Does Geography Matter? Does Geography Matter? Variations in Perceived Discomfort Variations in Perceived Discomfort

and Discrimination in Canada’s and Discrimination in Canada’s Gateway CitiesGateway Cities

Brian Ray, University of OttawaBrian Ray, University of OttawaValerie Preston, York UniversityValerie Preston, York University

Does Geography Matter?Does Geography Matter?

Are experiences of Are experiences of exclusion the same exclusion the same in Canada’s gateway in Canada’s gateway cities?cities?

OutlineOutline

Canada’s gateway citiesCanada’s gateway cities Ethnic Diversity SurveyEthnic Diversity Survey Experiences of exclusionExperiences of exclusion Explanations of discomfort and Explanations of discomfort and

discrimination discrimination ImplicationsImplications

Canada’s Gateway CitiesCanada’s Gateway Cities

Major destinations for Major destinations for immigrantsimmigrants

Distinct social Distinct social historieshistories

Labour & housing Labour & housing markets differmarkets differ

Public policy Public policy interventions vary interventions vary

Characteristics of Characteristics of contemporary contemporary visible visible minority & immigrant minority & immigrant populations varypopulations vary

Uneven Geography of Visible Uneven Geography of Visible MinoritiesMinorities

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

Pe

rce

nt

East &South Asian

Black LatinAmerican

SoutheastAsian

Arab

FIGURE 1: Size of Selected Racial Minority Groups as a Proportion of All Visible Minorities,

Montréal, Toronto & Vancouver, 2006

Montréal Toronto Vancouver

Ethnic Diversity SurveyEthnic Diversity Survey

A A general general population surveypopulation survey

Post-census surveyPost-census survey Over 42,000 Over 42,000

respondentsrespondents 15 years of age & 15 years of age &

overover

Methodological Methodological considerations:considerations:– Eliminated individuals Eliminated individuals

under 18 and over 70under 18 and over 70– Eliminated AboriginalsEliminated Aboriginals– Six ethno-racial Six ethno-racial

groupsgroups East AsianEast Asian South AsianSouth Asian BlackBlack Other visible Other visible

minorityminority White CharterWhite Charter White Non-charterWhite Non-charter

TABLE 1. Ethnoracial Groups inMontréal, Toronto and Vancouver Metropolitan Areas

Montréal Toronto Vancouver

East & South Asian (5%) East & South Asian (20%) East & South Asian (30%)

Black (4%) Black (6%) N/A

Other racial minority (5%)Other racial minority

(10%)Other racial minority (8%)

White non-charter (21%) White non-charter (33%) White non-charter (27%)

White charter (65%) White charter (31%) White charter (35%)

N=1,971,580 N=3,035,720 N=1,297,460

Visible Minorities in EDS

Experiences of ExclusionExperiences of Exclusion

Discrimination:Discrimination: discrimination or discrimination or unfair treatmentunfair treatment because of because of ethnicity, culture, ethnicity, culture, race, skin color, race, skin color, language, accent language, accent or religion in past or religion in past five yearsfive years

Discomfort: Discomfort: feeling feeling uncomfortable or uncomfortable or out of placeout of place because of because of ethnicity, culture, ethnicity, culture, race, skin color, race, skin color, language, accent language, accent or religion in past or religion in past five yearsfive years

Discrimination ExperiencesDiscrimination Experiences

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

Pe

rce

nt

Black Other White Non-Charter

White Charter AllRespondents

FIGURE 2: Ethnoracial Groups Reporting Any Type of Discrimination by City

Montréal Toronto Vancouver

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

Pe

rce

nt

East & SouthAsian

Black Other White Non-Charter

White Charter AllRespondents

FIGURE 3: Ethnoracial Groups Reporting Any Type of Discomfort by City

Montréal Toronto Vancouver

Discomfort ExperiencesDiscomfort Experiences

Patterns of ExclusionPatterns of Exclusion

Discomfort is more frequent than Discomfort is more frequent than discriminationdiscrimination

Racial discrimination and discomfort are Racial discrimination and discomfort are most frequent type of exclusionmost frequent type of exclusion

Racialized minorities report discrimination Racialized minorities report discrimination and discomfort more often than White and discomfort more often than White Charter and White Non-charterCharter and White Non-charter

Blacks most likely to report exclusion by Blacks most likely to report exclusion by wide margin wide margin

Racial Discomfort and Discrimination

TABLE 4. Percent Reporting Racial Discrimination and Racial Discomfort by Ethnoracial Group and Metropolitan Area

Ethnoracial Group

Metropolitan Area

Montréal Toronto Vancouver

Discrimination Discomfort Discrimination Discomfort Discrimination Discomfort

East & South Asian 16.0% 17.5% 21.2% 20.9% 25.3% 22.1%

Black 36.7% 42.2% 50.9% 44.7% NA NA

Other Racial Minority 10.1% 10.0% 18.7% 15.4% 24.0% 24.0%

White Non-Charter 2.5% 2.5% 3.7% 4.6% 7.2% 8.2%

White Charter 1.5% 2.7% 6.0% 12.5% 12.3% 15.2%

Explaining Racial Discrimination and Discomfort

Social Characteristics

Behaviours

Residential Characteristics

• Sex• Marital Status• Children under 18• Social class (Low-income status,

household income, education)• Visible Minority Status• Birthplace• Generation Status

• Language, at home and with friends• Involvement in ethnic clubs• Co-ethnics in social network• Sense of belonging to:

• Ethnic group• City

• Level of trust• Trust in neighbours

•Tenure• Dwelling type

Analysing Racial Discrimination and Analysing Racial Discrimination and DiscomfortDiscomfort

Logistic regressionLogistic regression Predicts whether individual experienced Predicts whether individual experienced

racial discrimination or racial discomfort in racial discrimination or racial discomfort in past five yearspast five years

All possible variables entered, but few had All possible variables entered, but few had significant relationshipssignificant relationships

Retained variables that were significant Retained variables that were significant and that influenced the overall goodness and that influenced the overall goodness of fitof fit

Logistic Regression ResultsLogistic Regression Results

Ethnoracial identity has most influence on Ethnoracial identity has most influence on perceived racial discomfort and racial perceived racial discomfort and racial discriminationdiscrimination– Blacks have highest coefficientsBlacks have highest coefficients

Ethnic attachment increases perceived Ethnic attachment increases perceived racial discomfort and discriminationracial discomfort and discrimination

Trust in others and in neighbours reduces Trust in others and in neighbours reduces perceived racial discomfort and perceived racial discomfort and discriminationdiscrimination

Coefficients vary among gateway citiesCoefficients vary among gateway cities

Geographical PatternsGeographical Patterns

Complicated patterns of exclusion Complicated patterns of exclusion across citiesacross cities

Interurban variation in who reports Interurban variation in who reports discrimination and discomfortdiscrimination and discomfort

Interurban variation due mainly to Interurban variation due mainly to visible minority status, ethnic origin, visible minority status, ethnic origin, and behavioral factorsand behavioral factors

ImplicationsImplications

Processes of racialisation and exclusion Processes of racialisation and exclusion are local, geographically variableare local, geographically variable

Significant challenges for effective public Significant challenges for effective public policy formation & deliverypolicy formation & delivery– How to coordinate actions of multiple How to coordinate actions of multiple

jurisdictions; federal, provincial, and jurisdictions; federal, provincial, and municipal?municipal?

– How to adapt policies and programs to local How to adapt policies and programs to local circumstances?circumstances?

““The Rest of the Story”The Rest of the Story”

B. Ray and V. Preston, 2009, B. Ray and V. Preston, 2009, “Geographies of Discrimination: “Geographies of Discrimination: Variations in Perceived Discomfort Variations in Perceived Discomfort and Discrimination in Canada’s and Discrimination in Canada’s Gateway Cities,” Gateway Cities,” Journal of Journal of Immigrant and Refugee Studies, Immigrant and Refugee Studies, Vol. Vol. 7 (3): 228-249.7 (3): 228-249.