architectural For had he askedthisquestion would type? it of that havediscovered themosqueconsists, in, regardless thestyle was built of and make up its verystructure, thatthe that definite elements, theseelements in What of the whichexpresses truespirit Islam inheres theseelements. quality As to his did instead, was to restrict attention mosquestyles. we saw,he Grabar, and five Ottoman, Indian.He Anatolian, Iranian, hypostylic, distinguished styles: of in The content them. hypostylic was symbolic the of traces symbolic found style wereidentified and of introductionIslam;theIranian, Indian, Anatolian (but styles was of notsymbolic as examples earlyor pureIslam; and theOttoman of) style Grabar In the and cultural political of prestige. fact symbolism symbolic Ottoman a that architectural is notthesymbolism mayprovide basis to attributesthese styles He of of fortheidentification themosqueas a monument Islamicculture. was of but of for "styles" looking a system visualsymbols, in hisanalysis thedifferent the his he abandoned objective. Why?Because he failedto examine mosqueas a to becausehe was constrained hiscommitment to and by mosque, he failed do this of that the of Instead studying elements makeup thestructure naiveempiricism. of to his themosquehe directed attention thedifferent regions styles thedifferent of elements themosqueare to oftheIslamicworld, thewaythedifferent stylistic of resources a of But organized. theevolution a styledependson theexistential andlevelofmoral, culture itsbeliefs, economic, social, norms, technology, given on is and However discourse style one thing and development. political, religious

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discourseon typeis something else. The mosque is a type;it can be builtin different the is styles: styles. Similarly, church a type;it can be builtin different a of or Andregardless thestyle mosque Gothic, Romanesque, Byzantine, Baroque. two is built itremains mosque. in makea distinction between types a Thuswe must of symbol, the cultural religious and As building, mosque symbols. a religious from possessesdefinite symbolic qualitiesthatare quitedifferent theway it is is the thatis, the styleit is builtin. Whatmatters whether defined, physically of and elements themosquearean integral ofthedesign. alone,are They, they part The and what the determine symbolism themosqueas a religious of building. kind into are colorof thestoneor how thearchitectural elements weavedtogether a of The elements themosqueare primary. mosquedesignis secondary. essential Yet Grabar was reluctant pay seriousattention theseelements. thegreatest to to of the on including Moslempeoplein the majority writers Islamicarchitecture, Whatarethese consider them crucial thebeingofthemosque. to pastandpresent, it on number centrality, and elements? someauthors havedisagreed their Although wouldbe reasonable mention following: to the dome,minbar, minaret, mihrab, In conducted Nader and fountains. a preliminary study by sanctuary, ablution to architectural forms Ardalana fewyearsago, he discovered generic the eight of in thevarious Whatfollows theresult is of theIslamicworld. mosque regions thisstudy:the werefound eachofsixgeographic in forms zones(whichinclude Far Eight generic threeper centof the mosques East) and thattheyappearedin no less thaneighty The incidenceof courtyards was ninety surveyed. percent;minarets, eighty-nine hundred also included),eighty-six percent;domes (pyramidal percent;gateways, percent; porticos, eighty-six percent; places of ablution, plinths, eighty-seven percent; 100 and, mihrabs, percent.22 ninety-seven percent; ofcourse,

We appealto thisstudy to in to Grabar's mainly emphasize, contradistinction that has of elements, assumption, there beena general recognition thefundamental or language Islamicarchitecture, of whichconstitute structure themosque the of and the hundred amongthelearned theordinary peoplethroughout pastfourteen It to the of is years. is notenough saythat presence theseelements whatmakesa a also add: a mosquecannot, should and include not, building mosque;we should elements. cannot, example, It for include In elements. anyother representational other these elements constitute basic structure themosque. the of words, basically We do not, making statement, in this excludetheother functions the that practical Koranic for instruction, mosquehas traditionally performed: caring thepoorand the sick, or the administration the political and social concernsof the of A these but it makes a mosqueis not functions, what community.mosquecan serve their or is of that presence absence.A building a mosquein virtue theelements Ardalan discovered his study. has in22Nader to in Ardalan, Approaches Community Building theIslamicWorld Today, 56. p.RevistaPortuguesa Filosofia de 60*2004

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for wouldinterject this at of "Letus grant thesakeofdiscussion," Grabar point I on of "that method inquiry relied in mydiscussion Islamic the of ourdiscussion, this let is though pointis debatable, us, moreover, symbolism naiveempiricism, elements to assumethatthearchitectural you have alludedto are common the how do you knowthat of mosquesin theIslamicworld, first, majority greatest most,or at least a few of them,are Islamic symbols?Second, how can you is are to that establish thesesymbols intrinsic themosque?"The first question a This of Islamicsymbolism. is a of fora clarification themethod studying request to fairrequest,especially since we attributed Grabarthe methodof naive in of is that thismethod inadequate theanalysis Islamic and argued empiricism is for and The in architecture. secondquestion a request an elucidation in symbols of some way a substantiation the claim thatthe symbolicelementswe have in inhere themosque. enumerated actually in of we the First, method shalladoptintheanalysis Islamicsymbolism thelast In to method. contrast naiveempiricism, is of paper thephenomenological part this in of the enablesus to investigate symbol thefullness itsbeing,not thismethod as object.On theone hand,the merely a sensuousbutespeciallyas a spiritual structure standsin a definite and is for minaret, example, a physical perceptual and it on to relation themosque, hand, is a symbol, as suchitstands but, theother and the structure between physical Whatis therelationship fora certain meaning. an is: The that this themeaning structure represents? question commands answer That dimension theminaret? of to the howdo we movefrom sensuous thespiritual from image the to the is, howdo we movefrom outside theinsideof thesymbol, or context from the Can to whatit signifies? we, e.g., ignore religious, cultural evolved? it and which emerged gradually of of In ourdiscussion thesymbolic qualities themosquewe shallfocusour in This is themostpowerful the on one symbol: mihrab. attention symbol mainly can to itis indispensable thebeingofthemosque.No building be a mosque Islam; of should revealthedynamics of a it. without Accordinglydiscussion thissymbol This can inIslamicarchitecture. discussion be viewedas a modelinthe symbolism or of of symbolic qualities, elements, themosque.We shalltake analysis theother whichpertain its to all or implicitly, thefeatures intoconsideration explicitly, as butespecially a religious as notmerely an objectof ordinary perception being, or to cultural, metaphysical object.We shall be receptive any social, historical, and context viewitin itsexistential in have.We shall, other it words, aspects might revealitsIslamicidentity. its whatextent symbolic see then how and to qualities dimension the of the we Moreover, shall not takeintoconsideration aesthetic that there Islamic are contra to show, is for Grabar, mosque, ourconcern mainly work. inhere thearchitectural An aesthetic in these and study symbols symbols that is that show of a representative mosquearchitecture laden mosquewill certainly and Thesequalities with Islamicaesthetic expandtherichness scope of qualities. in symbols Islamicarchitecture.

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The Mihrab is it The focalpoint themosque, of of regardless whenor where was built, the mihrab. The mihrabis the axis of the mosque buildingin two senses, one of it of architectural thesecondspiritual. and First, is theprinciple theorganization their their theelements thebuilding; determines existence, of it value,andtheway is theyare designed.The mihrab the raisond'etreof themosque; thatis, the would lose its exists.The building existsbecause themihrab mosquebuilding can the Indeedthemihrab existwithout significance mosquewithout mihrab. qua the themosquebuilding, themosquewouldnotbe a mosquewithout mihrab. but is it to the Therefore, wouldbe appropriate say that mihrab thetectonic principle ofthemosqueas a religious building. is it an Second,themihrab a metaphysical center; represents invisible, spiritual toward divinerealm. the vertical axis. This axis pointsupward toward heaven, Moslems all over the worldare expectedto praytowardit. This is a divine for facetoward heavens, the instruction: haveseentheturning "We of point your a O Mohammad. nowwe shallturn indeed And toward qibla,which you guidance, the shallplease you. So turn toward Sanctified Mosque and yourface in prayer it." find turn facestoward (Sura wherever you,O Moslems, you yourselves, your facedJerusalem. Jerusalem whenMoslemsprayed 2, 145) At thebeginning they was untilthenthe capital of Islam. But when Mohammadreceivedthe new instruction prayer for as Mecca replacedJerusalem thecapitalof Islam. In the in black of is stone housed a square courtyard theGrand MosqueofMecca a sacred this the of (theKa'ba) symbolizes center theworldin Islamic building; building the it of It cosmology; is theaxis mundi theIslamicworld. symbolizes intersection between vertical ofthespirit the axis with horizontal the plane(or line)ofhuman or a world. Thisintersection invests Ka'ba with unique the existence, thephysical It or the the meets divine, where the religious meaning. is theplace where human divine reveals itself thehuman.23 to Now Moslemsmustpraytoward Ka'ba; they the mustfacetheqibla,that is, mustin the act of prayer face the vertical spiritual or axis, the axis that they divinepresence. This assumesthat relationship the between God and symbolizes human is direct. intermediaries as priests popesareneeded. No such or Here beings inthis encounter faithful expected meet the are to their with of creator a spirit piety andtotal submission. encounter thehighest This is in moment religiosity Islam. of

23See, forexample, T. Mann,SacredArchitecture A. MA: Elements Books (Rockport, Morrow limited, ed., 1993); GeorgeMitchell, Architecture theIslamicWorld (William of and Company, IslamicArchitecture: and Inc., 1978); Robert Hillenbrand, Form, Function, Press, 1994); ReligiousBasis of Formand Meaning(New York: ColumbiaUniversity Function IslamicArchitecture. in

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stands on the is As an artform, mihrab a nichein thewall of themosquethat intersects a right at the at line thehorizontal that anglewith axis mundi theKa'ba. around wall andin a wayaround the is this The wholemosquebuilding organized it the of The function thenicheis simple; indicates direction theprayer, of niche. Moslemsareexpected to is andthedirection theqibla: theKa'ba. Whenthey pray face connects it in and facethemihrab, infacing they effect theqibla.The linethat axis at theKa'ba. The with intersects thespiritual to them themihrab invisibly or or of of mihrab every impact, evenwhen regardless itsstyle aesthetic mosque, and between vertical horizontal the the itlacksa building, symbolizes intersection of the line,thatis, between divineand humandimensions being.This pointof of the is intersection sacred. Accordingly mosqueis sacredin virtue themihrab. it the does notsymbolize But themihrab onlydivinepresence; also symbolizes creedin Islam is the shahada: of and ultimacy God. The mostimportant unity that is is "There no god butGod,"or,"I testify there no god butGod."God is the toward Ka'ba all the He Ultimate; is the sourceof all being.Thus in praying of the and Moslemsacknowledge ultimacy unity God andHis creation. of the Next,themihrab symbolizes unity theIslamiccommunity how?By of center the to to i.e., pray, by turning thespiritual turning theKa'ba whenthey of the to God and universe byworshipping according theteaching theKoran, book a and in wordof God, Moslemsaffirm common the thatcontains literal faith, Islamicumma. Thereis no this they affirming faith becomean Islamiccommunity: of the Its in wordfor"umma" English. connotation expresses meaning thewords makestheIslamicumma The and (community"community" "nation". bondthat is in by nation) possibleis faith thetrueGod. Thusbeing-a-moslem notdefined submits whototally a or ethnic, political aspects; Moslemis a person geographical, in to the will of God as it is communicated the Koran. This submissionis in before mihrab. the Moslems with other in Accordingly the acknowledged unison to he in mosquetheMoslemexists twovitalrelations: is related God andto other and between individual God,the the establishes The first relation Moslems. unity It twofold relation. of is The the secondbetween faithful. mihrab theprinciple this Moslems. other with God andwith the symbolizes Moslem'sunity from form thefact its or its does notderive symbolic The mihrab significance its of it that is a representation somekind.The nichewhichconstitutes beingis that meaning; is, it does notpossessthe any simpleand without representational of or thequality tragedy sadness. the ofholiness wayan artwork possesses quality it is nota sacredobject.It is a sacred.In other it is not,in itself, Thus words, Andit the it and symbol; symbolizes sacred. symbol as sucha living metaphysical connects axis the becauseitpoints wayto thespiritual that thesacred symbolizes to it human beingswithGod. The direction points is thelocus of thescared.It of what is thisstanding exactly for stands thedirection; givesitthepower symbol. them leavebehind of thesanctuary themosqueto praythey WhenMoslemsenter Their attention of andmovein thedirection themihrab. concerns all their ordinary

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is notdistracted anything and Herethey stand before their around them. creator, by It on stand a holyground. is is herethey The they prayin concert. ground which The leads to theaxis mundi. withthelinethat holybecauseit connects invisibly structure a to a mihrab thesymbol is thattransforms mosquefrom physical the is it sacred becausethemeaning expresses spiritual place.It is a dynamic symbol, the the the of element themosque theminaret, minbar, sanctuary, meaning. Every this from its character and dome,thecourtyard, theporticos derives religious symbol.

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